THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771. SECOND ten 17771784. THIRD eighteen 17881797. FOURTH twenty 1801 1810. FIFTH twenty 18151817. SIXTH twenty 18231824. SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842. EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860. NINTH , twenty-five 18751889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME I A to ANDROPHAGI Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 1910 NR Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS EMPEROR OF INDIA AND TO WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1970 PREFATORY NOTE THE Encyclopedia Britannica, of which the Eleventh Edition is now issued by the University of Cambridge, has a history extending over 140 years. The First Edition, in three quarto volumes, was issued in weekly numbers (price 6d. each) from 1768 to 1771 by "a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland." The proprietors were Colin MacFarquhar, an Edinburgh printer, and Andrew Bell, the principal Scottish engraver of that day. It seems that MacFarquhar, a man of wide knowledge and excellent judgment, was the real originator of the work, though his want of capital prevented his undertaking it by himself. The work was edited and in great part written by William Smellie, another Edinburgh printer, who was bold enough to undertake "fifteen capital sciences" for his own share. The numerous plates were engraved by Bell so admirably that some of them have been reproduced in every edition down to the present one. The plan of the work differed from all preceding "dictionaries of arts and sciences," as encyclopaedias were usually called until then in Great Britain; it combined the plan of Dennis de Coetlogon (1745) with that in common use on the one hand keeping important subjects together, and on the other facilitating reference by numerous and short separate articles arranged in alphabetical order. Though the infant Encyclopedia Britannica omitted the whole field of history and biography as beneath the dignity of encyclopaedias, it speedily acquired sufficient popularity to justify the preparation of a new edition on a much larger scale. The decision to include history and biography caused the secession of Smellie; but MacFarquhar himself edited the work, with the assistance of James Tytler, famous as the first Scottish aeronaut, and for the first time produced an encyclopaedia which covered the whole field of human knowledge. This Second Edition was issued in numbers from June 1777 to September 1784, and was afterwards bound up in ten quarto volumes, containing (8595 pages and 340 plates) more than three times as much material as the First Edition. These earliest editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica consisted mainly of what may be described as compilation; like all their predecessors, from the time of Alsted to that of Ephraim Chambers, they had been put together by one or two men who were still able to take the whole of human knowledge for their province. It was with the Third Edition that the plan of drawing on specialist learning, which has since given the Encyclopedia Britannica its high reputation, was first adopted. This edition, which was begun in 1788 and completed, in eighteen volumes, in 1797, was edited by MacFarquhar until his death in 1793, when about two-thirds of the work were completed. Bell, the surviving proprietor, then appointed George Gleig afterwards Bishop of Brechin as vii viii PREFATORY NOTE editor, and it was he who enlisted the assistance, as contributors, of the most eminent men of science then living in Scotland. Professors Robison, Thomas Thomson and Playfair were the most notable of these new specialist contributors, and a Supplement in two volumes was issued in 1801 to allow them to extend their work to those earlier letters of the alphabet which had already been issued by MacFarquhar. It was their labours which first gave the Encyclopedia Britannica its pre-eminent standing among works of reference, and prepared the way for it to become, as a later editor claimed, not merely a register but an instrument of research, since thereafter the leading specialists in all departments were invited to contribute their unpublished results to its pages. In the Fourth Edition, published by Andrew Bell in twenty volumes from 1 80 1 to 1810, the principle of specialist contributions was considerably extended, but it was only brought to such degree of perfection as was possible at the time by Archibald Constable, "the great Napoleon of the realms of print," who purchased the copyright of the Encyclopedia Britannica soon after Bell's death in 1809. Constable lavished his energy and his money on the famous "Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions," which in 1813 he commissioned Macvey Napier to edit. It was with the appearance of this Supplement that the Encyclopedia Britannica ceased to be a purely Scottish undertaking, and blossomed out into that great cosmopolitan or international enterprise which it has since become. The most eminent writers, scholars and men of science in England and on the continent of Europe, as well as in Scotland itself, were enlisted in the work: Sir Walter Scott, Jeffrey, Leslie, Playfair and Sir Humphry Davy, Dugald Stewart who received the then unpre- cedented sum of .1000 for a single contribution Ricardo, Malthus and Thomas Young, with foreign men of science like Arago and Biot. From this time onward, indeed, a list of the contributors to successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica would be a list of the most eminent British and American writers and thinkers of each generation; the work had become the product of the organized co-operation of acknowledged leaders of the world's thought in every department of human knowledge. For this advance the credit is mainly due to Constable. The Fifth and Sixth Editions, each in twenty volumes, issued by Constable between 1815 and 1824, were practically reprints of the Fourth, the Supplement issued in six volumes from 1816 to 1824 being considered adequate to supply their deficiencies. The Seventh Edition, edited by Macvey Napier on the same lines as the Supplement, of which it incorporated a great part, was brought out by a new publisher, Adam Black, who had bought the copyright on Constable's failure. This edition was issued from 183010 1842, and was comprised in twenty-one volumes, which included a general index to the whole work. The Eighth Edition, under the editorship of T. Stewart Traill, was issued by the firm of A. & C. Black, from 1853 to 1860, in twenty-one volumes, with a separate index volume. The Ninth Edition was then undertaken by the same firm on a scale which Adam Black con- sidered so hazardous that he refused to have any part in the undertaking, and he accordingly advertised his retirement from the firm. This Edition began to appear in 1875, under the editor- ship of Thomas Spencer Baynes, and was completed in 1889 by William Robertson Smith. It consisted of twenty-four volumes, containing 21,572 pages and 302 plates, with a separate index volume. Adam Black's prognostications of failure were signally falsified by the success of the work, of which nearly half a million sets including American pirated and mutilated editions were ultimately sold. The great possibilities of popularity for the Encyclopedia Britannica in Great PREFATORY NOTE ix Britain were only realized, however, when in 1898 The Times undertook to sell a verbatim reprint of the Ninth Edition at about half the price originally asked for it by the publishers. The success of this reprint led to the publication by The Times in 1902 of an elaborate supplement in eleven New Volumes (one containing new maps and one a comprehensive index to the whole work), constituting, with the previous twenty-four volumes, the Tenth Edition. The Eleventh Edition, which super- sedes both Ninth and Tenth, and represents in an entirely new and original form a fresh survey of the whole field of human thought and achievement, written by some 1500 eminent specialists drawn from nearly every country of the civilized world, incorporating the results of research and the progress of events up to the middle of 1910, is now published by the University of Cambridge, where it is hoped that the Encyclopedia Britannica has at length found a permanent home. It will be seen from this brief survey of the history of the Encyclopedia Britannica that, while the literary and scholarly success of the work has been uniform and continuous, its commercial career has naturally been subject to vicissitudes. Six different publishing firms have been at various times associated, with its production; and the increasing magnitude of the work, con- sequent on the steady growth of knowledge, made this wellnigh inevitable. The Encyclopedia Britannica has to-day become something more than a commercial venture, or even a national enterprise. It is a vast cosmopolitan work of learning, which can find no home so appropriate as an ancient university. The present publication of the new Encyclopedia Britannica by the University of Cambridge is a natural step in the evolution of the university as an educational institution and a home of research. The medieval University of Cambridge began its educational labours as an institution intended almost exclusively for the instruction of the clergy, to whose needs its system of studies was necessarily in a large measure accommodated. The Revival of Learning, the Renaissance and the Reformation widened its sphere of intellectual work and its interests, as well as its actual curriculum. The igth century saw the complete abolition of the various tests which formerly shut the gates of the English universities against a large part of the people. The early establishment in Cambridge of special colleges for women was also a sign of expanding activities. About the same time the University Extension movement, first advocated at Cambridge in 1871 on the ground that the ancient universities were not mere clusters of private establishments but national institutions, led to a wider conception of the possibilities of utilizing the intellectual resources of the universities for the general diffusion of knowledge and culture; and the system of Local Examinations brought the university into close contact with secondary education throughout the country. But the public to which the University of Cambridge thus appealed, though wider than that of the college lecture-rooms, was still necessarily limited. Practically it is only through the medium of the University Press that Cambridge can enter into and maintain direct relations with the whole of the English-speaking world. The present time seems appropriate for an effort towards thus signally extending the intellectual and educational influence of the university. To this end, the University of Cambridge has undertaken the publication of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and now issues the Eleventh Edition of that work. These twenty-eight volumes and index aim at achieving the high ambition of bringing all extant knowledge within the reach of every class of readers. While the work, in its present form, is to some extent based on the x PREFATORY NOTE preceding edition, the whole field has been re-surveyed with the guidance of the most eminent specialists. The editors early decided that the new edition should be planned and written as a whole, and refused to content themselves with the old-fashioned plan of regarding each volume as a separate unit, to be compiled and published by itself. They were thus able to arrange their material so as to give an organic unity to the whole work and to place all the various subjects under their natural headings, in the form which experience has shown to be the most convenient for a work of universal reference. An important consequence of this method of editing is that the twenty-eight volumes are now ready for publication at the same time, and that the complete work can be offered to the public in its entirety. Although the work has been reduced to the smallest compass consistent with lucidity bibliographies of all subjects which call for assistance of this nature being provided in aid of more detailed study the aim throughout has been to maintain the highest standard of scholarly authority, and to provide a thorough elucidation of important scientific problems for which the modern inquirer has no adequate text-books. This Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica is now, therefore, offered to the public by the University of Cambridge in the hope and belief that it will be found to be a trustworthy guide to sound learning, and an instrument of culture of world-wide influence. CAMBRIDGE, November I, EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION IN the Prefatory Note the history of the production of the successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica has been briefly told; and elsewhere in these volumes, under the heading of ENCYCLOPAEDIA (vol. ix. p. 369), an account is given in greater detail of the particular form of literature to which that name applies. It is no longer necessary, as was done in some of the earlier editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to defend in a Preface the main principle of the system by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan under the headings most directly suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of an arrangement of material based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper names has established of the book itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to the multiplication of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution of the Eleventh Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn. The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors. It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and simple, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannica has always been to give reasoned dis- ..,,.. . A Debt to earlier cussions on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the e< ji tions results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor for the name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol- ...-,-...,. r u 11 j *r. Their special umes which left the main fabric untouched was universally recognized as giving me . most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus gained by the Encyclopedia Britannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge carries with it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia Britannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car- ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To 1 In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article DRAMA, may be cited: "It is proper to state here . . . that this article is reprinted as it originally appeared in the supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of this work without any of those adaptations which the course of time and change xi xii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest, and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation. In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision is, indeed, a new edifice as com- pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication. The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopaedia otherwise than in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered prohibitive. Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875 m and the twenty-fifth in 1889, was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep- tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1881 when Spencer Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang- ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopaedia can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol- umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered, and there is every Defect of chance that some integral portion of what had previously been published may be division under . ... . _, ., . .. /*.!. -NT- ^ T-J^- c ^i different dates stultified. Those who were responsible for the execution of the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a modern public for "up-to-date-ness" had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason- able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria. But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question, later history could be added. It was the fact that, owing to its system of publication, its arrangement was not encyclopaedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been written originally on a faulty principle. Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume. ^h'dn I* 1 "* On this svstem the P ublic has been furnished with the Oxford New English Diction- employed. ar y ( st ^ incomplete in 1910, though work had begun in the early 'sixties and the first volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cases. We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as it proceeded from his own hand, leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the Seventh Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth! EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xiii converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, made it imperative to extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects the convenience of the purchaser as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modern History; the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency- clopaedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes, and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, such a wor i f ^ whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling. And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the old system. The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre- cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared . with other encyclopaedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study n ss/6/e. or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail, irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed in all its parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole was issued. This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora- tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis- appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site in this "T^ case the whole field of knowledge was mapped out afresh under the advice of special- ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi- ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica an organic unit. xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than had been included in the Ninth Edition some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul- taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance hi .. a work of reference to be applied systematically by the editorial staff. The authority which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the Encyclopaedia Britannica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said: "The use of initials (as signatures to articles) was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated / th it ^ m ^ e ^cyetoaKa, but no effort has been spared on the part of the editorial staff to secure the accuracy and sufficiency of every contribution, and to prevent those repeti- tions and inconcinnities which necessarily occur where each contributor is absolutely and solely re- sponsible for the articles which bear his name." The principle here enunciated, which represents the tradition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the matter of the correct relationship between editors and contributors, and the responsibility attaching to individual signatures, has been adopted hi the Eleventh Edition, but with all the advantages resulting alike from simultaneous production and from the fact that the Editor-in-Chief was assisted by a much larger staff, working under conditions which enabled the editorial control to be effective to a degree unattainable under the earlier system. In concert with the numerous eminent writers whose signatures give individual inter- est and weight to their contributions, the whole work and not only the unsigned articles, fo^reference" >man y ^ Wfl i cn indeed have equally high authority behind them passed through the detailed scrutiny of the editorial staff, whose duty it was to see that it provided what those who used any part of the book could reasonably expect to find, to remedy those "inconcinnities" to which Robertson Smith alluded, and to secure the accuracy in the use of names, the inclusion of dates, and similar minutia, which is essential in a work of reference. A great deal of the older fabric was obviously incompatible with the new scheme of treatment; but, where possible, those earlier contributions have been preserved which are of the nature of classics in the world of letters. By a selective process which, it is believed, gives new value to the old material ' material by the revision, at the hands of their own authors or of later authorities, of such articles or portions of articles as were found to fit accurately into their several places or by the inclusion under other headings of a consideration of controverted questions on which the writers may have taken a strong personal view, itself of historical interest their retention has been effected so as to conform to the ideal of making the work as a whole representative of the best thought of a later day. Questions of Formal Arrangement. Both hi the addition of new words for new. subjects, and in the employment of different words for old subjects, the progress of the world demands a reconsideration from time to time of the headings under which its accumulated experiences can best be presented in a work which . ,. employs the dictionary plan as a key to its contents. No little trouble was therefore expended, in planning the Eleventh Edition, on the attempt to suit the word to the sub- ject in the way most likely to be generally useful for reference. While the selection has at times been, of necessity, somewhat arbitrary, it has been guided from first to last by an endeavour to follow the natural mental processes of the average educated reader. But it was impossible to interpret what is "natural" in this connexion without consideration for the advances which have been made hi terminological accuracy, alike in the technicalities of science and and common J ' sense. m "** f rms * language adopted by precise writers, whose usage has become or is rapidly becoming part of the common stock. The practice of modern schools and the vocabulary of a modern curriculum, as well as the predominating example of expert EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xv authorities, impose themselves gradually on the public mind, and constitute new conventions which are widely assimilated. In forecasting what would be for the convenience of a new generation of readers, it has seemed best to aim at adopting the nearest approach to correct modern terminology, while avoiding mere pedantry on the one hand, and on the other a useless abandonment of well- established English custom. It is easier, however, to lay down principles than to carry them out consistently in face of the ob- stinacy of the materials with which one is dealing in an encyclopaedia which attempts to combine accu- rate scholarship with general utility and convenience. In the case of biographical articles, _. , for instance, it was decided that the proper headings were the names by which the in- dividuals concerned are in fact commonly known. Thus "George Sand" is now dealt with under her pen-name (SAND, GEORGE) and not under that of Madame Dudevant; "George Eliot" is no longer hid- den away under her married name of Mrs Cross; and "Mark Twain" is taken as the permanent name by which the world will know Mr Clemens. But it is not only in the case of pseudonyms that there is. a difficulty in deciding upon the heading which is most appropriate. In variance with the practice of the Dictionary of National Biography, all articles on titled persons are here et J^" t f arranged under the title headings and not the family names. In principle it is believed that this is much the more convenient system, for in most cases the public (especially outside the British Islands) does not know what the family name of an English peer may be. Moreover, the system adopted by the Dictionary of National Biography sacrifices a very important feature in connexion with these bio- graphical articles, namely, the history of the title itself, which has often passed through several families and can only be conveniently followed when all the holders are kept together. As a rule, this system of putting peers under the headings of their titles agrees with the principle of adopting the names by which people actually are called; but sometimes it is too glaringly otherwise. Nobody would think of looking for Francis Bacon under the heading of Viscount St Albans, or for Horace Walpole under that of Earl of Orford. In such cases what is believed to be the natural expectation of readers has been consulted. The exceptional use, however, of the family name as a heading for persons of title has been reserved strictly for what may be regarded as settled conventions, and where reasonably possi- ble the rule has been followed; thus Harley and St John are dealt with as Earl of Oxford and Viscount Bolingbroke respectively. On the other hand, when a celebrity is commonly known, not under his family name but under a title which eventually was changed for a different one of higher rank, the more convenient arrangement has seemed to be notwithstanding general usage to associate the article with the higher title, and so to bring it into connexion with the historical peerage. Thus the account of the statesman commonly called by his earlier title of Earl of Danby is deliberately placed under his later title of Duke of Leeds, and that of Lord Castlereagh under Marquess of Use of the Londonderry. If the result of such exceptions to the rule might seem to be that in cer- tain cases a reader would not know where to turn, the answer is that a reference to the Index, where cross- references are given, will decide. In the text of the work, although a great deal has been done to refer a reader from one article to another, mere cross-references such as " Oanby, Earl of; see LEEDS, DUKE or" are not included as distinct entries; it was found that the number of such headings would be very large, and they would only have duplicated the proper function of the Index, which now acts in this respect as the real guide to the contents and should be regarded as an integral part of the work. The reference just made to the Dictionary of National Biography may here be supplemented by a few words as to the British biographies in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The whole standard of biographical writing of this kind has undoubtedly been raised by the labours of Sir Leslie Stephen, Dr Sidney Lee, and their collaborators, in the compilation of that invaluable work; and no subsequent publication could fail to profit, both by the scholarly example there set, and by the results of the original research embodied in it. But in the corresponding Progress in ,. , . ,, , ,. . treatment of articles in the hncydopodia Bntanmca advantage has been taken of the opportunity for biography. further research and the incorporation of later information, and they represent an in- dependent study, the details of which sometimes differ from what is given in the Dictionary, but must not for that reason be thought in haste to be incorrect. Allowance being made for a somewhat different xvi EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION standard in the selection of individuals for separate biographies, and for the briefer treatment, the at- tempt has been made to carry even a step forward the ideals of the Dictionary in regard to accuracy of detail and critical judgment. This has largely been made possible by the existence of the Dictionary, but the original work done in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the same field- drawing as it can upon a number of biographical articles, already classics, hi its earlier editions gives it an independent authority even in the sphere of British national biography. More- character over ' ^ e mc l us i n o * biographies of eminent persons who died after the Dictionary was supplemented in 1901, and of others still living in 1910, results hi a considerable extension of the biographical area, even as regards individuals of British nationality hi the narrowest sense. The articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, however, are of course not limited to personages of the British Islands. Not only are biographies here included of the great men and women of French, German, Italian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Scandinavian, Japanese, and other foreign nationalities, as well as of those of the ancient world, but the same standard of selection has been applied to American and British Colonial biography as to English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. Indeed the Encyclopedia Bri- tannica may now claim for the first time to supply a really adequate Dictionary of American National Biography, covering all those with whom the citizens of the United States are nationally concerned. It thus completes its representation of the English-speaking peoples, to all of whom English history, even in its narrower sense, is a common heritage, and in its evolution a common ex- ample. Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can sa ^ to ^ e un ^ versa ^> though in particular cases there is a convention which it would names. aDSUr d to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would be pragmatical hi the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of call- ing all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomen- clature is desirable and feasible, but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutschland and the French I'Allemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly Cologne (Koln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English CU bl names m an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds hi less important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give them several varieties of form ; and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society of London the premier geographical society of the world might co-operate hi an attempt to secure the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The art/ lar Society, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this require- ment, though it has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The co-operation of the Royal Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopedia Britannica to give prominent literary expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent spelling which would represent its own judgment and authority. It is hoped that by degrees this spell- ing may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of trans- literation, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some form of Anglicization becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most authori- EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xvii tative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European na- ion in possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international . agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common nglish variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none per- istent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with he least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard \.o its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the German official nomenclature, from the older English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still perpetuate it. In the case of personal names, wherever an English spelling has become sufficiently established both in literature and in popular usage it has been retained, irrespectively of any strict linguistic value. Foreign names in English shape really become English words, and they are so treated here; e.g. Alcibiades (not Alkibiades), Juggernaut (not Jagganath). But discrimination as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made / an g uages , all the more difficult, especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ- ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, various eminent Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well- established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per- sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental names had been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names in the headings and for ordinary use through- out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article. While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex- ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have been specially prepared for each language ; for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted, but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article BABYLONIA is specially devoted to an elucidation of the divergences between the renderings given by individual Assyriologists. While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature, at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get the public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly pronounced and it will be long before these conditions can be fulfilled even a phonetic system of spell- ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than to invent a new one. The point is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION essentials of the comprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except within the narrowest of sects. This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected, to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub- m ~ stantially applies to many other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encyclopaedia Britannica is intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to be a stranger. With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which would more naturally form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now been made to arrange the material rather according to the heading under which, in an encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c., would be discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters of a continuous treatise. But each such chapter or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha- betical order of headings. Under the name of the common subject of the science as a encyclopaedia . , ., , . , , method. whole, its history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter on each of which often a single specialist has unique authority are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific material a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the general account of details which would overload it has been adopted throughout the Eleventh Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more authoritative survey has been attained, within the limits possible to such a work, than ever before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all T , anywhere in the book; whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing ^ S//I^/C ... ,, , _ 1.1 i " r treatise. headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of an intelligent reader. In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original headings form of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to make separate headings of any words which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers. 1 The labours of Sir James Murray and his colleagues on the Oxford New English Dictionary, which has only become accessible since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published, have enabled a precise examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words, together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings 1 Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The Index in all such cases must be consulted, whether for word or name. EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan, combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the professional <)r scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to any one speaking the English language; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology in Im P ortance of ,. , ,. , . . ' ., , , ,,. ,. J , terminological any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuracy , still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to impart instruc- tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated, and connected with the facts for which properly they stand. Some Points as to Substance. In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it may be remarked first that, as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has been dominated throughout by the historical point of view. Any account which purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether hi the realm of mind or in ,. * \ff '/"' , that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under- stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, all subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their own account, but also throw light on what goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only by the date at which the Encyclopedia Britannica is published. Any contemporary description is indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the available resources have >been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as part of a con- sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia to prophesy. In this connexion it is advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics. to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con- siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by accident is the last before publication would often be entirely misleading, owing to their being subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by, xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION and new statistics on all subjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from the fact that statistics are inserted not as events in themselves this they may or may not be, according to the subject-matter but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed hi the balance of the judicious historian. While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over , ,, the construction of the work as a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its The spirit of . science execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it, that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme, each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter- dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the treatment of any large subject. Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion, the increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and controversy objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism. The title of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a considerable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount of The compara- . ...... -r, tive method, information it contains concerning the corresponding activities m other countries. By approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense : new branches of study have arisen which are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion, folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited by the comparative method in recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Com- parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy. The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings, in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each particular structure, but with the corresponding features in the rest of the animal kingdom, the study of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter- EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society. In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Britannica in relation to the active con- troversies of the time," Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition (1875), referred to the conflict of opinion then raging in regard to religion and science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon . to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to deal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy." The same policy has in- spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopedia Britannica itself has no side or party; it attempts to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and controversy at all, it is manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless; its value as a source of authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were iot able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar- tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat- sfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far' as criticism is concerned, in such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without prejudice to the argument. The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out altogether; that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub- jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another, impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms, and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it. In order to give the fullest expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con- tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. They have been selected as representative after the most careful con- sideration and under the highest sense of editorial responsibility. The proportion of space devoted to these subjects is necessarily large, because they bulk largely in the minds of thinking people; and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative claims may naturally vary. The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre- sent Western civilization are, however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at that time raged round the application of historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religion which formerly prevailed. Science and theology have learnt to dwell together; and a reverent attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined, without arriere-pensee, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and development. Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less than the literary text; and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye, and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text; and a large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art. Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account. Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope, orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view; either the cartographers have worked with the text before them often representing new geographical authority on the part of the contributors or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes of Gotha, the publishers of Stieler's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis; and the others have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition. Conclusion. In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and Botany, which were under the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's Advisers on assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative special Anatomy (in association with Mr F. G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The subjects. whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and Dr Rendle; and their supervision, in all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer- ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by Mr H. B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of Topographical Geology, Dr J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A. Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly, Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help. Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E. M. Walker of Oxford, as regards subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge, who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning generally; Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted on Jewish subjects. Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance in regard to their various subjects were Lord Rayleigh and Mr W. C. D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir E. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H. Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof. W. E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A. Grierson (Indian Languages), the Rev. G. W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W. F. Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art), Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof. J. G. Robertson (German Literature), Mr J. S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music), Prof. H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W. M. Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of Harvard (American Physiography). These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which SU pp 0r t. it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion, to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here. The interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII. graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to be used for the purpose of making the coloured plates which accompany the article KNIGHTHOOD. Makers of history like Lord Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers, from many such quarters answers have been freely given to applications for information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity. Prof. J. T. Shotwell, of Columbia University, U.S.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint _. _. Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant- Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the direction of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and with articles on American subjects; to his loyal and efficient co-operation, both on the special subjects assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart- ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T. A. Ingram, Mr H. M. Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R. Howarth, Mr F. R. Cana, Mr C. O. Weatherly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove, Mr C. F. Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev. A. J. Grieve, Mr. W. E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control. On the New York staff Mr Whinery had the efficient help of Mr R. Webster, Dr N. D. Mereness, Dr F. S. Philbrick, Dr W. K. Boyd, Dr W. O. Scroggs, Mr W. T. Arndt, Mr W. L. Corbin and Mr G. Gladden. A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be The j ndex made for compiling the Index which would eventually be published; and as the reference- cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION much in this way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published, represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department ; and in order to put it into shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents, brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of the work itself, a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public. HUGH CHISHOLM. LONDON, December 10, 1910. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME I. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R.* A. C. L. A. D. A. E. S. A. F. B. A. F. P. A. Gir. A. G. H. A. H. J. G. A. J. B. A. J. G. A. Mw. A. M. C. A. M. Cl. C. E.* C. F. A. ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin H Airy. and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. L SIR ALFRED COMYN LYALL, K.C.B. f Abdur Rahman; See the biographical article: LYALL, SIR A. C. L Afghanistan: History. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / Addison (in part). See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology in Cam- "i Acanthocephala. bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Alpaca. Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \ ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. f Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford ; Professor of English History in the University -j Aconcio. of London. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. I ARTHUR GIRAULT. Professor of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the "j Algeria: History. International Colonial Institute. Author of Principes de colonisation (1907-1908). L A. G. HADCOCK (late R.A.) Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. J Ammunition (in part). ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). ,. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's H Agrarian Laws {in part), College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law, &c. ALFRED JOSHUA BUTLER, M.A., D.LITT. J* Abyssinian Church. Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. L REV. ALEXANDER J. GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Adoptianism; Alford; Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent"! Ai CAn \j . Amhrnea Q* College, Bradford. I A1SOp ' V '' Ambrose ' st - ALLAN MAWER M.A. J JEthelflaed; JEthelred L; Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- -j jpth-ietan- ZFthliPirri Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Algol. See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of 4 Agrarian Laws (m part). Roman History, 133-70 B.C. . Acclimatization. ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article : WALLACE, A. R. ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A., LL.D. (Glasgow). f .. Fellow of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford; formerly Reader in Greek, Oxford Uni- H Aeschylus. versity. ARTHUR WILLEY, D.Sc., F.R.S. J Amphioxus. Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon. ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. BUDGETT MEAKIN (d. 1906). Author of The Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire; &c. CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., LITT.D. (Oxon.). See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Magdalen College, Oxford. 'CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. L /Aberdeen, 4th Earl of. L J Almohades (in part); \ Almoravides (in part). ; Agenais. f Algebra: History. \ Alexandria: Battle. . Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 American Civil War; Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [Ammunition (in part). 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume. xxv xxvi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES C. F. R. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, PH.D. f Alcott, A. B.; Professor of English, Dartmouth College, U.S.A. \ Alcott L M C. L. H. CALDWELL LIPSETT. J _ Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. 1 Amdi; Agra. C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. i Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J ., , - c potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1 Aiexana r 01 bervia. 1902-1903. [ C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. I" Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -j Alcuin. tudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. C. PI. REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred the < Alfred the Great. Great; &c. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of J Andrew of Lonejumeau Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 Author oi'Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f jt ne lred II King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. 1 C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f , . Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \ Advertisement (in part). D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Abu Hanifa; Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. | Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899- and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. Amasia; Anazarbus. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, . 1217-1688 ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. Adalia; Adana; Aegean Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo; Alexandria; Alexandretta; Alexandria Troas; Abbadides; Abd-Ar-Rahman; Admiral; Agreda; Almogavares; Almohades; Almoravides; Alphonso; America: History; American War of Inde- pendence: Naval Operations; American War of 1812. D. M. REV. D. MEIKLEJOHN. J Adams, John Couch. D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. r ., ,,, T ... Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. j Alexander, w. L., Alion, H. D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign J AlexanQ "> OI Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia. \ Alexander III., of Russia. E. B.* ERNEST C. F. BABELON. f Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dcpt. of Medals and Antiquities -! Africa, Roman, at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly-^ Amalric. Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. E. Ch. EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D. f Adams Jonn ; Professor of History, Harvard University. 1 Adams, John Qumcy; L Adams, Samuel. E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lrrr. r Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. 1 Acoemetl. E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Aasen; Almqvist; See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. J. Anacreontics; Andersen, Hans Christian. E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. l .u,,,. -.,..,. See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. J . ~] Aegina. E> He - EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. ; .f,:. . /- , nt .i,,, Tf fn . Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa ; &c i of/. { t P y> ' E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. ' } ****&>& Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cam- J Alani bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. E. J. R. EMANUEL JOSEPH RISTORI, PH.D., Assoc.M.lNST.C.E. ' f Member of Council, Institute of Metals. 4 Aluminium. E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. S Aegina: History. E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Abdomen; Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, "1 AhspAi .ffithelwuli; Alamanni. F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F^R.ANTHROP.INST. Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital knd the London School of Medicine for Worne -! Alimentary Canal; Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, -j ' Formerly Hunteriari Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Anatomy. F. H. Ne. FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S. f Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and Chemistry. \ Alloys (in part). F. y. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. [ .. c imhfi i. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- < * *"* e '' logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. [ Akhmim; Amasis; Ammon. Abyssinia: Geography; Africa: Geography, History (in part) ; Albert Edward Nyanza (in part) ; Albert Nyanza (in F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. F. S. FRANCIS STORR. j Academ ie S . part); Alexandria (in part); Algeria: Geography. Editor of the Journal of Education (London). Officier d'Academie (Paris). \ F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS. r Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of " Great Writers " Series. *! About. F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r Agate; Alabaster; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J Alexandrite; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Amber' Amethyst G.* COUNT ALBERT EDWARD WILFRED GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. f . A.D.M.O., War Office; Colonel, Grenadier Guards. Mission to Abyssinia, 1897. \ Abyssinia: History. G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J AlyteS. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [ G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. f Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of -I Ahom. India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., LL.D. Head of Faculty of Science, and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba -| Alberta. University, 1891-1904. Vice-President of Royal Society, Canada, 1908. G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. Formerly Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales. Sometime { Algebra: Special. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. G. C. R. GEORGE CROOM ROBERTSON. r Abelard (in part). See the biographical article : ROBERTSON, G. C. \ G. E. C. COLONEL GEORGE EARL CHURCH. f Amazon. See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. \ G. E. W. GEORGE EDWARD WOODBERRY, Litt.D., LL.D. f Professor of Comparative Literature at Columbia University, 1891-1904. Author of -| American Literature. Edgar Allan Poe; Makers of Literature; America in Literature; &c. G. F. B. G. F BARWICK. J Alfred> Duke of Saxe-Coburg; Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British i Alice Grand-Duchess Of Hesse. G. L. GEORGE LUNGE, PH.D. (Breslau), HON. DR!NG. (Karlsruhe). /Alkali Manufacture. See the biographical article: LUNGE, G. \ xxviii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES G. P. M. GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. I" Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London School of -| Albino. Medicine for Women. G. W. B. GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, A.M., Ph.D. f Professor of History of Greece and Rome in Columbia University, New York. 1 Ampmetyony. Author of The Roman Assemblies; &c. ' Abu-l-'ala; Abu-l-'Atahiya; G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old - Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Abulfaraj; Abulfeda; Abu-1-Qasim; Abu Nuwas; Abu Tammam; Abu Ubaida; Akhtal: Alqama Ibn 'Abada; Amru'-ul-Qais. H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Agassiz, J. L. R. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. [Acton Lord- A?nn ra B tonsort. H. C. C. HERBERT CHALLICE CROUCH, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. J Anaesthetist and Teacher of Anaesthetics at St Thomas's, Samaritan and French ~{ Anaesthesia. Hospitals, London. L H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of the Times Engineering -j Alchemy. Supplement. Author of British Railways. H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. /AH... Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; &c. \ A1Dan y Countess 01. H. P. J.* HENRY PHELPS JOHNSTON. f American War of Independ- Author of Royalist History of the Revolution ; The Yorktown Campaign; &c. I ence: Land Operations. H. R. H.* H. R. HAXTON. -j Advertisement. H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G. J" ., , . Member for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of The Call to Arms. \ Ammunition: Small Arms. H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -| Amphitheatre. Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire. H. V. K. CAPTAIN HOWARD V. KNOX, M.A. f . Exeter College, Oxford. { U I K Flora and Fauna. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f nji,..,. .,,,, . ., Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1902. \ a H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. c Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester, i Anah. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. r , Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. j Amedeo, Ferdmando, of Savoy. H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K. C.S.I. See the biographical article: YULE, Sir H. \ Afghanistan: History. J. A. Ba. J. ARTHUR BARRETT, LL.B. f Admiralty Jurisdiction: New York Bar, 1880. U.S. Supreme Court Bar, 1901. |_ United States. J. A. E. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E. Director of (British) Naval Education, 1903. Hon. Fellow of King's College, J .. _ Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University 1 Air-Engine. of Cambridge, 1890-1903. J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of A University College,' London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and "] Am P er Der - University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. [ J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Albian. J. B. B. JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LiTT.D., LL.D. f AI.-!,., T * n i See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ " J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Albania- Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of J . , St Alexander of Bulgaria. \ Alexander of Bulgaria. J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the < Akkad. Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. L J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r Acosta, J. de; Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Alarcon J R de* Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MacColl Lecturer in the 4 .. University of Cambridge. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Alarcon > r - A - ae '> Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I Aleman; Amadis de Gaula. J. F. R. JAMES FORD RHODES, LL.D. f ., r _ See the biographical article: RHODES, J. FORD. \ Aaa ns> * ' J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. ~\ Ancyra. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. L INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XXIX J. G. Gr. J. G. Sc. J. H. P. J. H. R. I. J.L.* J. L. M. J. M. M. J. P.-B. J. P. Pe. J. R. C. J. R. D. J.S. J. S. P. J. S. K. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. T. S.* J. V. B. Jno. W. J. W. D. K. S. L. D.* L. J. S. L.V.* JOHN G. GRIFFITHS. J Accountants. Fellow and late President, Institute of Chartered Accountants. L SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C I.E. j Akyab. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; &c. (. JOHN HENRY POYNTING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J . Mason Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science, Birmingham 1 ACOUStlCS. University. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M. A., LL.D. (Edin.). J AhBV __. B . Ailk Author of Feudal England ; Peerage and Pedigree ; &c. I ADe y al JULES ISAAC. J AmhnUo r H' Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons, France. \ AD lse > u - a SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. f Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in J Aether Cambridge University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of Aether and Matter; &c. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J Amathus. Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London i Anaxagoras (in part). College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST J Adam, Robert. Editor of the Guardian (London). JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Anbar the University of Pennsylvania. In charge of the University Expedition to Baby- | Ionia, 1 888-1 895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of and S Absorption of Light. edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. I COLONEL JOHN RICHARD DODD, M.D., F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C. Administrative Medical Officer of Cork Military District. JAMES SULLY, LL.D. See the biographical article: SULLY, J. Ambulance. Aesthetics. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Agglomerate; Amphibolite; Andesite. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey, burgh University. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). f Sec. Royal Geog. Soc. Hon. Memb. Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, -< Abbadie; Africa: History. &c. Editor of Statesman's year-book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. \_ JOHN T. BEALBY. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical -j Altai. Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. L Formerly Fellow of J A np i, nvv History " ^ iTn,'. 1 finc v y- Uni- I \ Abelard (in part). /Acts of the Apostles. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. J. VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Alien; 1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict 1 Allegiance. of Laws: Chapters on the Principles of International Law, part i. " Peace," part ii. War." CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c. Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER. Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. LUIGI YILLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in east of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. Anchor. r Accordion; Aeolian Harp; \ Alpenhorn. J Adrian I., II., III.; I. Alexander I., II. (popes). (Albite; Alunite; Amblygonite; Ampibole; Analcite; Anatase; Andalusite. (Accoramboni; Alexander VI. (pope); Amari. XXX INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES M. Br. M. G. M. 6. D. M. Ha. M. H. C. M. Ja. M. M. Bh. M. N. T. H. 0. B. C. M. P.* N. V. 0. E. 0. H.* 0. T. M. P. A. P. A. A. P. A. G. P. A. K. P. A. M. P. C. H. P. C. Y. P.GI. MARGARET BRYANT. /Alexander the Great: I Legends. MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By- I z. inline Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. 1 Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G. C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829- f 1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868-1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of J Amnthill Rarnn Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. 1 President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics; Notes from a Diary; &c. I MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S. f Professor of Zoology in University College, Cork. Formerly Professor of Natural -\ Amoeba. History in Queen's College, Cork, and Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland. L MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., K.C., D.C.L. President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General j Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated < "Alabama" Arbitration. Council of Law _Rep9rting. Chairman of Quarter Sessions, Westmorland. Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. Author of j Adad - SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGREE, K.C.I.E. (" Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. (C.) Bethnal Green, North-East, 1895-1906. -< A S a Author of Small History of the East India Company. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. c Fellow and Lecturer of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Greek) Agesilaus; Epigraphy. ^ Corresponding Member of the German Imperial Archaeological 1 Agis. Lecturer in Greek Institute. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Birmingham University, 1905-1908. LEON JACQUES MAXLME PRINET. Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'tS de 1'Histoire de France, and of the Soci6t< de 1'Ecole de Charles. Acarnania; Achaean League; at | Actium; Aetolia; Ambracia. Albret; Alencon, Counts of. Ailly; Alexander V. (pope). S. OTTO EPPENSTEIN, PH.D. Member of Scientific Staff at Zeiss's optical works, Jena. Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrnmenie nach Abbe. Editor of 2nd ed. of \ Aberration. OTTO HEHNER, PH.D. Formerly President of the Society of Analytical Chemists. OTIS TUFTON MASON (d. 1908). Curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington, 1884-1908. Authorof Woman's Sharein Primitive Culture ; Primitive Traveland Transportation ; &c. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les hSterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' siecle. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D.JURIS. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. Editor of Country Life. Author of The Rural Exodus: the Problem of the Village and the Town. Adulteration. America: Ethnology and Archaeology. Alain de Lille; Albigenses. Alsace-Lorraine. Allotments. C Altai ; Amur : | Anarchism. District ; PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S., LATE MAJOR R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint General Secretary I Ateebraic Forms British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, Ordnance College. President 1 *orms. of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demonstrator Abiogenesis ; Actinozoa ; in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891 Alimpntarv Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1 ? . /. 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- I m l Ma *** P art >- 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. 1 | Aberdeen, 1st Earl of; \Allestree, R. A ; Accent ; Alphabet. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XXXI P. La. R. A. S. M. R. K. D. R. L.* R. N. B. R. P. S. R. S. C. R. Tr. R. V. H. W. P. S. A. C. S. E. B. T.As. T. A. I. T. A. J. T. H. T. H. H. T. H. H.* T. K. C. T. W. R. D. V. B. L. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J AIDS' Ceoloev of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Acre; Ai; Altar. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum ; -i. Aleock Sir R. Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Literature of China ; &c. RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., [ Amblvpoda- Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; \ . . The Deer of all Lands ; The Game A nimals of Africa ; &c. I Aneylopoda. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15131900 ; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706, &c. Aagesen; Absalon; Adolphus Frederick; Alexander Nevsky; Alexius Mikhailovich; Alexius Petrovich; Alin; Andrassy, Count; Andrew II. of Hungary. Aisle. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's . College, London. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., LiTT.D. J . Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester; formerly Professor of Latin j Aequi. in University College, Cardiff. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. Dean, Fellow and Lecturer, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar of ] Agriculture (in part). Christ Church, Oxford. ADMIRAL SIR RICHARD VESEY HAMILTON, G.C.B. f Admiralty Administration Senior Naval Lord of Admiralty, 1889-1891. President, Royal Naval College, 1 (British) Greenwich, 1891-1894. REGINALD W. PHILLIPS, D.Sc., F.L.S. f Professor of Botany in the University College of North Wales. Author of Morpho- "j Algae. logy of the Algae, &c. I Aaron; Abimelech; Abraham; Ahab; Amalekites; Ammonites. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D. [" Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in the University of Yale. I American Law Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. President of the Inter- 1 national Law Association. President of the American Historical Association. I THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), F.S.A. I" Adr j a ' Aemilia ,y ia ;, Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J Agrlgentum; Alba Fucens; logy at Rome. Alba Longa; Aletrium; I Anagnia; Ancona. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Affiliation. T. ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- logical Society. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., D.LiTT. See the biographical article : HODGKIN, T. THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S. See the biographical article : HUXLEY, THOMAS H. COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. (" Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian Ababda; Africa: Ethnology. Alaric. -j Amphibia (in part). Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.D. See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester University. Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secre Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c. VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, to the Corporation of the City of London. Afghan Turkestan. - Adam; Amos. President of the Pali Secretary and Librarian of Royal 1 A bhidhamma Ananda. Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner J Acetylene. SIR JOSEPH WALTON (d. IQIO). 'Formerly Judge of the King's Bench Div. Bar, 1899. Chairman of the General Council of the -j Affreightment. XXX11 W. A. B. C. W A. P. W. Ba. W. C. R.-A. W. E. G. W. FT. W. F. Sh. W. G.* W. G. F. P. W. Hi. W. M. D. W. M. F. P. W. M. R. W. 0. B. W. Ri. W. S. W. T. S. W. W. W. W. F.* W. W. R.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern). Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Projessor of English History ,_St JDavid's Aar; Aarau; Aargau; Adda; Adige; Albula Pass; Alp; the T*ddi; 'Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History, &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. L Altdorf. f Abbot; Aix-la-Chapelle: WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Congresses; Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,-! Alexander I. of Russia* f\v(/\rA Anfhr*r rtf A//i//*r*. 7?r/iVw> ' rr All, of lannma; Alliance; I Ambassador. College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of*. ,1 _ wf&jj. f*~fi~ i- r*-:-u u. r>..ij- *~ c.,..'* -/,..,./. TI.~ A ij*~ ;., A;,,f*,~ *~j ; i Aipes lYianunies; Alps; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; Abenezra. WILLIAM BACKER, PH.D. Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest. SIR WILLIAM CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article: ROBERTS-AUSTEN, SIR W. C SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, I Albert Edward Nyanza; Egypt. Under- Secretary of State for Public Works. Adviser to the Ministry of 1 Albert Nyanza (in part). Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. (d. 1907). Author of Handbook of Agriculture. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. -I Alloys (in part). -j Agriculture (in part). Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -< Algebra. H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coalmining ; &c. I ifrina- - ' - - [ Algeria: Geology. SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. Judge of the King's Bench Div. President of International Law Associa^n, 1905. J Admiralty, High Court of; Author of Book of Church Law. Edited 2nd ed. of Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law, "l Admiralty Jurisdiction. and 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law. WALTER HIBBERT, A.M.I. C.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. Lecturer on Physics and Electro-Technology, Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c. WILLIAM M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D., PH.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. F. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A. Archdeacon of Birmingham. Formerly Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford, 1884-1891, and Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 18911900. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LITT.D. Disney Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in Classics. Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece, &c. WILLIAM SPALDING. See the biographical article: SPALDING, W. REAR-ADMIRAL W. T. SAMPSON, LL.D. See the biographical article: SAMPSON, W. T. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub- Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. J Accumulator, J America: Physical Geography. J Abydos. j Andrea del Sarto. I Absolution. J Achaeans. J Addison (in part). f Admiralty Administration \ (United States). \ Anaxagoras (in part). Ambarvalia. r Adrian IV., V., VI.; J Alexander III., IV., VII., VIII.; i, Ancyra, Synod of. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Abbreviation. Acid. Aconite. Addison's Disease. Adoption. Advocate. Advowson. Aeronautics. Aerotherapeutics. Agapemonites. Age. Alabama. Alaska. Alb. Albumin. Alcohol. Alcohols. Aldehydes. Alexandrian School. Alhambra. Alimony. Alismaceae. Almanac. Aloe. Alum. Amazons. Ambo. Ammonia. Amsterdam. Ana. Andaman Islands. Andes. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME I A This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants. In Phoenician, a, like, the symbols for e and for o, did not represent a vowel, but a breathing ; the vowels originally were not represented by any symbol. When the alphabet was adopted by the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds of their language. The breathings which were not required in Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w. The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form Alpha (a\a). The earliest authority for this, as for the names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama (ypannariKri Qeupia) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus ^ \ <. In the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set ^ /\ fa /) P|, &c. From the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them has passed to the other nations of western Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription I found in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET), the letters are still identical in form with those of the western Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are compara- tively rare in Greek, as /^, or unknown, as ^. Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form fQ, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece (Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically). i. i In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte (i); English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On the other hand, the long sound of a in the Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as the original e-sound (see ALPHABET : Greek). The vowel sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in English. In general it may be said that the chief changes which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from (i) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination with rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into the formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., 906, 784). The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Madoi, with a. in the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MaSot), is changed into Medoi (Mi?5ot), with an open e-sound instead of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with i (as in English seed). The first part of the process has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah) passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. 783). In English a represents unaccented forms of several words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and of various prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol, i.,p.,4. , . (P. Gi.) 5 AA AAR As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being the first of the litter -ae nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority. In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form " all x is y." The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirm- ative " some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and the particular negative " some x is not y." The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin verbs A/Irmo (or AIo), "I assert," and nEgO, "I deny." The use of the symbols dates from the i3th century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). In Shipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality of con- struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship. See SHIPBUILDING. It is popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence. AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach; Scand. a, aa, pronounced o). The following are the more important streams of this name: Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi- gable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can- tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at Herford, the Miinster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others. AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen- hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemaerkinger om Reltigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871- 1872); Fortegnelse over Relssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc- cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect. See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.Biog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Samlade Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.) AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifolia, plants exten- sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain. The name is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com- pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra- quinone. AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop, and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south bank of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat. Pop. (1901) 31,457- The situation is typical of the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into aij irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many islands. North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer. South-east lies the similar Lille Vildmose. A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The harbouris good and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the I7th cen- tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid- dle of the 1 8th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the I4th century or earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail- way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom. Aalborg received town -privileges in 1342, and the bishopric dates from 1554. AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com- munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wiirttemberg. AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 145 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Norvo, which enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore district, and one of the chief stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the Jb'rund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nord- fjord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the pth century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the scene of one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes. Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the German government, while the British government also offered it. AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em- bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 1856. In 1867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal- ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist, he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871. AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total length (including all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it descends 5135 ft., while its AARAU AARHUS drainage area is 6804 sq. m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, form- ing on the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain. A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that lake it receives its first important affluent, the Liitschine (left), and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between Interlaken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built. It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to Biiren. Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance, past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900 it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 m. N.W. of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good painted glass of the i6th century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are many industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, andjactories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien- tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important military centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine- yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 1415, and in 1798 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach, just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) AARD-VARK (meaning " earth-pig "), the Dutch name for the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see EDEN- TATA). Several species have been named. Among them is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (0. aethiopicus) of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some- what pig-like; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 175 in. ; but a large indi- vidual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and ears. These animals are of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. AARD-WOLF (earth- wolf), a South and East African carni- vorous mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites. AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.), whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-9 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 172 sq. m. and vineyards 8-2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein- felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990 Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im- portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants). Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g. Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes of the civil war called the " Sonderbund War," in 1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla- ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every i zoo inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum" exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of " initiative " in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 10 members'to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000, while the two Slander ate are (since 1904) elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes. In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, named the Freie Amter or " free bailiwicks " (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as " subject lands" by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re- mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic) were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad- mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. See also Argoria (published by the Cantonal Historical Society), Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische Slrohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt. Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904-1906; W. Merz and F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant. Argau, 3 vols., Aarau, 1898-1905; J. Miiller, Der Aargau, 2. vols., Zurich, 1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthiimer, Aarau, 1877; E. Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.) AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from all AARON AASEN parts of the country. The harbour is good and safe, and agricul- tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports. The cathedral of the I3th century (extensively restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur- esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander- borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951. AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest- hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of Egypt (see EXODUS ; MOSES) . The greater part of his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist- ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the " mount of God " (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he plays onlya secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's court. After the "exodus" from Egypt a striking account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount (Ex. xxiv. i seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut. ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com- pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kadesh " holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3 ; cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ; the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 ; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter- onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. ; for parallels see Gray, comm. ad loc., p. 217). The latter story illus- trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of priestly ritual : the old account of Korah's revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (6) the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known after the grandson as the " hill of Phinehas " (Josh. xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of either. The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note- worthy, and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (l Chron. iv. 17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi- tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) is based upon Aron, " ark " (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. N. Land), it must be placed in a line with the other un-Hebraic and difficult names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood, see the articles LEVITES and PRIEST. (S. A. C.) AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering plants (" hag taper," " golden rod," &c.). In archi- tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8). AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele- brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France. He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin. He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be- came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis- played so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and lexico- grapher, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on the sth of August 1813. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm- work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore- sen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the Sondmore language ( 1 843) . His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un- disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Nor- wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official AB ABACUS language in the place of Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used ; one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Chris- tiania, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch- word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations ; and the Storthing conscious of the national importance of his work treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public honours. (E. G.) AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to the period of the isth of July to the ijth of August. The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar (586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70). ABA. (i) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu- factured in Bulgaria; (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs. ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of classical writers), a nomad tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them- selves " sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian desert. They inter- married with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian invasion (A.D. 1820-1822). They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts. The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary " chief." Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a por- tion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued con tact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, To- Bedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before strangers, as they beh'eve that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile have much fellah blood in them. As a tribe they claim an Arab origin, apparently through their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but small: the average height is little more than 5 ft., except in the sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous and faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after the British occupation of Egypt. Their chief settlements are in Nubia, ;where they live in villages and employ themselves in agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal- burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi- ally in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times. They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or their " mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious, believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1898) many " friendlies " were recruited from the tribe. For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, HADEN- DOA, KABBABISH; and the following authorities: Sir F. R. Win- gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1891) ; Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Rus- segger, Die Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.) ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis, which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). ABACUS (Gr. a/k, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailloir), in archi- tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi- trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. In later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes. In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep- tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle) ; and the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin- thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the same was retained in France during the medieval period; but in England, in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded abacus was introduced, which in the I4th and isth cen- turies was transformed into an octagonal one. The diminutive of Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers or squares of atessellated pavement. " Abacus " is also the name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical calculations; being used as counters. Fig. FIG. i. Roman Abacus. pebbles, i shows bits of bone or coins a Roman abacus taken ABADDON ABANDONMENT 6 302 715408 FIG. 2. Chinese Swan-Pan. from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi- cates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the shorter bars denote fives, five units, five tens, &c. The rod 6 and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces ; and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles the Roman abacus in. its construction and use. Computations are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory run- ning on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board, fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools. The name of "abacus" is also given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the " logical machine," analogous to the mathematical abacus. It is constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of logical terms with their nega- tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems. These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments of the " logical slate," on which were written in vertical columns all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a definite number of terms. These were com- pared with any given premises, and those which were incom- patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given series of premises. The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S. Jevons (Element. Lessons in Logic, c. xxiii.), John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883). ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning " destruction." In poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under- world or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. ji). In Rev. ix. n Abaddon ("AjSoSScoy) is used of hell personified, the prince of the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon (q.v.), the " destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- padie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shamayim (" heaven "), and makom (" place ") among the Rabbins, are used of God. ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of Pars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former and 1 70 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele- graph and post offices, and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear and box trees. ABAE ("Af3sely built close to the gate. After a short prayer, the abbot com- mitted the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he i8 ABBEY might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate- house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At H, also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot's house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from the base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above (M), communicating with the south transept of the church. At L was the staircase to the dormitory. The small cloister is at W, where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At R we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is sur- rounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches, FIG. 8 Bird's-eye view of Citeaux. I. a. A. Cross. H. Abbot's house. R. Infirmary. 3. B. Gate-house. I. Kitchen. S. Doortothechurch 4- C. Almonry. K. Refectory. for the lay bro- 5. I). Chapel. L. Staircase to dor- thers. 6. E. Inner gate-house. mitory. T. Base court. 7- F. Stable. M Dormitory. V. Great cloister. 8. G. Dormitory of lay N. Church. W Small cloister. brethren. P. Library. X. Boundary wall. 9- through which streams of water are introduced. It will be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has a square end instead of the usual apse. The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low. The windows throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order. The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such ex- tensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall, Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same plan, with slight local variations. As an example, we give the ground- plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one of the best pre- served. The church here is of the Cistercian type, with a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2). The whole is of the most studied plainness. The windows are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium. The cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house (5), between which and the south transept is a small sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments, one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this whole range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the church. At the other end were the necessaries. On the south side of the cloister we have the re- mains of the old refectory (n), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west, and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual in Cistercian houses, from north to south. Adjacent to this apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry and buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory entrance. The western side of the cloister is, as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the .i.-\i>-.'.X.;.-- [. 8 -.X.; .Xj :- !.X.'.X FIG. 9. Kirkstall Abbey, ' Church. Chapels. Sacristy. Cloister. Chapter-house. Parlour. Punishment cell (?). Cellars, with dormitories for conversi over. Guest-house. Yorkshire (Cistercian). 10. Common room. 11. Old refectory. 12. New refectory. 13. Kitchen court. 14. Calefactory or day-room. 15. Kitchen and offices. 16-19. Uncertain ; perhaps offices connected with the in- firmary. 20. I nfirmary or abbot's house. south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable extent. These have been identified either with the hospitium or with the abbot's house, but they, occupy the position in which the infir- mary is more usually found. The hall was a very spacious apart- ment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and the river to the south. The abbey mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west. The mill- pool may be distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream. Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England. But the earlier buildings received considerable additions and alterations in the later period of the order, causing deviations from the strict Cistercian type. The church stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the ABBEY buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three- aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk. FIG. 10. Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. A. Naveof thechurch. N. Cellar. Z. Gate-house. B. Transept. C. Chapels. O. Brewhouse. P. Prisons. ABBOT'S HOUSE. D. Tower. Q. Kitchen. i. Passage. E. Sacristy. R. Offices. 2. Great hall. F. Choir. S. Refectory. 3. Refectory. G. Chapel of nine T. Buttery. 4. Buttery. altars. U. Cellars and store- 5. Storehouse. H. Cloister. houses. 6. Chapel. I. Chapter-house. V. Necessary. 7. Kitchen. K. Base court. W. Infirmary (?). 8. Ashpit. L. Calefactory. X. Guest-houses. 9. Yard. M. Water-course. Y. Mill bridge. 10. Kitchen tank. Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted sub- structure (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi above. This building extended across the river. At its S.W. corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above the swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept. As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX). We may also call attention to the greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220-1247, and to the tower (D), added not long before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very unusual position at the north- ern end of the north transept. The abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of this class of buildings in the king- dom, stands south to the east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by the kitchen court (K), surrounded by the ordinary domestic offices. A considerable portion of this house was erected on arches over the Skell. The size and character of this house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern simplicity of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval times, measur- ing 170 ft. by 70 ft. Like the hall in the castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for the designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or chapel, 465 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen (7), 50 ft. by 38 ft. The whole arrangements and character of the building bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by vows to a life of poverty and self-denying toil. In the words of Dean Milman, " the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the realm." (Lat. Christ, vol. iii. p. 330.) The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiari- ties. This order had its first seat in England at Col- chester, where a house for Austin canons was founded * ustla Canons. about A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, &c., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and Lanercost. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is re- markable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establish- ment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. The Premonsiratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. 1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy in the diocese of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long 20 ABBEY maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding build- ings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each tran- sept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is FIG. II. St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral). H. Kitchen. I. Kitchen court. K. Cellars. L. Abbot's hall. P. Abbot's gate way. R. Infirmary. S. Friars' lodging. T. King's hall. V. Guest-house. W. Abbey gateway. X. Barns, stables, &c Y. Lavatory. A. Church. B. Great cloister. C. Little cloister. D. Chapter-house. E. Calefactory. F. Refectory. G. Parlour. not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; there- fore they built their church like a long room. The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrange- ment of a monastic institution. The principle of this order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establish- ments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive sim- plicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnifi- cence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter -house, as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet-le-Duc. The whole establishment is surrounded by a wall, furnished at in- tervals with watch towers(R) . The enclosure is divided into two courts, Clermont f which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of the monks (I) open, is much the larger. The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from B, the monks' choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X) these buildings occupying their normal position and the chapel of Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the re- fectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister. To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the side chapels (M ) , we find the cell of the sub-prior (a) , with its garden. The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, im- mediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gate- way of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). At Z is the prison. (In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great A. Church. B. Monks' choir. C. Prior's garden. D. Great cloister. E. Chapter-house. F. Passage. G. Prior's lodg- ings. H. Dovecot. I. Cells. K. Chapel of Pont- gibaud. L. Sacristy. M. Chapel. N. Stables. O. Gateway. P. Guest-cham- bers. Q. Barns and granaries. R. Watch-tower. S. Little cloister. T. Bakehouse. V. Kitchen. X. Refectory. Y. Cemetery. Z. Prison. a. Cell of sub- prior. b. Garden of do. FIG. 12. Carthusian monastery of Clermont. cloister is 1 8. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room (C), warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. H is the garden, cujtivated by the occupant of the cell. At K is the wood-house. F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end. The above arrangements are found with scarcely any varia- tion in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, re- fectory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own ABBEY 21 garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground -floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond. By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch an arrange- ment belonging to all Carthusian houses exists at Miraflores, .near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. A. Cloister gallery. B. Corridor. C. Living-room. D. Sleeping-room. E. Closets. F. Covered walk. G. Necessary. H. Garden. I. Hatch. K. Wood-house. FIG. 13. Carthusian cell, Clermont. There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Rich- mond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 1414. The dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been remarkably large. The great court measured 300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; the hall was no ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The most celebrated historically is the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which is preserved by the famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming. An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Domini- cans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the i3th century, when the Benedictines, together with their various reformed branches, had terminated their active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new re- ligious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrange- ment, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in the I4th and isth centuries, tall, slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister stretched across the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those Qi OUC esier. of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south the dormitory of the i3th century. This is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower be- tween the nave and the choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey Hulne. of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240. The church is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory over. The pripr's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: " The friars who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted Cetfj _ on some outlying estate. As an example, we may refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house, were called Obedientiae. The plan given by 22 ABBON OF FLEURY ABBOT Viollet-le-Duc of the Priory of St Jean des Bans Hommes, a Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised every essential feature of a monastery, chapel, cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped ac- cording to the recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten- tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm- servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They gave employment to a body of coniiersi and labourers under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller the granges, like their parent institutions, affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers. AUTHORITIES. Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, Architecture monas- tique (1852-1856) ; Vipllet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnee de I'archi- lecture fran$aise; Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.) ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945- 1004), a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was especially proficient in science as known in his time. He spent two years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire (988). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious (986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in 1004, in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an Epitome de vilis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Palrologia Latino, vol. 139). His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in which much of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great import- ance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially with reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139). See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885) ; Cuissard-Gaucheron, " L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du io e siecle," in Memoires de la socicte archeol. de I'Orleanais, xiv. (Orleans, 1875) ; A. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France. ABBOT, EZRA (1810-1884), American biblical scholar, was born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April 1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 1847, at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until 1856. He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic cata- logue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages and the textual criticism of the New Testament, though his work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and published separately in 1864. His publications, though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concord- ances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises, &c.; but he took a more conspicuous and more personal part in the preparation (with the Baptist scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition of Dr (afterwards Sir) William Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867-1870), to which he contri- buted more than 400 articles besides greatly improving the bibliographical completeness of the work; was an efficient member of the American revision committee employed in connexion with the Revised Version (1881-1885) f tne King James Bible; and aided in the preparation of Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of Tischendorf. His principal single production, representing his scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was The Author- ship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second edition, by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a lecture, and in spite of the compression due to its form, up to that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evi- dence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the com- pletes! treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel. Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of March 1884. See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884). ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of Canterbury, was born on the igth of October 1562, at Guildford in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied, and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master of University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester in 1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university, and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James I.) in this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of Canterbury. His puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treat- ment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declara- tion permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the elector palatine and the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected mar- riage of the prince of Wales with the infanta of Spain. This policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melan- choly. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the king gave a casting vote in the archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the arch- bishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of Charles I. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February 1626-1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the sth of August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of 300 a year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists. He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being ABBOT his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions. The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England. ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as " The Puritan," has been oddly and persistently mistaken for others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writ- ings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603-1604, his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his early life and training nothing is known. He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house against Princes Rupert and Maurice during the civil war. As a layman, and nevertheless a theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period. The terseness of his Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators. His Vindiciae Sabbatki (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648. AUTHORITIES. MS. collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington ; Dug- dale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730, p. 1099 ; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), ii. 141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath. ABBOT, ROBERT (is88?-i662?), English Puritan divine. Noted as this worthy was in his own time, and representative in various ways, he has often since been confounded with others, e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles dedi- catory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepc, out Sinne and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had " received all " his " worldly maintenance," as well as " best earthly countenance " and " fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent. He had received his education at Cambridge, where he pro- ceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full." The former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or perhaps 1587-1588 the " Armada " year as his birth-time; the latter to 1616- 1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as formerly " assistant to a reverend divine . . . now with God," and the name on the margin is " Master Haiward of Wool Church (Dorset)." This was doubt- less previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where his parish- ioners were as his own " sons and daughters " to him. Yet, Puritan though he was, he was extremely and often unfairly antagonistic to Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook until 1643, when, Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices, he chose the very inferior living of South- wick, Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards succeeded the " extruded " Udall of St Austin's, London, where according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 1657. He disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662. Robert Abbot's books are conspicuous amongst the productions of his time by their terseness and variety. In addition to those mentioned above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her Children (1646), and A Christian Family builded by God, or Direc- tions for Governors of Families (1653). AUTHORITIES. Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings, ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. ii. 218, which confuses him most oddly of all with one of the ejected ministers of 1662. ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843), English actor, was born in Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his first decided success. He was Pylades to Macready's Orestes in Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made his first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the parts of Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius (1820) and of Modus in his Hunchback (1832). In 1827 he organized the com- pany, including Macready and Miss Smithson, which acted Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London he played Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of Abbot's melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great (1817) and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at Covent Garden. He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland. ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in i3th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the i?th century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or archimandrite. The title had its origin in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome, who denounced the custom on the ground that Christ had said, " Call no man father on earth " (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the superior. The name "abbot/' though general in the West, was never universal. Among the Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus, "provost," and Prior; among the Francis- cans, Custos, " guardian "; and by the monks of Camaldoli, Major. In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Some- times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St Benedict, which, until the reform of Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevit- able, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized. New styles were devised to express this new relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called abbas abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles abbas generalis, or magister or minister generalis. Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the " doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church (Novellae, 133, c. ii.). This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova- tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not pres- byters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century, and partially so up to the nth. Ecclesiastical councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that held at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, c. A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting ABBOT bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times. Abbots were permitted by the second council of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks, almost without exception, took holy orders. Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the nth century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Aries, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, intro- duced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 1 2th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese. In the i2th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the nth century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monas- tery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Col- chester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winch- combe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in A.D. 1489 permitted by Innocent IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserv- ing to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the bene- diction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required; but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually en- croached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the mem- bers of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eusloch. de custod. virgin.). So despotic did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charle- magne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of ex- communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess. The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot con- descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the centre of the ABBOTSFORD high table, and was served on silver plate, and sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the loth century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. 1 This was a necessary consequence of their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare- hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur- dered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of too persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendome were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi. Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensorcs, abbacomites, abbates laid, abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation, by which to meet a contemporary emergency the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the em- perors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam. During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the loth century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of 1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is charged by Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis). When the great reform of the nth century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot con- tinued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the I3th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the i2th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, benejiciarii, for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English " Father," being loosely applied to all who have re- ceived the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), to appoint abbis commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expecta- tion of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed abbes de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbes de sainte esptrance, abbes of St Hope came to hold a recognized position. The connexion many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbe. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt) is sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction, and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot, prior and the " convent " of canons (Stiftsherren). See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du Cange, Glossarium med. et inf. Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie Robertson, Hist, of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond Martene, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. F. R. de Montalembert, Les moines d'occident depuis S. Benott jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860-1877) ; Achille Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franqaises (Par. 1892). (E. V. ; W. A. P.) ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott, situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose, Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly i m. from Abbotsford Ferry station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk and Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100 acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy) Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was added to from time to time, the last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield 26 ABBOTT (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in ex- change for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart , J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the " Abbotsford Club," a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's- honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country. ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT (1838- ), English school- master and theologian, was born on the 2Oth of December 1838. He was educated at the City of London school and at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of twenty- six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired in 1889, and devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr Abbott's liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his educational views and in his books. His Shakespearian Gram- mar (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology. In 1885 he published a life of Francis Bacon. His theo- logical writings include three anonymously published religious romances Philochristus (1878), Onesimus (1882), Silanus ( 1 906) . More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological discussion The Kernel and the Husk (1886), Fhilomythus (1891), his book on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his article " The Gospels " in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (i8g8),Johannine Vocabu- lary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906). His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known tutor of Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of Greece. ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name, and toured extensively in the United States, where she had a great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. Wetherell. She died at Salt Lake City on the sth of January 1891. ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for the young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the I4th of November 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820; studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848 of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York City. He was a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, brief histories and biographies, and religious books for the general reader, and a few works in popular science. He died on the 3ist of October 1879 at Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time since 1839, and where his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott founded in 1844 the Abbott School, popularly called " Little Blue." Jacob Abbott's " Rollo Books "Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play, Rollo in Europe, &c. (28 vols.) are the best known of his writings, having as their chief characters a representative boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two generations of young American readers a service not unlike that performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of Evenings at Home, Sandford and Merlon, and the Parent's Assistant. Of his other writings (he produced more than two hundred volumes in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10 vols.), twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series of thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and the Young Christian, all of which had enormous circulations. His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin Abbott (1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott (q.v.), and Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also well-known authors. See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward Abbott (New York, 1882), with a bibliography of his works. ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the i8th of September 1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of a partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very readable History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are treated with some skill in arrangement, but with unfailing adulation. Dr Abbott graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844, when he retired from the ministry, preached successively at Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, Massachusetts. He died at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the I7th of June 1877. He was a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of his- tories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in history. In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction, his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother, Jacob Abbott. ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author, was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the i8th of December 1835, the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, was ordained a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor of a church inTerre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to 1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedman's) Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote him- self to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Maga- zine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and was co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union, renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian and nearly Unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his published works also. His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869) ; Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study in Human Nature (1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Christianity (Lowell Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Chris- tianity and Social Problems (1897) ; Life and Letters of Paul (1898) ; ABBOTTABAD ABBREVIATION 27 The Life that Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights of Man (1901) ; Henry Ward Beecher (1903) ; The Christian Ministry (1905); The Personality of Cod (1905); Industrial Problems (1905); and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907). He edited Sermons of Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868). ABBOTTABAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above sea- level, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the Hazara district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after its founder, Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district after the annexa- tion of the Punjab. It is an important military cantonment and sanatorium, being the headquarters of a brigade in the second division of the northern army corps. In 1901 the population of the town and cantonment was 7764. ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening; more particularly, an " abbreviation " is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single words and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and recognized, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions (see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and very many are in use at the present time. A distinction is to be observed between abbreviations and the contractions that are frequently to be met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books, whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary sym- bols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution for a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a superlative. I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS. The following list contains a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the writings and inscriptions of the Romans: A. A. Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, Antique, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, Aut. A.A. Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum. AA. August!. AAA. Augusti tres. A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo. 1 A.A.V. Alter ambove. A.C. Acta causa, Alius civis. A.D. Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum. A.D.A. Ad dandos agros. AED. Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas. AEM. and AIM. Aemilius, Aemilia. AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico. A-F. Actum fide, Auli filius. AG. Ager, Ago, Agrippa. A.G. Animo grato, Aulus Gellius. A.L.AE. and A.L.E. Arbitrium litis aestimandae. A.M. and A.MILL.Ad milliarium. AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante. ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona. ANT. Ante, Antonius. A.O. Alii pmnes, Amico optimo. AP. Appius, Apud. A.P. Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate. A.P.F. Auro (or argento) publico feriundo. A.P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus. A.P.R.C. Anno post Romam conditam. ARG. Argentum. AR.V.V.D.D. Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono dedit. AT. A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER. A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare opprtere. AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius. A.V. Annos vixit. A.V.C. Ab urbe condita. AVG. Augur, Augustus. AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres. AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provincial Romanorum. B. B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium, Bonus, Brutus, Bustum. B. for V. Berna Bivus, Bixit. B.A. Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis. BB. or B.B. Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus. B.D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum. B.DD. Bonis deabus. 1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales. B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti. B.F. Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum. g.J. Bona femina, Bona filia. B.H. Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres. B.I. Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium. B.M. Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti. B.N. Bona npstra, Bonum nomen. BN.H.I. Bona hie invenies. B.P. Bona paterna, Bonorum pptestas, Bonum publicum. Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita. B.RP.N. Bono reipublicae natus. BRT. Britannicus. B.T. Bonorum tutor, Breyi tempore. B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir. B.V.V. Balnea vina Venus. BX. Bixit, for vixit. C. C. Caesar, Caius, Caput, Causa, Censor,Civis, Cohors, Colonia , Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, Custos. , C. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con. C.B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui bono. C.C. Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con- silium cepit, Curiae consulto. C.C.C. Calumniae cavendae causa. C.C.F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius. CC.VV. Clarissimi viri. C.D. Caesaris decreto, Caius Decius, Comitialibus diebus. CES. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores. Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum. C.H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum. C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia. CL.V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit. C.M. Caius Marius, Causa mortis. CN. Cnaeus. COH. Coheres, Cohors. COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna. COLL. Collega, Colpni, Coloniae. COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum. CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis. COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus. COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules. C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit ponendum. C.R. Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum. Caesar, Communis, Consul. C.V. Clarissimus or Consularis vir. CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia. D. D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio, Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, Donum. D.C. Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar. D.D. Dea Dia.Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono dedit. D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit. D.E.R. De ea re. DES. Designatus. D.I. Dedit imperatpr, Diis immprtalibus, Diis inferis. D.I.M. Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus. D.M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo. D.O.M. Deo Optimo Maximo. D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia sua. E. Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex. EG. Aeger, Egit, Egregius. E.M. Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum. EQ.M. Equitum magister. E.R.A. Ea res agitur. F. F. Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix, Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit, Functus. F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissum, Fiduciae causa. F.D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit. F.F.F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato. FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius. F.L. Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber. FR. Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius. F.R. Forum Romanum. G. G. Gaius ( = Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemina, Gens, Gesta, Gratia. G.F. Gemina fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F, Gemina pia fidelis. ABBREVIATION GL. Gloria. GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus ( = Cnaeus). G.P.R. Genio populi Romani. H. H. Habet, Heres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora. HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules. H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco. H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta raulier, Hora mala. H.S.E. Hie sepultus est, Hie situs est. H.V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir. I. I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus. IA. . Jam, Intra. I.C. Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile. ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei. I.D.M. Jovi deo magno. I.F. In foro, In fronte. I.H. Jacet hie, In honestatem, Justus homo. IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa. IMP. Imperator, Imperium. I.O.M. Jovi optimo maximo. I. P. In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona. I.S.V.P. Impensa sua vivus posuit. K. K. Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra. K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae. L. L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius, Lucius, Ludus. LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus. L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum. LEG. Legatus, Legio. LIB. Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius. LL. Leges, Libentissime, Liberti. L.M. Libens merito, Locus monument!. L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer. LVD. Ludus. LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit. M. M. Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marius, Marti, Mater,Memoria,Mensis, Miles, Monumentum, Mortuus, Mucius, Mulier. M'. Manius. M.D. Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit. MES. Mensis. MESS. Menses. M.F. Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit. M.I. Matri Idaeae, Matri Isidi, Maximo Jovi. MNT.andMON. Moneta. M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit. M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum. MVN. Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC. M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit. N. N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero, Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Nume- rius, Numerus, Nummus. NEP. Nepos, Neptunus. N.F.C. Nostrae fidei commissum. Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe. N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir. NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum. NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris. N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parte diei), Non potest. O. O. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa. OB. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis. O.C.S. Ob cives servatps. O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus. O.H.S.S. Ossa hie sita sunt. OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum. O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant. P. P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius, Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor, Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer. P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia consti- tuta, Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate censoria. Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius. P.M. Piae memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus. P.P. Pater patratus,Pater patriae,Pecunia publica.Praepositus, Primipilus, Propraetor. PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps. Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus. P.R.C. Post Romam conditam. PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii. Propraetor. P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae saluti. P.V. Pia victrix, Praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir. Q. Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis, Quintus, Quirites. 8.D.R. Qua de re. .I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c. 8Q. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque. .R. Quaestor reipublicae. R. R. Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus, Rufus, Rursus. R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis. RESP. and RP. Respublica. RET. P. and RP. Retro pedes. S. S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius, Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, Suus. SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum. S.C. Senatus cpnsultum. S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam dedit. S.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo. SER. Servius, Servus. S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis. SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine. Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia. S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus. S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scriptum. S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo. T. T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, Tutor. TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius. TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus. T.F. Testamentum fecit.Titi filius,Titulum fecit.Titus Flavius. TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae. T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis. TVL. Tullius, Tufius. V. V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum. V.A. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annps. V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis. V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est. V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit. V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit. V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit. II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS. Of the different kinds of abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are examples : A.M. Ave Maria. B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. CC. Carissimus (also plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum. D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux. D.N.PP. Dominus noster Papa. FF. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II). I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus. I.D.N. In Dei nomine. KK. Karissimus (or -mi). MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus. O.S.B. Ordmis Sancti Benedicti. PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus. R.F. Rex Francorum. R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus. S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas. S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia. S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria. S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium. S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo. V. Venerabilis, Venerandus. V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas. III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE. The import of these will often be readily understood from the connexion in which they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture, months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like " Mr," &c. The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may be conveniently classified under the following headings: ABBREVIATION 29 I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS. A.A. Associate of Arts. A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts. A.D.C. Aide-de-Camp. A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy. A.R.I. B. A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects. A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. B.A. Bachelor of Arts. Bart. Baronet. B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. B.LL. Bachelor of Laws. B.Sc. Bachelor of Science. C. Chairman. C.A. Chartered Accountant. C.B. Companion of the Bath. C.E. Civil Engineer. C.I.E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire. C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery. C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George. C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India. D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. D.D. Doctor of Divinity. D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature. D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford). D.Sc. Doctor of Science. D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order. Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York. 1 F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith. F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow). F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians in Ireland. F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society. P.M. Field Marshal. F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society. F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society. F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. F.R.I. B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects. F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover. G.C.I. E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire. G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George. G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India. G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order. His or Her Highness. His or Her Imperial Highness. His or Her Imperial Majesty. His or Her Majesty. His or Her Royal Highness. His or Her Serene Highness. Judge. (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor), Doctor of Canon or Civil Law. (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law. Justice of the Peace. King's Counsel. Knight Commander of the Bath. Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire. H.H. H.I.H. H.I.M. H.M. H.R.H. H.S.H. jic.D. J.U.D. K P C. K.C.B. K.C.I.E. K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George. K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India. K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order. K.G. Knight of the Garter. K.P. Knight of St Patrick. K.T. Knight of the Thistle. L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall. L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor. L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. 1 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes for his surname the name of his see ; thus the prelates of Canterbury, York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves with their initials (Christian names only), followed by Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. (sometimes London.), &c. L.J. Lord Justice. L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts. LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws. LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws. L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. M.A. Master of Arts. M.B. . (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine. M.C. Member of Congress. M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers. M.P. Member of Parliament. M.R. Master of the Rolls. M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians. M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M.R.I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mus.B. Bachelor of Music. Mus.D. Doctor of Music. M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order. N.P. Notary Public. O.M. Order of Merit. P.C. Privy Councillor. Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. P.P. Parish Priest. P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy. R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen. R. & I. Rex et Imperator. R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery. R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music. R.E. Royal Engineers. Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. R.M. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate. R.N. Royal Navy. S. or St. Saint. S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland] . S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred Theology. V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross. V.G. Vicar-General. V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland] . Equivalent to Attorney. 2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 2 Ib. or Ib. (libra), pound (weight). m. or mi. mile, minute. i>l. minim. mo. month. na. nail. oz. ounce. pk. peck. po. pole. pt. pint. q. (quadrans), farthing. qr. quarter. qt. quart. ro. rood. Rs. 3 rupees. s. or/ (solidus), shilling. s. or sec. second. sc. or scr. scruple^ sq. ft. &c. square foot, &c. St. stone. yd. yard. ac. acre, bar. barrel, bus. bushel, c. cent. c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c. cwt. hundredweight. d. (denarius), penny, deg. degree. dr. drachm or dram, dwt. pennyweight, f. franc, fl. florin. ft. foot, fur. furlong, gal. gallon, gr. grain, h. or hr. hour, hhd. hogshead, in. inch, kilo, kilometre. L., 2 , 2 or /. (libra), pound (money). 3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. A. Accepted. A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ. ace., a/c. or acct. Account. A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universe, 4 or Alles Erdreich 1st Oesterreich Unterthan. Act. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age. A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan era). 2 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same way; e.g. ' " for "degrees, minutes, seconds " (circular measure); ?i 3. 3 f r "ounces, drachms, scruples." | is probably to be traced to the written form of the z in "oz." * These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar) are placed before their amounts. 4 It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. ABBREVIATORS ABDALLATIF A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world. A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon. Anon. Anonymous. A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building of the city (i.e. Rome). A.V. Authorized version of the Bible. b. born. B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary. B.C. Before Christ. c. circa, about. C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter. C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer. cent. 1 (Centum), A hundred, frequently 100. Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare. Ch. or Chap. Chapter. C.M.S. Church Missionary Society. Co. Company, County. C.O.D. Cash on Delivery. Cr. Creditor. curt. Current, the present month. d. died. D.G. (Dei gratia). By the grace of God. Do. Ditto, the same. D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest. Dr. Debtor. D.V. (Deo volente), God willing. E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted. e.g. (Exempli gratia), For example, etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth. Ex. Example. F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer. Fee. (Fecit), He made (or did) it. fl. Flourished. Fo. or Fol. Folio, f.o.b. Free on board. G.P.O. General Post Office. H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service. Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place. Id. (Idem), The same. i.e. (Id est). That is. I.H.S. A symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters of the Greek (I H 2] ; the correct origin was lost sight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Sahator, the Latin " h " and Greek long " e " being confused. I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God. Inf. (Infra), Below. Inst. Instant, the present month. I.O.U. I owe you. i.q. (Idem quod). The same as. K.T.\. (KO! TO. Xourd), Et caetera, and the rest. L. or Lib. (Liber), Book. Lat. Latitude. I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited. Lon. or Long. Longitude. L.S. (Locus sigilh). The place of the seal. Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice. North Britain (i.e. Scotland). No date. (Nemine contrad icente) , No one contradicting. MS. N.B. N.B. N.D. nem. con. No. N.S. N.T. ob. Obs. (Numero), Number. New Style. New Testament. (Obiit), Died. Obsolete. O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service. O.S. Old Style. O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines). O.T. Old Testament. P. Page. Pp. Pages. | (Per), For; e.g. $ Ib., For one pound. Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it. P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon. P.O. Post Office, Postal Order. P.O.O. Post Office Order. P.P,C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave. P.R. Prize-ring. prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month. P.S. Postscript. Pt. Part. p.t. or pro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time. P.T.O. Please turn over. Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question. q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say; as much as to say. Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. "Per cent." is often signified by%, a form traceable to"ioo.' q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is sufficient. q.v. (Quod vide), Which see. R. or 5. (Recipe), T^ke. V ( = r. for radix), The sign of the square root. R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace!). May he rest in peace! R.S.V.P. (Respondez s'il vous plait), Please reply. sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say. Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it. S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. seq.or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequentia), The following. S.J. Society of Jesus. s.p. (Sine prole), Without offspring. S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.T.D. ) S.T.B. Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology. S.T.L. ) Sup. (Supra), Above. s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading). T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin. ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month. U.S. United States. U.S.A. United States of America. v. (Versus), Against. v. or vid. (Vide), See. viz. (Videlicet), Namely- Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch. See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai's Tractatus de Sifjis Veterum ; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- narum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des A brevia- tions (3rd ed. 1866); Campelli, Dizionario di Abbreviature (1899). ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery, whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first men- tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minori. The name was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges. They were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans- ferred to the protonotarii apostolici participates . (See CURIA ROMANA.) ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1 162. An interesting memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi- tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had long cherished to converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem. He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal- latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works mostly on medicine which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, ABD-AR-RAHMAN his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810. ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them being rulers of great capacity. ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom- medan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay- yad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri- tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755 he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts be- tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd- ar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on the 1 6th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd- ar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar- rahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in Spain for two centuries and a half. ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly memorable for having included the story of the " Martyrs of Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious history of the middle ages. ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-96^ was the greatest and the most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the general history of his reign see SPAIN, History) . He ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a century. His life was so completely identified with the govern- ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies some passages which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor, Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads. His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly. Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele- ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in- cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup- porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content with the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph on the i6th of January 929, and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom- medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see SPAIN, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is well to remember that he administered well not by means of but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex- cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordova, was built by his predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of Gorze, who has left in his Vila an incomplete account of his embassy (in Pertz, Man. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. ABD-EL-KADER could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the " omnia fui, el nil expedit " of Septimius Severus. In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histotre des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.) ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el- Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in- timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd- el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez, this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country. The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for support and protection against the inroads of France. On the advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensuie a condition of affairs which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in the control of the country, and would promote its welfare, which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France. In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers against his brother. From France he accepted the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid. After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re- store his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com- pletely overthrown (August igth) when near that city, and Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas- ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet, peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.) ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descend- ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el- Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag- dad events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa- tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey. Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels, Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria. The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is given under ALGERIA. To the beginning of 1842 the contest went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master. Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per- suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the French. On the 2ist of December 1847, the amir gave himself up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was re- leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis- turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the Moslems of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the French government, which granted the amir a pension of 4000, bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel d I 'intelligent. Avis & I'indifffrent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus on the 26th of May 1883. See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807-1883 (Paris [1899]); Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa vie polilique et militaire (Paris, 1863) ; Col. C. H. Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867). ABDERA ABDOMEN 33 ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district in- habited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re- lating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267. ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda- tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke (Herod, i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century. The air of Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon. Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel); Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 21 1 ; K. F. Hermann, Ges. Abh. 90-111, 370 ff. ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held. In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other- wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, " that King James II. having endea- voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor- able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications of later times: A.D. Benedict IX., pope 1048 Stephen II. of Hungary 1131 Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg 1169 Ladislaus III. of Poland 1206 Celestine V., pope . Dec. 13, 1294 John Baliol of Scotland 1296 John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East .... 1355 Richard II. of England Sept. 29, 1399 John XXIII., pope 1415 Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . 1439 Murad II. .Ottoman Sultan 1444 and 1445 Charles V., emperor 1556 Christina of Sweden '654 John Casimir of Poland 1668 James II. of England Frederick Augustus of Poland .... Philip V. of Spain Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia .... Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey .... Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) Stanislaus II. of Poland Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia .... Charles IV. of Spain Joseph Bonaparte of Naples Gustavus IV. of Sweden Louis Bonaparte of Holland Napoleon I., French Emperor Victor Emanuel of Sardinia Charles X. of France Pedro of Brazil J Miguel of Portgual William I. of Holland Louis Philippe, king of the French Louis Charles of Bavaria Ferdinand of Austria Charles Albert of Sardinia A.D. 1688 1704 1724 1730 1730 1759 1795 June 4, 1802 Mar. 19, 1808 June 6, 1808 Mar. 29, 1809 July 2, 1810 April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815 , Mar. 13, 1821 Aug. 2, 1830 April 7, 1831 May 26, 1834 Oct. 7, 1840 Feb. 24, 1848 Mar. 21, 1848 Dec. 2, 1848 Mar. 23, 1849 I. 2 Leopold II. of Tuscany July 21, 1859 Isabella II. of Spain June 25, 1870 Amadeus I. of Spain Feb. 11,1873 Alexander of Bulgaria Sept. 7, 1886 Milan of Servia Mar. 6, 1889 ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana- tomical details the articles ALIMENTARY CANAL, and ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.) ABDOMINAL SURGERY. The diseases affecting this region are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term " ab- dominal surgery " covers generally the operations which involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.) ; but here the general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed. Exploratory Laparotomy. In many cases of serious intra- abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad- vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized. It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such circumstances provided only it is done soon enough the successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter. An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless. It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself is helpless in these cases. Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela- tionship which exists between the public and the surgical pro- fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, " If a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the 1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. 5 34 ABDOMEN public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the " apothe- osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment of a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs. Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue to improve. A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti- fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse- quently " married " the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of a permanent communication between the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be- tween small and large intestine. The operative procedure goes by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma- nent working communication can be set up between the gall- bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine the last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest importance. But there is this against the method that some- times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last- named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal method of treatment. ^The cause of death in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of this stagnant fluid or, at any rate, who first suggested the proper method of treating it was Lawson Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation. Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of this " normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit. Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition. Gunshot Wounds of the Abdomen. If a revolver bullet passes through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being made for performing that operation on the first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the South African war of 1890-1902 showed that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere " expectancy," more than 50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab- domen had best not be interfered with. Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded. In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out if the belly^cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en- large the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly- cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the " toilet of the peritoneum " would be duly made, and a drainage-tube would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present time a large number of them are saved. Intussusception. This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by, ABDUCTION ABD-UL-HAMID II. 35 the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure a speculative method of treat- ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often one might almost say generally failed to do what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, and more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex- tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance. Cancer of the Intestine. With the introduction of aseptic methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. If the can- cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This operation of inguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab- dominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after- wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*) ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim. In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc- tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will, with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c., any woman of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, out of the possession and against the will of her parents or guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony. lie same act makes abduction without even any such intent a nisdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six- en is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the vill of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con- ent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged asonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura- tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland, where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice. ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Mahmud II., was born on the gth of February 1830, and suc- ceeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal in- terference in government affairs was not very marked, and extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of "bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875 and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes- sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867, being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal, and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi- nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the "Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on the 3oth of May 1876 was hailed with joy through- out Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him: Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha; Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born 1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, born 1872, died 1899. ABD-UL-HAMID I. 1(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how- ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (2ist July 1774), the most disastrous, especially in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con- clude. (See TURKEY.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged sixty-four. ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1842, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother Murad V., on the 3ist of August 1876. He accompanied his ABD-UL-MEJID uncle Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal developments. Default in the public funds and an empty treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms should be instituted. The international Conference which met at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu- tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers; Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main to British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this time the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders, was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con- sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid showed less than his usual Astuteness, and the resulting con- solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre- hension was entertained of the results of the union until it was seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in 1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con- ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and in concentrating the whole administration of the country into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks were dissatisfied, and from about 1890 the Armenians began a violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893 at Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out; the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threaten- ing acts of the victims, and extending over many months and throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of frontier; then a few months later Crete was taken over "en depot " by the Four Powers Germany and Austria not partici- pating, and Prince George of Greece was appointed their mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of the German emperor and empress. Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to over- whelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was en- couraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire often an obstacle to government were curtailed; the new railway to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to dis- tant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman population by a system of delation and espionage, and by whole- sale arrests ; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz. The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia (q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis. The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Com- mittee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see TURKEY : History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Con- stantinople (July 23), at once capitulated. On the 24th an trade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1875; next day, further irades abolished espionage and the censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On the loth of December the sultan opened the Turkish parlia- ment with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been " temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire." The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary ele- ments in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude to- wards the counter-revolution of the i3th of April, when an insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The com- mittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abd- ul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 37th of April his brother Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica. ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II. on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his children, so that his son received no better education than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constanti- nople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali; ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN 37 and the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alex- andria, where it was handed over by its commander, Ahmed Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See MEHEMET ALI.) In compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid set at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud had devoted himself. In November 1839 was proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhane, consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the close of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February 1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen opposition from the Mussulman governing classes and the ulema, or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were the reorganization of the army (1843-1844), the institution of a council of public instruc- tion (1846), the abolition of an odious arid unfairly imposed capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and various pro- visions for the better administration of the public service and for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of his times the disturbances and insurrections in different parts of his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war suc- cessfully carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England, France and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey (1853-1856) see TURKEY, and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others sought refuge in Turkey , after the failure of the Hungarian rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is to his credit, too, that he would hot allow the conspirators against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his ex- cessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his reign was begun, the reckless system of foreign loans, carried to excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey and, indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz. ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, 'amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844- 1901), was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of Dost Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in war the Barakzai family established their dynasty in the ruler- ship of Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863, Dost Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and zim Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died; and then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of Dost Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this war, which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes, he English War of the Roses at the end of the isth century, Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring nergy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of hese qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to Cabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere Ali threw Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in south Afghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reappear- ance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir Shere Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on loth May he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Shere Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867; and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan died, Azim Khan succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman as his governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shere Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulting in their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 1869, forced them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman pro- ceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869. This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governor- general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880 a report reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan; and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were pre- pared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent. After some negotiations, an interview took place between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government, who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. At the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he followed British advice in regard to his external relations. The evacua- tion of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881 the British troops also made over Kandahar to the new amir; but Ayub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppress- ing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887. In that year Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia; and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a collision between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth up, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment ABECEDARIANS ABEKEN and the forcible seizure of some debateable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was no sufficent reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the south-east. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his king- dom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be sup- ported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian govern- ment made ready for that contingency, the amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administra- tion. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure. From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly after- wards (1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul. In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of 'the boundary between north-eastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. In 1895 the amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan went in his stead. Abdur Rahman died on the ist of October 1001, being succeeded by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His govern- ment was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely sub- servient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like rail- ways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asiatic politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The amir received an annual subsidy from the British govern- ment of i8j lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to import muni- tions of 'war. In 1896 he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-ud- Din (Light of the nation and religion); and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on Jehad. His eldest son Habibullah Khan, with his brother Nasrullah Khan, was born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London, 1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B., G.C.S.I., edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (avols., London, 1900) ; At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895). (A. C. L.) ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme Anabaptists ( are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border, Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which from its central position is a landmark visible from many different parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's song, " O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland (1529). The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, 82 m. ; the Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m., and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire. The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft. above the sea, 25 m. long and \ to \ m. broad, lies some 8| m. S.W. of Ballater, and has Altnagiuthasach, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end. Loch Strathbeg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater. Geology. The greater part of the county is composed of crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the Dee and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most characteristic are (i) the black schists and phyllites, with calc- flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-east and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys above Braemar. Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and the Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse- quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn. The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter- head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli- manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate hornfels occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of Braemar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has been obtained from an exposure of limestone and. associated beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie, and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which, at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic action. Small outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence. The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the Dee and the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of Aberdeen. At a later date the local glaciers laid down materials on top of the red clay. The committee appointed by the British Association (Report for 1897, P- 333) proved that the Greensand, which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat, in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were derived are not now found in place in that part of Scotland, but Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aptien stage of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between Logic Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr) occurs beneath the peat. Flora and Fauna. The tops of the highest mountains have an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft. above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, &c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at 1300 ft. above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch, grow well, and Kraemar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing. The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at 1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Braemar, the deer forest being the most extensive in Scotland. Climate and Agriculture. The climate, except in the moun- tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature at Braemar is 43-6 F., and at Aberdeen 45-8. The mean yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 in. The summer climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft. above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines are in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop, wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed- ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in large numbers. Fisheries. A large fishing population in villages along the coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the next most important industry to agriculture, its development having ABERDEENSHIRE been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam trawlers. The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half and a third consists of herrings, amounts to 1,000,000. Had- docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans). The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in- cludes also three Kincardine'shire ports. The herring season for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon- fishings rod, net and stake-net on the Dee, Don, Ythan and Ugie. The average annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeen- shire is about 400 tons. Other Industries. Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work, brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, casting and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Deeside and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel- staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments, most of them on the Don near Aberdeen. The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite, which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else- where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded 40 to 50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite 1 (rough- dressed and polished), flax, woollen and .cotton goods, paper, combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle. Communications. From the south Aberdeen city is approached by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways, and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening up the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater by Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam) , from Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized roads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. above sea-level. Population and Government. In 1891 the population num- bered 284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 8 persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, 153,503), Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The Supreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen- shire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members. Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff, Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board juris- diction, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum, partly granted by the education department and partly con- tributed by local authorities from the "residue" grant, and ipport, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures in agriculture, fishery and other technical subjects, in addition to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to the university. The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny, active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon- strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for o or ,/for wh, d for t/i, &c. So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used. History. The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom Ptolemy called Taixali, the territory being named Taixalon. Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber- deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal. Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, or Kinnord, S m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical" circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century, and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the Pictish king Nectan in the 8th century undid most of the progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi- cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor- finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in the country Flemings who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming, and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex- ander I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally called Aberdon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re- ceived its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which date its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin, Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi- leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1 1 50. In the 1 2th and i3th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the Leslies, Freskins (ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets, Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the wars of the Scots independence, and made common cause with the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296 Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the ABERDOUR ABERFOYLE more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle. In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De- spite the seizure of Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306, Bruce's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred years after Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis- possessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself with some of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen- shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 1411. In the 1 5th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 an ^ earl of Huntly in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the first half of the i6th century, when their domains, already vast, were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp- vere, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation of King's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on behalf of the Catholics, to the influence of Lord James Stuart, afterwards the Regent Murray, but was defeated and killed at Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi- astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the affair called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however, soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under Cord. Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine. He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford. Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re- mained till 1659, and next year the Restoration was effusively hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable, hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be recognized as the national form of Church government. Her death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor, was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacobitism and episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical, though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte- nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a fortnight later James was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 1716 he was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic, though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward at Inverurie (23rd of December 1745). The duke of Cumberland relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and . commerce, which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most prosperous in Scotland. See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 1900); Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) ; Sir A. Leith-Hay, Castles of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by R. Anderson), (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside .(Aber- deen, 1895). ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly situated qn the shore of the Firth of Fortfi, 175 m. N.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Leith by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing. There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed church, which contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni- bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, f m. from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1123 by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a low square tower, church, cloisters, refectory and small chapter- house. The island of Columba was occasionally plundered by English and other rovers, but in the i6th century it became the property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the ist earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (1611). ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary, commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry to Berth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub- merged " bells of Aberdovey " (since Seithennin " the drunkard " caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort. ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 34i m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop. of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be- come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine. Loch Ard, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea. It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and i m. broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 290 ft. above the sea, if m. long, and about 5 m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries on Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle. ABERGAVENNY ABERNETHY 53 ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London and North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7795. It is situated at the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin- ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the i2th cen- tury. The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen- dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the I3th to the 1 7th century. There is a free grammar school, which till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries, ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour- hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber- gavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres. This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the road along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among the hill tribes. There is practically no trace of this fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew up under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from William I. Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the I2th and I3th centuries, and Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1175 the castle was seized by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Aber- gavenny, founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits of the castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this en- dowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Aber- gavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity. The act of 27 Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 1211). The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair. The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. He married the heiress of Richard, earl of Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum- moned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony in 1604. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic), 5th earl (b. 1826), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Conservative party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See NEVILLE.) ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo- Indian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart- ment in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in 1873, .tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indcre in 1877. He is best known for his book Twenty-one Days in India (1878-1879)^ satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at the age of thirty-three. ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine, was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father was Nonconformist minister, on the igth of October 1680. In his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and on concluding his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready entrance into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty-one. In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years, mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an evangelist. In 1712 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan) , and the loss desolated his life for many years. In 1717 he was invited to the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane- ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was regarded then as ecclesiastical high-treason; and a controversy of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber- nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro- versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con- flict, the " Subscribers " and the " Non-subscribers." Out-and- out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle (1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church were thrown out. Much of what he contended for, and which the " Subscribers " opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the lapse of time. In 1726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire question of tests and disabilities. His stand was " against all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country." He was nearly a century in ad- vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and ability." His Tracts afterwards collected did fresh service, generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740. See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762); Diary in MS., 6 vols. 410; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234. ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the 3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Edu- cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar- tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London Hospital, and was early employed to assist as "demonstrator"; he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo- mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-s,urgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the hospital built a regular theatre (1790-1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo- mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap- pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons (1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu- tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809) known as " My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name was one of the earliest popular works on medical science. 54 ABERRATION He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex- ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry. The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo- mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on the 20th of April 1831. A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A bio- graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared in 1853. ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander), a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense : as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications: (i) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems. These subjects receive treatment below. I. ABERRATION OF LIGHT This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis- placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations. Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary, rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides; if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus- tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk- ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure, pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, let AB (fig. i) represent the velocity of the rain, and AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the tube. The diagonal AD of the parallelogram, of which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent, both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when the stick points along the resultant AD. The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of FIG. i. astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no doubt; and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances as to whether the stars possessed appreciable parallaxes. The Copernican theory of the solar system that the earth revolved annually about the sun had received confirmation by the ob- servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioli concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680 Jean Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result of ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40" annually; some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure- ments made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quad- rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674, published his observations of y Draconis, a star of the second magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction, and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October. When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew. They determined to reinvestigate the motion of y Draconis; the telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele- brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney- stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on y Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth, and 1 2th of December. There was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly point. On the I7th of December, however, Bradley observed that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the 2oth. These results were unexpected, and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina- tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December position. After March it began to pass north- wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De- cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle between the March and September positions, being 40". This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case, the maximum range should be between the June and December positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while y Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished as " nutation of the axis " and " variation of latitude. " Nutation, the only form of oscilla- tion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's ABERRATION 55 axis is fixed with respect to the earth, i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole Varies. Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar distance as 7 Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of 7 Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Moly- neux's telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension nearly equal to that of 7 Draconis, but in the opposite sense, was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its declination varied only one half as much as in the case of 7 Dra- conis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investi- gated; here, again, negative results were obtained. Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina- tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized the necessity for more observations before any generalization could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the ipth of August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, its range extending over 6j on each side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His conclusions may be thus summarized: (i) only stars near the solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions when the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its maximum positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and found the greatest change in declination to be proportional to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of all stars at about the same time was in the same direction. A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course; and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light a corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the s observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob- server is not conscious of his own translatory motion FIG. 2. w ;th the earth in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star. When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star is displaced to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star appears at b; and so on throughout an orbital re- volution of the earth. Every star, therefore, describes an apparent orbit, which, if the line joining the sun and the star be perpendicular to the plane ABCD, will be ex- actly similar to that of the earth, i.e. almost a circle. As the star decreases in lati- tude, this circle will be viewed more and more ob- liquely, becoming a flatter and flatter ellipse until, with A j zero latitude, it degenerates into a straight line (fig. 4). The major axis of any such aberrational ellipse is always parallel to AC, i.e. the ecliptic, and since it is equal to the ratio of the velocity of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant. This constant length subtends an angle of about 40" at the earth; the " constant of aberration " is half this angle. The generally accepted value is 20-445", due to Struve; the last two figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed is that the value lies between 20-43" an( i 20-48". The minor axis, on the other hand, is not constant, but, as w'e have already seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of the major axis into the sine of the latitude. Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor- rected his observations for aberration, but he found that there still remained a residuum which was evi- dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see ASTRONOMY). Bradley recognized the fact that the experimental determination of the aberration constant gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known, the velocity of light is determined. In recent years much attention has been given to the nature of the propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the ea.rth, the argument generally being centred about the relative effect of the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT. REFERENCES. A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (J795); a particularly clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904). The subject receives treatment in all astronomical works. II. ABERRATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a series of them, may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays from the points of an object after transmission through the system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles REFLEXION, REFRACTION, and CAUSTIC for the general char- acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be consulted) ; in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker. Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr. , colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of Lat. a" FIG. 4. ABERRATION the light generally applied (e.g. white light), which is dispersed by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. fiovos, one) aberrations produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro- matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or light of single wave length. (a) Monochromatic Aberration. The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any " object point " unite in an "image point"; and therefore an "object space" is repro- duced in an " image space." The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Got- tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see LENS). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet- rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper- ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math., 1858, and Ernst Abbe 1 ) showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces- sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro- duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no con- structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis- factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is im- probable that these will ever be entirely corrected. This, and related general questions, have been treated besides the above-mentioned authors by M . Thiesen (Berlin . A kad. Sitzber. , 1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton! "characteristic function" (Irish Acad. Trans., "Theory of Systems of Rays," 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstem, pp. 155-161. A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given, (i) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re- stricted sense). If S (fig. 5) be any optical system, rays pro- ceeding from an axis point O under an angle u\ will unite in the axis point O'i ; and those under an angle u 2 in the axis point O' 2 . If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O' 2 will lie in front of O'i so long as the angle 2 is greater than u\ (" under correction ") ; and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than) ; in the second < (less than). If the angle i be very small, O'i is the Gaussian image; and O'i O' 2 is termed the " longitudinal aberration," and O'iR the " lateral aberration " of the pencils with aperture 2 . If the pencil with the angle w 2 be that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'i there is a circular " disk of confusion" of radius O'iR, and in a parallel plane at O's another one of radius O'2R 2 ; between these two is situated the " disk of least confusion." The largesc opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle , is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a. hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term " aperture stop " for both the hole and the limiting margin of the 'The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893. See below, AUTHORITIES. lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the dia- phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil"; the "exit pupil " is the image formed by the component S 2 , which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni- tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (" front stop ") ; if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop "). If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter- sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their " perpendicular height of incidence," i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value. (2) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis. If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also con- O current, even if the part of the plane be very small. With a considerable aperture, the neighbouring FIG. 5. point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com- parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the " sine condition," sin w'i/sin i = sin w' 2 /sin u-i, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O be infinitely distant, MI and M 2 are to be replaced by h\ and hi, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the " sine condition " then becomes sin MVAi = sin ' 2 //i 2 . A system ful- filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called " aplanatic " (Greek a-, privative, ir\a.vr), a wandering). This word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac- tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. (3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. A point O (fig. 6) at a finite distance from the axis (or with an infinitely { distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing FIG. 6. the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ori-y^a, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the axis of the pencil " or " principal ray," we can say: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and ABERRATION 57 the axis of the system, i.e. in the " first principal section " or " meridional section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two " astig- matic image surfaces " correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana- stigmatic or stigmatic. Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigraation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand. Arch.f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch.f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilder- zeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). (4) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma. By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not sym- metrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil formerly the only one considered is coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.) , and more recently by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). (5) Curvature of the field of the image. If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. (6) Distortion of the image. If now the image be sufficiently sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. This error consists in the different parts of the object being re- produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (" barrel- shaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion") (see fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called " ortho- scopic " (6p96s, right, o-KOTTflv, to look) . This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction ; in unsharp reproduction, the question of dis- tortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv- ing the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused with the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, Object Barrel shaped Cushion shaped Distorted image FIG. 7. FIG. 8. and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ =a' tan w'/a tan w=i/N, where N is the " scale " or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w' I a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a' /a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the " condition of Airy," i.e. tan ui' '/ tan a>=a constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. i) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named " symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan in' I tan wi=i. The constancy of a' la necessary for this re- lation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a! tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale i, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components. Analytic Treatment of Aberrations. The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the " Abbe theory of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ- ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi- nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re- production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be " in- finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be de- fined by the co-ordinates (, 17) of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other co- ordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (',17'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre- sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates ^',tl',x',y' are functions of ,i),x,y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then , ij, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expand- ing ', jj', x', y' in ascending powers of , rj, x, y, series are ob- tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis ABERRATION and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of ,77, x, y, the values ', if, x, y must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for ', t\ vary if , t\ be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'o, with co-ordinates ' 0) ij'o, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing A' = ' ' and ATJ' = TJ' TJ'O, then A' and AT;' are the aberrations belonging to , 77 and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of , r/, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber., Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) " the numerical orders of the image," are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for- mation of an image of the wzth order is that in the series for A' and AT;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . (w-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, unexcelled even at the present day, from similar cal- culations, which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Miinchen. Akad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (Miinchen. Akad. Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395) ; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Bei- trdge zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-^). A. Konigand M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp. 3' 7-3 2 3) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212-316). The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char- acteristic function " of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874-1875; see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys.Ber., 1895, 21 , p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild (Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. l), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. The aberrations of the third order are: (i) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the Aberra- ax ' s * s verv sm all, less than of the third order the tioas of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall the third together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion. (i) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec- tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r: r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant) . The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with =i-S, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc- tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however, may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro- duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as " Herschel's condition." All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account. (2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as " Fraunhofer's Condition." (4) After eliminating the aberration on the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is expressed by the " Petzval equation," 2i/r(n'-w)= o, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces. Practical Elimination of Aberrations. The existence of an optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber- rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties are too great. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's Die BUderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2and3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro- duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture * (with infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or II to be used in the system). The Tays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en- deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion " attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*), or the angle of field of view w*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, ABERRATION 59 in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur- faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view. The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following may be regarded as typical: (i) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example high- power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; neces- sary corrections are for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex- amples photographic widest angle objectives and oculars. Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photo- graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should, however, possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the simplest manner. They are the best for analytical computation. (b) Chromatic or Colour A berration. In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see LENS, and above, " Monochromatic Aberration ") . Since the index of refraction varies with the colour or wave length of the light (see DISPERSION), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ- ent aberrations; i.e. there are " chromatic differences " of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono- chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti- mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing screen of a camera, &c.), they cause a confusion, named chro- matic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma- tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be " chromatically under-corrected " when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be " over-corrected." If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro- duction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses) ; therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse- quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instruments (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different wave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the system is said to be in " stable achromatism." In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component contains the amount due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, -op. cit. p. 170; A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bttderzeugung, p. 340). In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con- fusion caused by two " zones " in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point ") ; and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor- tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the " relative aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) Examples. (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be -{-d(j>, then (i) d/4> = dn/(n- i) = i/v; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis- persive power of the glass. (b) Two thin lenses in contact: let 2 be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n\ and n^ and radii r'\, r"\, and r*t, r"z respectively; let $ denote the total power, and d, dn\, dn^ the changes of , i, and HI with the colour. Then the following relations hold: (2) 4> = 4> 1 + = kidni + kzdni. For achromatism d o, hence, from (3), (4) ki/kz= -dnz/dni, or i/(f>i= -Vi/** Therefore i and 4>j must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be com- posed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the powers of the two must be different (in order that be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4). Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con- ception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See TELESCOPE.) Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named " crown glass "; that with greater dispersive power, " flint glass." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens ((j> positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collec- tive lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos- tulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the "Herschel" or " Fraunhofer condition," the latter being the best (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nackr., 1856, p. 289). Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, crown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and 0. Schott were crown FIG. 10. 6o ABERRATION glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the "new achromats," and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first " anastigmats " (photographic objectives). Instead of making d vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect (d/) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em- ployed, it is termed " hyper-chromatic." For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition for achromatism is D = (u 1/1+ 02/2) ("i+flz); if t>i = 2 (* if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D = ^ (/i+/2), known as the "condition for oculars." If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other colours, if. two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn 2 /dn i varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper- sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colours, a and b, / =/& =/, then for a third colour, c, the focal length is different, viz. if c lie between a and 6, then f c . The ab- graphy, the vertex of the scissae give /X -/c in o-oi mm., colour curve must be placed commencing at felt- . ... r . (From M.v. Rohr, <,p. a,.) in the position of the man- mum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography ("pure actinic achromatism"). For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordi- nary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the " actinic correction " or " freedom from chemical focus "). Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. /<.=/&=/=/, then the relative partial dispersion (n e -n &) (n a -n &) must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colours ac and be. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which re- duced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dis- persion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. In uniting three colours an " achromatism of a higher order " is derived; there is yet a residual "tertiary spectrum," but it can always be neglected. The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochro- matic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colours; and should they be compensated for one colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing. The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appro- priate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components the flint glasses, over-correction will arise for the shorter wave- lengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be eliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M- von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs). The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point the constant of the sine relation must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to his definition, were " aplanatic for several colours "; such sys- tems he termed " apochromatic." While, however, the magnifi- cation of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnifica- tion. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which are used with these objectives (" compensating oculars "), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances. ABERSYCHAN ABGAR 61 AUTHORITIES. The standard treatise in English is H. D. Taylor, A System of Applied Optics (1906); reference may also be made to R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895); and L. A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (1900). The ideas of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, published separately at Breslau in 1893, and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik in 1894; a second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at Leipzig in 1903 with the title, Grwidzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl Zeiss at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, DieBilderzeugung in optischen Inslrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik (Berlin, 1904), contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations. (O. E.) ABERSYCHAN, an urban district in the northern parlia- mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, ii m. N. by W. of Newport, on the Great Western, London and North- Western, and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 17,768. It lies in the narrow upper valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire, and its large industrial population is occupied in the mines and ironworks. The neighbourhood is wild and mountainous. ABERTILLERY, an urban district in the western parlia- mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m. N.W. of Newport, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 10,846; (1901) 21,945. It h' es m the mountainous mining district of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw Each, and the large industrial population is mainly employed in the numerous coal-mines, ironworks and tinplate works. Farther up the valley are the mining townships of NANTYGLO and BLAINA, forming an urban district with a population (1901) of 13,489. ABERYSTWYTH, a municipal borough, market-town and seaport of Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay. Pop. (1901) 8013. It is the terminal station of the Cambrian railway, and also of the Manchester and Milford line. It is the most popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and possesses a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from Consti- tution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth of the harbour. The town is of modern appearance, and con- tains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable is the imposing but fantastic structure of the University College of Wales near the Castle Hill. Much of the finest scenery in mid- Wales lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth. The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the time of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1109 erected a fortress on the present Castle Hill. Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years 1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of Owen Glen- dower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of Monmouth, and shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of Ville de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the place being Llan- badarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland. It is thus styled in a charter granted by Henry VIII., but by Elizabeth's time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all docu- ments. In 1647 the parliamentarian troops razed the castle to the ground, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though portions of three towers still exist. Aberystwyth was a contri- butory parliamentary borough until 1885, when its representation was merged in that of the county. In modern times Aberyst- wyth has become a Welsh educational centre, owing to the erection here of one of the three colleges of the university of Wales (1872), and of a hostel for women in connexion with it. In 1905 it was decided to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh National Library. ABETTOR (from " to abet," O. Fr. abeter, a and beter, to bait, urge dogs upon any one ; this word is probably of Scandi- navian origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an offence. An abettor differs from an accessory (q.v.) in that he must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors (with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws. ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping"), a state of expectancy in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B, the latter being alive; the remainder is then said to be in abeyance, for until the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession. The most common use of the term is in the case of peerage dignities. If a peerage which passes to heirs-general, like the ancient baronies by writ, is held by a man whose heir-at-law is neither a male, nor a woman who is an only child, it goes into abeyance on his death between two or more sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one till the abeyance is terminated; if eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, he or she can claim the termination of the abeyance as a matter of right. The crown can also call the peerage out of abeyance at any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of the sisters or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance. The question whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man and his " heirs " go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 1312, discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1906. It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance. (j. H. R.) ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or toparchs, apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in Osrhoene and had their capital at Edessa about the time of the Christian era. According to an old tradition, one of these princes, perhaps Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, " the black "), being afflicted with leprosy, sent a letter to Jesus, acknowledging his divinity, craving his help and offering him an asylum in his own residence, but Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however, that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples. These letters are given by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. i. 13), who declares that the Syriac document from which he translates them had been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of Abgar. Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus, was sent (in 34O=A.D. 29). In another form of the story, de- rived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further that Jesus sent his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed in Edessa (Hist. Armen., ed. W. Whiston, ii. 29-32). Yet another version is found in the Syriac Doctrina Addaei (Addaeus = Thaddaeus), edited by G. Phillips (1876). Here it is said that the reply of Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event took place in 343 (A.D. 32). Greek forms of the legend are found in the Ada Thaddaei (C. Tischendorf, Acta apostolorum apocr. 261 ff.). These stories have given rise to much discussion. The testi- mony of Augustine and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote nothing. The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is true, this view has not been shared universally by the Roman church (Tillemont, Memoires, i. 3, pp. 990 ff.). Amongst Evangelicals the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally admitted. Lipsius (Die Edessenische Abgar sage, 1880) has pointed out anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story is quite unhistorical. The first king of Edessa of whom we have any trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (A.D. 176- 213). It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire to trace the christianizing of his kingdom to an apostolic source. 62 ABHIDHAMMA ABILA Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was worked up in the Doctrina Addaei in the second half of the 4th century; and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources. BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Schmidt in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie; Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersuchl (1880); Matthes, Die Edessenische Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht (1882); Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse el la legends d'A. (1888) ; A. Harnack, Geschichte d. altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 2 (1893) ; L. Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, sect. New Testament " (c). ABHIDHAMMA, the name of one of the three Pitakas, or baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures (see BUDDHISM) are divided. It consists of seven works: i. Dhamma Sanganl (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga (exposition). 3. Katha Vatthu (bases of opinion). 4. Puggala Pannatti (on individuals). 5. Dhatu Katha (on relations of moral disposi- tions). 6. Yamaka (the pairs, that is, of ethical states). 7.' Palthana (evolution of ethical states). These have now been published by the Pali Text Society. The first has been trans- lated into English, and an abstract of the third has been pub- lished. The approximate date of these works is probably from about 400 B.C. to about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and the third the latest of the seven. Before the publication of the texts, when they were known only by hearsay, the term A bhidhamma was usually rendered "Metaphysics." This is now seen to be quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and Abhidhamma has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by- law to law. It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular treat- ises. There is no metaphysics in it at all, only psychological ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind. And there is no originality in it; only endless permutations and combinations of doctrines already known and accepted. As in the course of centuries the doctrine itself, in certain schools, varied, it was felt necessary to rewrite these secondary works. This was first done, so far as is at present known, by the Sarvastivadins (Realists), who in the century before and after Christ produced a fresh set of seven Abhidhamma books. These are lost in India, but still exist in Chinese translations. The translations have been analysed in a masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article mentioned below. They deal only with psychological ethics. In the course of further centuries these books in turn were superseded by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of the Maha-yana (great vehicle) there was eventually developed a system of metaphysics. But the word Abhidhamma then fell out of use in that school, though it is still used in the schools that continue to follow the original seven books. See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900), a translation of the Dhamma Sangant, with valuable introduction; "Schools of Buddhist Belief," by T. W. Rhys Davids, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1892, contains an abstract of the Katlia Vatthu; "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins," by Prof. Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1905. (T. W. R. D.) ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble parliament. Feel- ing against Roman Catholics, and especially against James, duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of James, duke of Monmouth, was very great. To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its suc- cessor without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was opposed by Sir George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who presented addresses expressing "abhorrence" of the "Peti- tioners," and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Ab- horrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said that the terms Whig and. Tory were first applied to English poli- tical parties in consequence of this dispute. ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebydthar, "the [divine] father is pre- eminent"), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, priest at Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre, he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (i Sam. xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especi- ally at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35, xx. 25). In i Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon. In i Kings i. 7, 19, 25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 "Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech" should be read, with the Syriac, for "Ahimelech, the son of Abiathar." For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26. ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-1886), German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the nth of December 1806, and educated at the university in that city. His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroles, of the mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of volcanoes. In 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention to the geology and mineralogy of Russia. Residing for some time at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus. Ultimately he retired to Vienna, where he died on the ist of July 1886. The mineral Abichite was named after him. PUBLICATIONS. Vues Mustratives de quelques phenom^nes geolo- giques, prises sur le Vesuve et I'Etna, pendant les annees 1833 et 1834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der vulcanischen Bildungen (Brunswick, 1841); Geologische Forschungen in den Kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887). ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps "father is joy"), or ABIGAL (2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite, on whose death she became the wife of David (i Sam. xxv.). By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of 2 Sam. iii. 3 as Chileab, in the Septuagint as Daluyah, and in i Chron. iii. i as Daniel. The name Abigail was also borne by a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 25; i Chron. ii. 16 f.). From the former (self-styled "handmaid" i Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail, the "waiting gentlewoman," in Beaumont and Fletcher's Scornful Lady). ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, "Yah is father"), a name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following. (1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron. xii. i6-xiii.), reigned about two years (918-915 B.C.). The ac- counts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are very con- flicting (compare i Kings xv. 2 and 2 Chron. xi. 20 with 2 Chron. xiii.2). The Chronicler tells us that he has drawn his facts from the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet Iddo. This is perhaps sufficient to explain the character of the narrative. (2) The second son of Samuel (i Sam. viii. 2; i Chron. vi. 28 [13]). He and his brother Joel judged at Beersheba. Their misconduct was made by the elders of Israel a pretext for demanding a king (i Sam. viii. 4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he died young (i Kings xiv. i ff., 17). (4) Head of the eighth order of priests (i Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5). The alternative form Abijam is probably a mistake, though it is upheld by M. Jastrow. ABILA, (i) a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible to define. It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from (2) below. Abila was an important town on the imperial high- way from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek). The site is indi- cated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c., and inscriptions on the banks of the river Barada at Suk Wadi Barada, a village called by early Arab geographers Abil-es-Suk, between Baalbek and Damascus. Though the names Abel and Abila differ in derivation and in meaning, their similarity has given rise to the tradition that this was the place of Abel's burial. According to Josephus, Abilene was a separate Iturean kingdom till A.D. 37, when it was granted by Caligula to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius ABILDGAARD ABINGER granted it to Agrippa II. (See also LYSANIAS.) (2) A city in Perea, now Abil-ez-Zeit. ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM (1744-1809), called " the Father of Danish Painting," was born at Copenhagen, the son of Soren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute. He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin, and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known out of Copen- hagen, where he won an immense fame in his own generation. He was the founder of the Danish school of painting, and the master of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg. ABIMELECH (Hebrew for "father of [or is] the king ") (i) A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in the Bible, had relations. The patriarch, during his sojourn there, alleged that his wife Rebekah was his sister, but the king doubting this remonstrated with him and pointed out how easily adultery might have been unintentionally committed (Gen. xxvi.). Abimelech is called " king of the Philistines," but the title is clearly an anachronism. A very similar story is told of Abraham and Sarah (ch. xx.), but here Abimelech takes Sarah to wife, although he is warned by a divine vision before the crime is actually committed. The incident is fuller and shows a great advance in ideas of morality. Of a more primitive character, however, is another parallel story of Abraham at the court of Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken into the royal household, and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead to the discovery of the truth. Further incidents in Isaac's life at Gerar are narrated in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of Abraham), notably a covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba (whence the name is explained "well of the oath"); (see ABRAHAM). By a pure error, or perhaps through a confusion in the traditions, Achish the Philistine (of Gath, i Sam. xxi., xxvii.), to whom David fled, is called Abimelech in the super- scription to Psalm xxxiv. (2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (q.v.), by his Shechemite concubine (Judges viii. 31, ix.). On the death of Gideon, Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his father had earned, and through the influence of his mother's clan won over the citizens of Shechem. Furnished with money from the treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a band of followers and slew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of his brethren at Ophrah, his father's home. This is one of the earliest recorded instances of a practice common enough on the accession of Oriental despots. Abimelech thus became king, and extended his authority over central Palestine. But his success was short-lived, and the sub- sequent discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites was regarded as a just reward for his atrocious massacre. Jotham, the only one who is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on Mount Gerizim and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen towards the legitimate sons of the man who had saved them from Midian. " Jotham's fable " of the trees who desired a king may be foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to rule over others, only the bramble is self-confident. The " fable " appears to be antagonistic to ideas of monarchy. The origin of the conflicts which subsequently arose is not clear. Gaal, a new-comer, took the opportun'ty at the time of the vintage, when there was a festival in ihs temple, to head a revolt and seized Shechem. Abimelech, warned by his deputy Zebul, left his residence at Arumah and approached the city. In a fine bit of realism we are told how Gaal observed the approaching foe and was told by Zebul, " You see the shadow of the hills as men," and as they drew nearer Zebul's ironical remark became a taunt, " Where is now thy mouth ? is not this the people thou didst despise? go now and fight them!" This revolt, which Abime- lech successfully quelled, appears to be only an isolated episode. Another account tells of marauding bands of Shechemites which disturbed the district. The king disposed his men (the whole chapter is specially interesting for the full details it gives of the nature of ancient military operations), and after totally destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebez, which had also revolted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's hand, he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body, but his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded (2 Sam. xi. 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, and of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants of its deliverer. (See, further, JEWS, JUDGES.) (S. A. C.) ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6 m. S. of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway from Radley. Pop. (1901) 6480. It lies in the fiat valley of the Thames, on the west (right) bank, where the small river Ock flows in from the Vale of White Horse. The church of St Helen stands near the river, and its fine Early English tower with Perpendicular spire is the principal object in the pleasant views of the town from the river. The body of the church, which has five aisles, is principally Perpendicular. The smaller church of St Nicholas is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of the fabric are older. Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a beautiful Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called the prior's house, mainly Early English, and the guest house, with other fragments. The picturesque narrow-arched bridge over the Thames near St Helen's church dates originally from 1416. There may be mentioned further the old buildings of the grammar school, founded in 1563, and of the charity called Christ's Hospital (1583); while the town-hall in the market- place, dating from 1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones. The grammar school now occupies modern buildings, and ranks among the lesser public schools of England, having scholarships at Pembroke College, Oxford. St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m. from Abingdon, is one of the principal modern public schools. It was opened in 1847. The buildings lie close to the Thames, and the school is famous for rowing, sending an eight to the regatta at 'Henley each year. Abingdon has manufactures of clothing and carpets and a large agricultural trade. The borough is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 730 acres. Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have been founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of Centwin. Abun- dant charters from early Saxon monarchs are extant confirming various laws and privileges to the abbey, and the earliest of these, from King Ceadwalla, was granted before A.D. 688. In the reign of Alfred the abbey was destroyed by the Danes, but it was restored by Edred, and an imposing list of possessions in the Domesday survey evidences recovered prosperity. William the Conqueror in 1084 celebrated Easter at Abingdon, and left his son, afterwards Henry I., to be educated at the abbey. After the dissolution in 1538 the town sank into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of its pitiable condition, Queen Mary granted a charter establishing it as a free borough corporate with a common council consisting of a mayor, two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen second- ary burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and a justice of the peace. The council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament, and this right continued until the Redistri- bution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were also appointed, and the town boundaries described in great detail. Later charters from Elizabeth, James \., James II., George II. and George III. made no considerable change. James II. changed the style of the corporation to that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and twelve burgesses. The abbot seems to have held a market from very early times, and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II. In the I3th and I4th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agri- cultural centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weav- ing and clothing manufacture. The latter industry declined before the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived. The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to the Gild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI. founded the hospital under its present name. See Victoria County History, Berkshire', Joseph Stevenson, Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, A.D. 201-1189 (Rolls Series, 2 vols., London, 1858). ABINGER, JAMES SCARLETT, IST BARON (1760-1844), 6 4 ABINGTON ABIOGENESIS English judge, was born on the i3th of December 1769 in Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his education, and went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connexions, by steady application he gradually obtained a large practice, ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income reached the high-water mark of 18,500, a large sum for that period. He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament in 1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constitu- ency with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected for the borough of Malton. He became attorney-general, and was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and though he resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of Wellington in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the Tories he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 for Norwich, for which borough he sat until the dissolution of parliament. He was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1834, and presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of April he was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury on the 7th of April 1844. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in 1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were not equally in place on the bench; he was partial, dictatorial and vain; and complaint was made of his domineering attitude towards juries. But his acuteness of mind and clearness of ex- pression remained to the end. Lord Abinger was twice married (the second time only six months before his death), and by his first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title passing to his eldest son Robert (1794-1861). His second son, General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), leader of the heavy cavalry charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate article; and his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady Stratheden and Campbell) (d. 1860). Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett (d. 1831), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of Jamaica. See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of James, ist Lord Abinger (1877); Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). ABINCTON, FRANCES (1737-1815), English actress, was the daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at first, a flower girl and a street singer. She then became servant to a French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress and a knowledge of French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket in 1755 as Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. In 1756, on the recom- mendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard and Kitty Clive. In 1759, after an unhappy marriage with her music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in the bills as Mrs Abington. Her first success was in Ireland as Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There she remained for eighteen years, being the original of more than thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). Her Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia were no less liked than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue. It was in the last character in Love for Love that Reynolds painted his best portrait of her. In 1782 she left Drury Lane for Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790 until 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1799. Her am- bition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of fashion copied her frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely adopted and known as the " Abington cap." She died on the 4th of March 1815. ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older terms " spontaneous generation," Generatio aequiwca, Generatio primaria, and of more recent terms such as archegenesis and archebiosis, for the theory according to which fully formed living organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. Aristotle explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that plant- lice arise from the dew which falls on plants, that fleas are developed from putrid matter, and so forth. T. J. Parker (Elementary Biology) cites a passage from Alexander Ross, who, commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt as to " whether mice may be bred by putrefaction," gives a clear statement of the common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries ago. Ross wrote: " So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers, shell-fish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go to Egypt, and there he will find the fields swarming with mice, begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the in- habitants." The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of abio- genesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in 1668, proved that no maggots were " bred " in meat on which flies were pre- vented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the i7th century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case of all the higher and readily visible organisms, abiogenesis did not occur, but that omne vivum e vivo, every living thing came from a pre-existing living thing. The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation further. In 1683 A. van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, and it was soon found that however carefully organic matter might be protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles, putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low organisms. As knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic matter. It was due chiefly to L. Pasteur that the occurrence of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter re- mained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme deh'cacy of the manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e vivo to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the tempera- ture of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme pre- cautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material. It may now be stated definitely that all known living organisms arise only from pre-existing living organisms. So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved. It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only to known existing organisms. All these are composed of a definite substance, known as protoplasm (q.v.), and the modern refutation of abiogenesis applies only to the organic forms in which proto- plasm now exists. It may be that in the progress of science it may yet become possible to construct living protoplasm from ABIPONES ABLUTION non-living material. The refutation of abiogenesis has no further bearing on this possibility than to make it probable that if protoplasm ultimately be formed in the laboratory, it will be by a series of stages, the earlier steps being the formation of some substance, or substances, now unknown, which are not proto- plasm. Such intermediate stages may have existed in the past, and the modern refutation of abiogenesis has no application to the possibility of these having been formed from inorganic matter at some past time. Perhaps the words archebiosis, or archegenesis, should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm in the remote past has been developed from not-living matter by a series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley, who took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial archebiosis. (See BIOGENESIS and LIFE.) (P. C. M.) ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe and St lago. They originally occupied the Chaco district of Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards. According to Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, who, towards the end of the i8th century, lived among them for a period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5000. They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this con- stituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the women were covered with black figures of various designs made with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear. No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in shelters built in the trees. They seldom married before the age of thirty, and were singularly chaste. " With the Abipones," says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and thus eludes the bridegroom." Infanticide was systematic, never more than two children being reared in one family, a custom doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young were suckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to be extinct as a tribe. Martin Dobrizhoffer's Latin Historia deAbiponibus (Vienna, 1784) was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, at the suggestion of Southey, in 1822, under the title of An Account of the Abipones (3 vols.). ABITIBBI, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada. The lake, in 49 N., 80 W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands. It is shallow, and the shores in its vicinity are covered with small timber. It was formerly employed by the Hudson's Bay Com- pany as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. The construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway through this district has made it of some importance. Its outlet is Abitibbi river, a rapid stream, which after a course of 200 m. joins the Moose river, flowing into James Bay. ABJURATION (from Lat. abjurare, to forswear), a solemn repudiation or renunciation on oath. At common law, it signified the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to leave the realm for ever; this was abolished in the reign of James I. The Oath 1 of Abjuration, in English history, was a solemn disclaimer, taken 1 by members of parliament, clergy and laymen against the i right of the Stuarts to the crown, imposed by laws of William III., George I. and George III.; but its place has since been taken by the oath of allegiance. ABKHASIA, or ABHASIA, a tract of Russian Caucasia, govern- ment of Kutais. The Caucasus mountains on the N. and N.E. divide it from Circassia; on the S.E. it is,bounded by Mingrelia; i-3 and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the country is generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and walnut, there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the climate is mild. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, grapes, figs, pomegranates and wine. Cattle and horses are bred. Honey is produced; and excellent arms are made. This country was subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced Christianity. Native dynasties ruled from 735 to the isth century, when the region was conquered by the Turks and became Mahommedan. The Russians acquired possession of it piecemeal between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not firmly established until after 1864. Area, 2800 sq. m. The principal town is Sukhum-kaleh. Pop. 43,000, of whom two- thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess or Circassian race. The total number of Abkhasians in the two governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1897; large numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878. ABLATION (from Lat. ablatus, carried away), the process of removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the wearing away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative removal. ABLATITIOUS (from Lat. ablatus, taken away), reducing or withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes between the moon and the earth to lessen the strength of gravitation is called " ablatitious," just as it is called " addititious " when it increases that strength. ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. casus, from ablalum, taken away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without a preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the place or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done. The case is also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and traces remain in other languages. The " Ablative Absolute," a gram- matical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in the ablative case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying word agreeing with it, not depending on any other part of the sentence, to express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact. ABLUTION (Lat. ablulio, from abluere, " to wash off "), a washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that ceremonial or ritualistic purity which must not be confused with the physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and things obtained by the use of soap and water. 1 Indeed the two states may con- tradict each other, as in the case of the 4th-century Christian pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that she had not washed tier face for eighteen years for fear of removing therefrom the holy chrism of baptism. The purport, then, of ablutions is to remove, not dust and dirt, but the to us imaginary stains contracted by contact with the dead, with childbirth, with menstruous women, with murder whether wilful or involuntary, with almost any form of bloodshed, with persons of inferior caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. leather or excrement, with leprosy, madness and any form of disease. Among all races in a certain grade of development such associations are vaguely felt to be dangerous and to impair vitality. In a later stage the taint is regarded as alive, as a demon or evil spirit alighting on and passing into the things and persons exposed to contamina- tion. In general, water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the materials used in ablutions. Of these water is the commonest, and its efficacy is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a magical or sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual blessing or consecration. Some concrete examples will best illustrate the nature of such ablutions. In the Atharva-Veda, vii. 1 16, we have this allopathic remedy for fever. The patient's skin burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread, and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls 1 In its technical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is the ritual washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers after the celebration of Holy Communion in the Catholic Church. The wine and water used for this purpose are themselves sometimes called "the ablution." 66 ABNAKI ABO on the frog. Let the medicine man or magician pray that the fever may pass into the frog, and the frog be forthwith re- leased, and the cure will be effected. In the old Athenian Anthesteria the blood of victims was poured over the unclean. A bath of bulls' blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the mysteries of Attis. The water must in ritual washings run off in order to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease; and accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or running water. Nor was it enough that the person baptized should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it over his head, so that it run down his person. Similarly the Brahman takes care, after ablution of a person, to wipe the cathartic water off from head to feet downwards, that the malign influence may pass out through the feet. The same care is shown in ritual ablutions in the Bukovina and elsewhere. Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual cleans- ings, says lamblichus in his book on mysteries (v. 23), as being specially full of the divine nature. Nevertheless in all religions, and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, the cathartic virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction into it by means of suitable prayers and incantations of a divine or magical power. Ablutions both of persons and things are usually cathartic, that is, intended to purge away evil influences (nadaipeiv, to make KaBapos, pure). But, as Robertson Smith observes, "holi- ness is contagious, just as uncleanness is "; and common things and persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous and useless for daily life through the mere infection of holiness. Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo for one whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew sin-offering fell on a garment it had to be ritually washed off. It was as neces- sary in the Hebrew religion for the priest to wash his hands after handling the sacred volume as before. Christians might not enter a church to say their prayers without first washing their hands. So Chrysostom says: "Although our hands may be already pure, yet unless we have washed them thoroughly, we do not spread them upwards in prayer." Tertullian (c. 200) had long before condemned this as a heathen custom; none the less, it was insisted on in later ages, and is a survival of the pagan lustrations or TrtpippavTripia. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest sprinkled Julian and Valentinian with water according to the heathen custom as they entered his temple. The same custom prevails among Mahommedans. Porphyry (de Abst. ii. 44) relates that one who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine anger must bathe and wash his clothes in running water before returning to his city and home, and similar scruples in regard to holy objects and persons have been observed among the natives of Polynesia, New Zealand and ancient Egypt. The rites, met within all lands, pf pouring out water or bathing in order to produce rain from heaven, differ in their significance from ablutions with water and belong to the realm of sympa- thetic magic. There are certain forms of purification which one does not know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings. Thus Demosthenes in his speech " On the crown " accused Aeschines of having " purified the initiated and wiped them clean with (not from) mud and pitch." Smearing with gypsum (rLravos, titanos) had a similar purifying effect, and it has been suggested * that the Titans were no more than old-world votaries who had so disguised themselves. Perhaps the use of ashes in mourning had the same origin. In the rite of death-bed penance given in the old Mozarabic Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured over the sick man. AUTHORITIES. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Jul. Well- hausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, iii. 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897); John Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum rilualibus (Tubingae, 1732) ; Art. "Clean and Unclean " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary and in Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. iv. ; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, bk. viii. ; Hermann Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (F. C. C.) ABNAKI (" the whitening sky at daybreak," i.e. Easterners), a confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock, 1 By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion, p. 493. called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial writers. It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridge- wock, Malecite and other tribes. It formerly occupied what is now Maine and southern New Brunswick. All the tribes were loyal to the French during the early years of the i8th century, but after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew to St Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement with the British authorities. The Abnaki now number some 1600. For details see Handbook of American Indians, edited by F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907). ABNER (Hebrew for "father of [or is a] light"), in the Bible, first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (i Sam. xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's history (i Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 5), and is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was mean- while reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried on between the two parties. The only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (2 Sam. ii. I2). 1 In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have been " light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, 'as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrat- ing with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied pre- tensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam. xvi. 21 sqq.; i Kings ii. 21 sqq.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and im- mediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however. Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not ven- ture to punish its perpetrators (2 Sam. iii. 31-39; cp. i Kings ii. 31 seq.). (See DAVID.) ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the province of Abo-Bjorneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; (1904) 42,639. It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden. When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the Diet of Borga in 1809, Abo became the capital of the new state, and so remained till 1819 when the seat of government was transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable library being entirely destroyed. Before this calamity Abo contained i no houses and 13,000 inhabitants; and its university had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of up- wards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an 1 The object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib. col. 2006; Batten in Zeit.f. alt-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.). ABO-BJORNEBORG ABORTION 67 observatory and a chemical laboratory. The university has since been removed to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesias- tical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry, the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who intro- duced Christianity into the country in the i2th century. Abo is the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland. It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade ; sail-cloth, cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Born- holm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from 700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons. ABO-BJORNEBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of Finland and including the Aland islands. It has a total area of 24,171 square kilometres and a population (1900) of 447,098, of whom 379,622 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 446,900 were of the Lutheran religion. The province occupies a promi- nent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, sugar refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c. Its chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), Raumo (5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1171), Nadendal (917). ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide) , generally, a dwelling. In English law this term has a more restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate the place of a man's residence or business, whether that be either temporary or permanent. The law may regard for certain purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on busi- ness, though he may reside elsewhere ; so that the term has come to have a looser significance than residence, which has been defined as " where a man lives with his family and sleeps at night" (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 772). In serving a notice of action, a solicitor's place of business may be given as his abode (Roberts v. Williams, 1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more recent decisions it has been similarly held that where a notice was required to be served under the Public Health Act 1875, either personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's " place of abode, " a place of business was sufficient. ABOMASUM (caillette), the fourth or rennet stomach of Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally deposited in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the second or third stomach, although less than the first. The base of the abomasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular conical form. It is that part of the digestive apparatus which is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as the food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs. ABOMEY, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name. It is 70 m. N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has a popula- tion of about 15,000. Abomey is built on a rolling plain, 800 ft. above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to the N.W., where it is bounded by a long depression. The town was surrounded by a mud wall, pierced by six gates, and was further protected by a ditch 5 ft. deep, filled with a dense growth of prickly acacia, the usual defence of West African strongholds. Within the walls, which had a circumference of six miles, were villages separated by fields, several royal palaces, a market-place and a large square containing the barracks. In November 1892, Behanzin, the king of Dahomey, being defeated by the French, set fire to Abomey and fled northward. Under French adminis- tration the town has been rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway communication with the coast, and given an ample water supply by the sinking of artesian wells. ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and ominare, to fore- bode), anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with aversion; a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect deri- vation was ab homine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the adjective " abominable " in the first Shakespeare folio is always " abhominable." Colloquially " abomination " and " abomin- able " are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense. ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors. It lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishmi Hills and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe extending to the Dibong river. The term Abor is an Assamese word, signifying "barbarous" or "independent," and is applied in a general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; but in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above tract. The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, Daphlas and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan stock. They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided in their political relations. In former times they committed fre- quent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the object of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British govern- ment. In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition. Some military police sepoys were murdered in British territory, and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder and all other villages that opposed the expedition. A second expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having been treacherously murdered; and a force of too British troops traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes, while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900. See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872. ABORIGINES, a mythical people of central Italy, connected in legendary history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander. They were supposed to have descended from their mountain home near Reate (an ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they expelled the Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini under a King Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most gener- ally accepted etymology of the name (ab origine), according to which they were the original inhabitants ( = Gk. avroxQoves) of the country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities (e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic immigrants, not as a native Italian people. Other explanations suggested are arborigines, "tree-born," and aberrigines, "nomads." His- torical and ethnographical discussions have led to no result; the most that can be said is that, if not a general term, " abori- gines " may be the name of an Italian stock, about whom the ancients knew no more than ourselves. In modern times the term "Aborigines" has been extended in signification, and is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is known. The Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in England as the result of a royal commission appointed at the instance of Sir T. Powell Buxton to inquire into the treatment of the indigenous populations of the various British colonies. The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice with which the natives had been often treated. Since its foundation the society has done much to make English colonization a synonym for humane and generous treatment of savage races. ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish), in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the contents of the pregnant uterus. It is a common terminology to call premature labour of an accidental type a "miscarriage," in order to distinguish "abortion" as a deliberately induced act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as a criminal proceeding (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE) ; otherwise the term "abortion" would ordinarily be used when occurring before the eighth month of gestation, and " premature labour " subsequently. As an accident of pregnancy, it is far from un- common, although its relative frequency, as compared with that of completed gestation, has been very differently estimated by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in the earlier than 68 ABORTION in the later months of pregnancy, and it would also appear to occur more readily at the periods corresponding to those of the menstrual discharge. It may be induced by numerous causes, both of a local and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis, accidental injuries and the diseases and displacements to which the uterus is liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death of the foetus, are among the direct local causes. The general causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of utero-gestation. The tendency to recurrence in persons who have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever be borne in mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordinary labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in the former hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of the leading symptoms. The treatment embraces the means to be used by rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when it merely threatens; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable, to accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal of the entire contents of the uterus. Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a far less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a simpler way of getting rid of inconvenient progeny. But it is common among the American Indians, as well as in China, Cambodia and India, although throughout Asia it is generally contrary both to law and religion. How far it was considered a crime among the civilized nations of antiquity has long been debated. Those who maintain the impunity of the practice rely for their authority upon certain passages in the classical authors, which, while bitterly lamenting the frequency of this enormity, yet never allude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. For ex- ample, in one of Plato's dialogues (Theaet.), Socrates is made to speak of artificial abortion as a practice, not only common but allowable; and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic (lib. v.). Aristotle (Polit. lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion that no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the mother being above forty or the father above fifty-five years of age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be considered homicide, because a child in utero was not an animal, and had no separate existence. Among the Romans, Ovid (Amor. lib. ii.), Juvenal (Sat. vi. 594) and Seneca (Consol. ad Hel. 16) mention the frequency of the offence, but maintain silence as to any laws for punishing it. On the other hand, it is argued that the authority of Galen and Cicero (pro Cluentio) place it beyond a doubt that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity, the offence in question was sometimes punished by death; that the authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and that the speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state of the laws. Moreover, Stobaeus (Serm. 73) has preserved a passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly states that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on females who caused themselves to abort. After the spread of Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became equally criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian hordes which afterwards overran the empire also treated the offence as a crime punishable with death. This severe penalty remained in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle Ages. With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion as to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not yet born. But the exact period of transition is not dearly marked. In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion only as an ecclesiastical offence. Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676) tells us that if anything is done to "a woman quick or great with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law of England, because it is not yet in rerum natura." But the common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a mis- demeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an infant, though unsuccessful. Blackstone (1723-1780), to be sure, a hundred years later, says that, " if a woman is quick with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her womb, or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was, by the ancient law, homicide or manslaughter." Whatever may have been the exact view taken by the common law, the offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making the attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or not being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable with fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any term not exceeding fourteen years. Should the woman have proved to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with death. The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 1828. The English law on the subject is now governed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which makes the attempting to cause miscarriage by administering poison or other noxious thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally a felony, whether the woman be, or be not, with child. No distinction is now made as to whether the foetus is or is not alive, legislation appearing to make the offence statutory with the object of prohibiting any risk to the life of the mother. If a woman ad- ministers to herself any poison or other noxious thing, or unlaw- fully uses any instrument or other means to procure her own miscarriage, she is guilty of felony. The punishment for the offence is penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years. If a child is born alive, but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the general law as to accessories applies to the offence. In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment. Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several codes (notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize the life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more severe if abortion has been caused in the later stages of pregnancy, or if the woman is married. According to the weight of authority in the United States abortion was not regarded as a punishable offence at common law, if the abortion was produced with the consent of the mother prior to the time when she became quick with child; but the Supreme Courts of Pennsylvania and North Carolina held it a crime at common law, which might be com- mitted as soon as gestation had begun (Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St. 630; State v. Slagle, 83 N.C. 630). The attempt is a punishable offence in several states, but not in Ohio. Nor was it ever murder at common law to take the life of the child at any period of gestation, even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78 Ky. 204). If the death of the woman results it is murder at common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 263). It is now a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the woman must be actually pregnant. In most states not only is the person who causes the abortion punishable, but also any one who sup- plies any drug or instrument for the purpose. The woman, however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in Ohio, State v. M'Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty of any crime unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, 295) and Cali- fornia (Penal Code, 275) and Connecticut (Gen. Stats. 1902, 1156). She may be a witness, and her testimony does not need corroboration. The attempt is also a crime in New York (1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566). AUTHORITIES. Plpucguet, Commentarius Medicus in processus criminates super homicidio el infanticidio, &c. (1736); Burke Ryan, Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention and History (1862); G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws referring to Child-Murder and Criminal Abortion (1864); Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion, its Nature, Evidence and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne, Infanticide, its Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857) ; T. R. Beck, Medical Jurisprudence (1842); A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell, Crimes and Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's Pleading and Evidence in Criminal Cases (1900) ; Roscoe's Evidence in Criminal Casts (1898); ABOUKIR ABRAHAM 69 Treub, van Oppenraag and Vlaming, The Right to Life of the Unborn Child (New York, 1903) ; L. Hochheimer, Crimes and Criminal Procedure (New York, 1897); A. A. Tardieu, &ude medico-legal sur I'avortement (Paris, 1904) ; F. Berolzheimer, System der Rechls- und Wisscnschaftsphilosophie (Munich, 1904). ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, 145 m. N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used as a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village are many remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and Roman. About 2 m. S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to mark the site of Canopus. A little farther east the Canopic branch of the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean. Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the Nile is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the ist of August 1798 Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often referred to as the battle of Aboukir. The latter title is applied more properly to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and the Turks fought on the 2$th of July 1799. Near Aboukir, on the 8th of March 1801, the British army commanded by Sir R. Abercromby landed from its transports in the face of a strenuous opposition from a French force entrenched on the beach. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) ABOUT, EDMOND FRANQOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885), French novelist, publicist and journalist, was born on the I4th of February 1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine. The boy's school career was brilliant. In 1848 he entered the Ecole Normale, taking the second place in the annual competition for admis- sion, Taine being first. Among his college contemporaries were Taine, Francisque, Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred Prevost-Paradol. Of them all About was, according to Sarcey, the most highly vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and " undisci- plined." At the end of his college career he joined the French school in Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had never been his intention to follow the professorial career, for which the Ecole Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and journalism. A book on Greece, La Grece contemporaine (1855), which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate success. In Tolla (1855) About was charged with drawing too freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittoria Savelli (Paris, 1841). This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he was the object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready enough to retaliate. The Lettres d'un ban jeune homme, written to the Figaro under the signature of Valentin de Quevilly, provoked more animosities. During the next few years, with indefatigable energy, and generally with full public recognition, he wrote novels, stories, a play which failed, a book-pamphlet on the Roman question, many pamphlets on other subjects of the day, newspaper articles innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders to the attacks of his enemies, and popular manuals of political economy, L'A B C du travailleur (1868), Le pr ogres (1864). About's attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend. He believed in its improvability, greeted the liberal ministry of Emile Ollivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and wel- comed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a terrible morrow. For his own personal part he lost the loved home near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858 out of the fruits of his earlier literary successes. With the fall of the empire he became a republican, and, always an inveterate anti-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into the battle against the conservative reaction which made head during the first years of the republic. From 1872 onwards for some five or six years his paper, the XIX ' Siecle, of which he was the heart and soul, became a power in the land. But the republicans never quite forgave the tardiness of his conversion, and no place rewarded his later zeal. On the 23rd January 1884 he was elected a member of the French Academy, but died on the i6th of January 1885, before taking his seat. His journalism of ; which specimens in his earlier and later manners will be found in the two series of Lettres d'un ban jeune homme d, sa cousine Madeleine (1861 and 1863), and the posthumous collection, Le dix-neuvieme sitcle (1892) was of its nature ephemeral. So . were the pamphlets, great and small. His political economy was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch- making. His dramas are negligible. His more serious novels, Madelon (1863), L'infdme (1867), the three that form the trilogy of the Vieille Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un brave homme (1880) a kind of counterblast to the view of the French workman presented in Zola's Assommoir contain striking and amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are often suggestive of the stage, while description, dissertation, explanation too frequently take the place of life. His best work after all is to be found in the books that are almost wholly farcical, Le nez d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des montagnes (1856); L'homme d I'oreille cassee (1862); Trente el quarante (1858); Le cas de M. Guerin (1862). Here his most genuine wit, his spright- liness, his vivacity, the fancy that was in him, have free play. " You will never be more than a little Voltaire," said one of his masters when he was a lad at school. It was a true prophecy. (F. T. M.) ABRABANEL, ISAAC, called also ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL (1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which claimed descent from the royal house of David. Like many of the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political ability. He held a high place in the favour of King Alphonso V., who entrusted him with the management of important state affairs. On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors and favourites were harshly treated by his successor John, and Abrabanel was compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years (1484- 1492) the post of a minister of state under Ferdinand and Isabella. When the 'Jews were banished from Spain in 1492, no exception was made in Abrabanel's favour. He afterwards resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, and in 1 503 removed to Venice, where he held office as a minister of state till his death in 1508. His repute as a commentator on the Scriptures is still high; in the I7th and i8th centuries he was much read by Christians such as Buxtorf. Abrabanel often quotes Christian authorities, though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic passages. He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis it was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of state- craft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings. ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas ( a duplicate of which is placed in the time of Abraham (xxi. 22-34, J and E). Beersheba, which figures in both, is cele- brated by the planting of a sacred tree and (like Bethel) by the invocation of the name of Yahweh. This district is the scene of the birth of Ishmael and Isaac. As Sarai was barren (cf. xi. 3o) 2 the promise that his seed should possess the land seemed incapable of fulfilment. According to one rather obscure narra- tive, Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his household, apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus 3 (xv. 2, 1 The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son of Terah. 2 Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories of Rebekah, Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah (Gen. xxv. 21, xxix. 31 ; Judg. xiii. 2; i Sam. i. 5). * Abram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the traditions of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq. i. 7. 2). the text is corrupt). He is now promised as heir one of his own flesh, and a remarkable and solemn passage records how the promise was ratified by a covenant. The description is particu- larly noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey, which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial cove- nant. The interpretation of the evil omen is explained by an allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt and their return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast v. 13, after four hundred years; the chapter is extremely intricate and 'has the appearance of being of secondary origin). The main narrative now relates how Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid Hagar, who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sara;, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of Hannah, i Sam. i. 6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (xvi. 1-14, J; on the details see ISHMAEL). Another tradi- tion places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac. It was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according to the latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with a renewed promise that his posterity should inhabit the land. To mark the solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's name was changed to Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah. 4 A covenant was concluded with him for all time, and as a sign thereof the rite of circumcision was instituted (xvii. P). The promise of a son to Sarah made Abraham "laugh", a punning allusion to the name Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other forms. Thus, it is Sarah herself who "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, J), or who^ when the child is born cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me" (xxi. 6, E). Finally, there is yet another story which attributes the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's jealousy at the sight of Ishmael's "mocking" (rather dancing or playing, the intensive form of the verb "to laugh") on the feast day when Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.). But this last story is clearly out of place, since a child who was then fourteen years old (cf . xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries). Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in the land of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (xxii. E). Thence he returned to Beersheba. The story is one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that human sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic. vi. 7 seq.). The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac alone. To his "only son" (cp. xxii. 2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 6). The measures taken by the patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circum- stantially described. His head-servant was sent to his master's i country and kindred to find a suitable bride, and the necessary preparation for the story is contained in the description of , Nahor's family (xxii. 20-24). The picturesque account of the meeting with Rebekah throws interesting light on oriental custom. Marriage with one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxvii. 46, J xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), and especially with a cousin, is recom- mended now even as in the past. For its charm the story is ' comparable with the account of Jacob's experiences in the same land (xxix.). For the completion of the history of Abraham the compiler of Genesis has used P's narrative. Sarah is said to have died at a good old age, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah near Hebron, which the patriarch had purchased, with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.) ; and here he himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place of pilgrimage and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque. 1 4 Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning "(my) father is exalted"; the meaning of Abraham is obscure and the explanation Gen. xvii. 5 is mere word-play. It is possible that raham was originally only a dialectical form of ram. 6 See Sir Charles Warren's description, Hasting's Diet. Bible, vol. iii. pp. 200 seq. The so-called Babylonian colouring of Gen. ABRAHAM 7 1 The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of Old Testament theology than for the history of Israel. He became to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and stood at their head as the founder of the nation, the one to whom Yahweh had manifested his love by frequent promises and covenants. From the time when he was bidden to leave his country to enter the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to encourage him to trust in the future when his posterity should possess the land, and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could turn for consolation to the promises of the past which enshrined in Abraham its hopes for the future. Not only is Abraham the founder of religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, stands out most prominently as the recipient of the promises (xii. 2 seq. 7, xiii. 14-17, xv., xvii., xviii. 17-19, xxii. 17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these the apostle Paul associates with the coming of Christ, and, adopting a characteristic and artificial style of interpretation prevalent in his time, endeavours to force a Messianic interpre- tation out of them. 1 For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the same value as other stories of traditional ancestors. The narra- tives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an idealized sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., see below), about whose person a number of stories have gathered. As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately the common an- cestor of the Israelites and their nomadic fierce neighbours, men roving unrestrainedly like the wild ass, troubled by and troubling every one (xvi. 12). As the father of Midian, Sheba and other Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), it is evident that some degree of kinship was felt by the Hebrews with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending scale as regards purity of blood. This great ancestral figure came, it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence to Canaan. Late tradition supposed that the migration was to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.; cf. Josh. xxiv. 2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in Is. xxix. 22). The route along the banks of the Euphrates from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, but the prominence given in the older narratives to the view that Haran was the home gives this the preference. It was thence that Jacob, the father of the tribes of Israel, came and the route to Shechem and Bethel is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration is doubtful, and, from what is known of the situation in Palestine in the isth century B.C., is extremely improbable. Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua (q.v.) , partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf . also Josh. viii. 9 with Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any ethnological interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the Jordan; the presence of Aramaean blood among the Israelites (see JACOB) ; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites, these and other consideratons may readily be found to account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctu- ating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abra- ham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. 2 More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configura- tion of the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the xxiii. has been much exaggerated ; see S. R. Driver, Genesis, ad loc. ; S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses, p. 208. 1 See H. St. J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought, p. 69 seq. (1900). s On the other hand, the coincidences in xx. xxi. are due to E, who is also the author of xxii. Apart from these the narratives of Abraham are from J and P. destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities (see SODOM AND GOMORRAH). Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently. He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (q.v.), as the head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since Ur and IJaran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identi- fied with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evi- dence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram- Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. 3 But it is important to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and that the interesting discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on Babylonian contracts of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were " Amorites " in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, 4 he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds. "It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite an isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the only passage which presents Abraham in the character of a warrior, and connects him with historical names and political movements, and there are no clear marks by which it can be assigned to any one of the docu- ments of which Genesis is made up. Thus, while one school of interpreters finds in the chapter the earliest fragment of the political history of western Asia, some even holding with Ewald that the narrative is probably based on old Canaanite records, other critics, as Noldeke, regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively late in origin. On the latter view, which finds its main support in the intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest additions to the Pentateuch (Wellhausen and many others)." 6 On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar (i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with Kham- murabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (c. 2000 B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been connected with Eriaku of Larsa the reading has been ques- tioned a contemporary with Khammurabi. Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine Elamite name. Finally, the name of Tid'al, king of Goiim, may be identical with a certain Tudhulu the son of Gazza, a warrior, but appar- ently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and Goiim may stand for Gutim, the Guti being a people who lived to the east of Kurdistan. Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story, and at the most it can only be said that the author (of what- ever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy, source, and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian overlords has given expression to a possible situation. 6 The improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative remain 'According to Breasted (Amer. Journ. of Sent. Lit., 1904, p. 36), the "field of Abram " occurs among the places mentioned in the list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) in the loth century. See also his History of Egypt, p. 530. 4 The number is precisely that of the total numerical value of the consonants of the name "Eliezer " (Gen. xv. 2); an astral signi- fication has also been found. 6 W. R. Smith, Ency. Brit, (gth ed., 1883), art. " Melchizedek." " That the names may be those of historical personages is no proof of historical accuracy: "We cannot therefore conclude that the whole account is accurate history, any more than we can argue that Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geier stein is throughout a correct account of actual events because we know that Charles the Bold and Margaret of Anjou were real people " (W. H. Bennett, Century Bible: Genesis, p. 186). ABRAHAM ABRUZZI untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be historical. If, as most critics agree, it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible that a writer, preferably one who lived in the post-exilic age and was acquainted with Babylonian history, desired to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibit- ing his military success against the monarchs of the Tigris and Euphrates, the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his lofty character as displayed in his interview with Melchizedek. See further, Pinches, Old Test, in Light of Hist. Records, pp. 208- 236; Driver, Genesis, p. xlix., and notes on ch. xiv. ; Addis, Docu- ments of the Hexateuch, ii. pp. 208-213; Carpenter and Harford- Battersby, The Hexateuch, i. pp. 157-159, 168; Bezold, Bab.-Assyr. Keilinschriften, pp. 24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A. Jeremias, Altes Test, im Lichte d. Allen Orients**', pp. 343 seq.; also the literature to the art. GENESIS. Many fanciful legends about Abraham founded on Biblical accounts prspun out of the fancy are to be found in Joseph us, and in post-Biblical and Mahommedan literature; for these, re- ference may be made to Beer, .Leben Abrahams (1859); Griin- baum, Neue Beitrage z. semit. Sagenkunde, pp. 89 seq. (1893) ; the apocryphal "Testament of Abraham " (M. R. James in Texts and Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran, passim (1905). (S. A. C.) ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1709), Austrian divine, was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 1644. His real name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 he joined the order of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name by which he is known. In this order he rose step by step until he became prior provincialis and definitor of his province. Having early gained a great reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed court preacher at Vienna in 1669. The people flocked to hear him, attracted by the force and homeliness of his language, the grotesqueness of his humour, and the impartial severity with which he lashed the follies of all classes of society and of the court in particular. In general he spoke as a man of the people, the predominating quality of his style being an over- flowing and often coarse wit. There are, however, many pass- ages in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and uses more dignified language. He died at Vienna on the ist of December 1709. In his published writings he displayed much the same qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled Judas der Erzschelm (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695). His works have been several times reproduced in whole or in part, though with many spurious interpolations. The best edition is that published in 21 vols. at Passau and Lindau (1835-1854). See Th. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta 'Clara (Vienna, 1867); Blanckenburg, Studien iiber die Sprache Abrahams a S. C. (Halle, 1897); Sexto, Abraham a S. C. (Sigmaringen, 1896); Schnell, Pater A. a S. C. (Munich, 1895) ; H. Mareta, Ober Judas d. Erzschelm (Vienna, 1875). ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer and philosopher of Toledo. His historical work was the Book of Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down to the year 1161. This was a defence of the traditional record, and also contains valuable information for the medieval period. It was translated into Latin by Genebrad (1519). His philosophy was expounded in an Arabic work better known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah Ramah (Sublime Faith). This was translated into German by Weil (1882) . Ibn Baud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly neo-Platonists. Maimonides owed a good deal to him. ABRAHAMITES, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the i8th century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised Abraham. Believing in one God, they contented themselves with the Decalogue and the Paternoster. Declining to be classed either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph II. in 1781, and deported to various parts of the country, the men being drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics, and those who retained their " Abrahamite " views were not able to hand them on to the next generation. ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested England in Tudor times. The phrase is certainly as old as 1 561, and was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. The genuine Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge, soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane privi- lege was grossly abused, and thus gave rise to the slang phrase " to sham Abraham." ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantes line. Pop. (1900) 7255. Abrantes, which occupies the crest of a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a fortified town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and grain. As it commands the highway down the Tagus valley to Lisbon, it has usually been regarded as an important military position. Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 300 B.C., it received the name Aurantes from the Romans; perhaps owing to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the Tagus. Roman mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and other antiquities have been discovered in the neighbourhood. Abrantes was cap- tured on the 24th of November 1807 by the French under General Junot, who for this achievement was created duke of Abrantes. By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 1808) the town was restored to the British and Portuguese. ABRASION (from Lat. ah, off, and radere, to scrape), the process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin. In machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented as much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting and lubrication. Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive use of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery and carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their work. ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-salze, salts to be removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of salts, including halite, carnallite, kieserite, &c., found in association with rock- salt at Stassfurt in Prussia. ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX, a word engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used as amulets or charms. The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into use. The letters of ointed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, charged ith the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices and legends or medals. It consisted of four academicians: Chapelain, hen considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors of the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable de Bourzeis (1606- 1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), an antiquary of high repute among his contemporaries; and the abbe Jacques de Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his appointment more to the fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations of Cicero and Sallust. This company used to meet in Colbert's library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of the minister, who was always present. Their meetings were principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip- tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. Louvois, who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived the company, which had begun to relax its labours. Felibien, the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and Boileau, were added to their number. A series of medals was commenced, entitled Midailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other words, the history of the Grand Monarque. But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in- stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son, and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon, librarian to the king. By a new regulation, dated the i6th of July 1701, the Acadimie royale des inscriptions et medailles was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body: " The academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg- ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities, and of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success in labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most worthy objects of their pursuit." Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders), Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan; among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 1711 they completed L'Histoire metallique du roi, of which Saint- Simon was asked to write the preface. In 1716 the regent changed its title to that of the Acad&mie des inscriptions et belles- lettres, a title which better suited its new character. In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns which divided the learned world in the first half of the i8th century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu- tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published the 45th and 46th vols. of the M&moires de I'academie. On the 2nd of August of the same year the last seance of the old academy was held. More fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences, it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation. In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795, no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip- tions; but most of the members who survived found themselves 104 ACADEMIES re-elected either in the class of moral and political science, under which history and geography were included as sections, or more generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em- braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments. In 1816 the academy received again its old name. The Pro- ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown most originality are comparative mythology, the history of science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, GuUlaume J. de C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau, who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, A. Remusat, Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry. In consequence of the attention of several literary men in Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy was established in that city in 1805. Its objects were, first, the elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the Celto-British, Welsh and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating to Druidism. The attention of the members was also particu- larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was appointed president. The academy still exists as La societe nationale des antiquaires de France. Great Britain. The British Academy was the outcome of a meeting of the principal European and American academies, held at Wiesbaden in October 1899. A scheme was drawn up for an international association of the academies of the world under the two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the Royal Society adequatelyrepresented Englandinscience there was then no existing institution that could claim to represent England in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academies this chair was vacant. A plan was proposed by Professor H. Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council. The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a separate society, and invited certain persons to become the first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council. The objects of the academy are therein defined "the promo- tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council of fifteen elected annually by the fellows. Italy. Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy of Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti- quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its object was to explain the paintings, &c., discovered at those places. For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians, who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. They contain engravings of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures, medals, utensils, &c., with explanations. In the year 1807 an academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab- lished at Naples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, three names for each of those needed to complete the full number. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to the authors of four works which should be deemed by the academy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th of April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this institution. In the same year an academy was established at Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub- lished some volumes of memoirs. IV. ACADEMIES OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY Austria. The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla (1728-1 800) . For many years it did important work, and though closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools. France. Academic de Medecine. Medicine is a science which has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle- magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various societies have been founded, and privileges granted to the faculty by his successors. The A cademiede medecine succeeded to the old Academie royale de chirurgie et societe royale de medecine. It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December 20, 1820. It was divided into three sections medicine, surgery and pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Academie des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes. Germany. The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in 1662 by J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately ; but in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it was. published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but follows the home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden. By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi- dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or members. At their admission the last come under a twofold obligation first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated by any colleague of the academy ; and, secondly, to apply them- selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides. V. ACADEMIES or THE FINE ARTS France. The Acadimie royale de peinture et de sculpture at Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of Academie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united the Academie d' architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers. From among the members of the society who are painters, is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux arts at Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors, &c., who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense of the government, to complete their studies in that country. Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career in this way. The Academie nationale de musique is the official and adminis- trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the poet Ba'if established in his house a school of music, at which ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought ACADEMY from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Achille in Sciro, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli, and there were performed all Gluck's great operas; there Vestris danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's Devin du Village. Great Britain. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See ACADEMY, ROYAL.) The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London in 1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine musical library, and was aided by the performances of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish for many years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was formed for the performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The subscription amounted to 50,000, and the king, besides subscribing 1000, allowed the society to assume the title Royal. It consisted of a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis- solution of the academy after it had existed with honour for more than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 1830. It instructs pupils of both sexe,s in music. (See also the article CONSERVA- TOIRE for colleges of music.) Italy. In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the middle of the 1 8th century an academy of the arts was established there, after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were furnished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a gold medal. Before the effects of the French Revolution reached Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the academy were some admirable examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit, particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was restored in the end of the i8th century. In it there are halls for nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and the painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French. The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the French, dwindled into a petty school for drawing from living models. There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua, and another at Venice. Russia. The academy of St Petersburg was established in X 757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund for its support was 4000 per annum, and the foundation ad- mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate institution, augumented the annual revenue to 12,000, and increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed and lodged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read- ing, writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following arts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, enamelling, &c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, seal- cutting, &c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth, watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes are annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive during four years an annual salary of 60. The academy has a small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy. South America. There are several small academies in the various towns of South America, the only one of note being that of Rio de Janeiro, 'founded by John VI. of Portugal in 1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes. Spain. In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, was founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi- dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few students are supplied by government with the means of drawing and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase the requisite instruments are provided with them. Sweden. An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock- holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI. The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors and generally about four hundred students. Austria. In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of encouraging and promoting the fine arts. United States of America. In America the institution similar to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the academy. The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of books in the British Museum, "Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a complete bibliography. (F. S.) ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. dxaSij^eiaor waSy pia) , the name given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum. It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus, who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. dm. 13), who bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens. Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato (q.v.) , who had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach- ing by Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools. Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he composed his dialogue The Academic Questions. The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceable a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination as a real intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that the Academy has been divided into either two, three or five main sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally, in the days of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism io6 ACADEMY of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy. Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, " My words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?" And again : " The characteristic of the Academy is never to interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable, to compare together different opinions, to see what may be advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge without pretending to dogmatize." The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the general view that there were three academies: the first, or Old, academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus. Sextus notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy (i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero (de Oral. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro insist that there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those who maintain that there -is no justification for the five-fold division hold that the agnosticism of Carneades was really latent in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re- futing the Stoic criterion. The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to the inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors. Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: " Their writings and method contain all liberal learning, all history, all polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without their aid. ... In a word the Academy is, as it were, the workshop of every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high alti- tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited nothing, " nor amid all the learning which has been profusely lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc- tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their progress or regression " (Archer Butler, Led. on Anc. Phil. ii- 3I5)- The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero may be indicated briefly under four heads. (1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be .secondary to some other more fundamental principle of exist- ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha- gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles, one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in- fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful ,of Plato's successors. He distinguished three spheres, the sensible, the intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which corre- spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (56a). Cicero notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon the Socratic principle of hesitancy. (2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however, broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. Socrates had said, " This alone I know, that I know nothing." But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even the Socratic minimum of certainty: " I cannot know even whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic criticism. (3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder- ate scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of perception, the tpavratria KaraX^TTTi/oj, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of imagination (aVTaaia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable and attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid. In ethics he was an avowed sceptic. During his official visit to Rome, he gave public lectures, in which he successively proved and dis- proved with equal ease the existence of justice. (4) In the last period we find a tendency not only to reconcile the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to con- nect it with parallel growths of thought. Philo of Larissa en- deavours to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato, and further that the apparent antagonism between Plato and Zeno was due to the fact that they were arguing from different points of view. From this syncretism emerged the prudent non-committal eclecticism of Cicero, the last product of Aca- demic development. For detailed accounts of the Academicians see SPEUSIPPUS, XENOCRATES, &c. ; also STOICS and NEOPLATONISM. Consult his- tories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, ii. 270 (Eng. tr., London, 1905). ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, to give it the original title in full, was founded in 1768, " for the purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculp- ture and architecture." Many attempts had previously been made in England to form a society which should have for its object the advancement of the fine arts. Sir James Thornhill, his son-in-law Hogarth, the Dilettanti Society, made efforts in this direction, but their schemes were wrecked by want of means. Accident solved the problem. The crowds that attended an exhibition of pictures held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital for the benefit of charity, suggested a way of making money hitherto unsuspected. Two societies were quickly formed, one calling itself the " Society of Artists " and the other the " Free Society of Artists." The latter ceased to exist in 1774. The former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal charter under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain." But though prosperous it was not united. A number of the members, including the most eminent artists of the day, resigned in 1768, and headed by William Chambers the archi- tect, and Benjamin West, presented on z8th November in that year to George III., who had already shown his interest in the fine arts, a memorial soliciting his " gracious assistance, patron- age and protection," in " establishing a society for promoting the arts of design." The memorialists stated that the two prin- cipal objects they had in view were the establishing of " a well- regulated school or academy of design for the use of students in the arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of distin- guished merit; the profit arising from the last of these institu- tions " would, they thought, " fully answer all the expenses of the first," and, indeed, leave something over to be distributed " in useful charities." The king expressed his agreement with the proposal, but asked for further particulars. These were furnished to him on the 7th of December and approved, and on the icth of December they were submitted in form, and the docu- ment embodying them received his signature, with the words, " I approve of this plan; let it be put into execution." This document, known as the " Instrument," defined under twenty- seven heads the constitution and government of the Royal Academy, and contained the names of the thirty-six original members nominated by the king. Changes and modifications ACADEMY 107 in the laws and regulations laid down in it have of course been made, but none of them without the sanction of the sover- eign, and the " Instrument " remains to this day in all essential particulars the Magna Charta of the society. Four days after the signing of this document on the i4th of December twenty- eight of the first nominated members met and drew up the Form of Obligation which is still signed by every academician on receiv- ing his diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary, council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen t a further meeting held on the i7th. No time was lost in establishing the schools, and on the 2nd of January 1769 they were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of the site now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the presi- dent, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the first of his famous " discourses." The opening of the first exhibition at the same place followed on the 26th of April. The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply out of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve years he was called upon to do so, and contributed in all some- thing over 5000, but in 1781 there was a surplus, and no further call has ever been made on the royal purse. George III. also gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own palace of Somerset House, and the schools and offices were removed there in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held in Pall Mall, till the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset House, when the Academy took possession of the apartments in it which the king, on giving up the palace for government offices, had expressly stipulated should be provided. Here it remained till 1837, when the government, requiring the use of these rooms, offered in exchange a portion of the National Gallery, then just erected in Trafalgar Square. The offer, which contained no conditions, was accepted. But it was not long before the necessity for a further removal became imminent. Already in 1850 notice was given by the government that the rooms occupied by the Aca- demy would be required for the purposes of the National Gallery, and that they proposed to give the Academy 40,000 to provide themselves with a building elsewhere. The matter slumbered, however, till 1858, when the question was raised in the House of Commons as to whether it would not be justifiable to turn the Academy out of the National Gallery without making any pro- vision for it elsewhere. Much discussion followed, and a royal commission was appointed in 1863 " to inquire into the present position of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and ato the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies a portion of the National Gallery, &c." In their report, which contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, some of them since carried put, the commissioners stated that they had " come to the clear conclusion that the Royal Academy have no legal, but that they have a moral claim to apartments at the public expense." Negotiations had been already going on between the government and the Academy for the appropriation to the latter of a portion of the site occupied by the recently purchased Burlington House, on which the Academy offered to erect suitable buildings at its own expense. The negotiations were renewed in 1866, and in March in the following year a lease of old Burlington House, and a portion of the garden behind it, was granted to the Academy for 999 years at a peppercorn rent, subject to the condition that " the premises shall be at all times exclusively devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of the fine arts." The Academy immediately proceeded to erect, on the garden portion of the site thus acquired, exhibition galleries and schools, which were opened in 1869, further additions being made in 1884. An upper storey was also added to old Burlington House, in which to place the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of art. - Altogether the Academy, out of its accumulated savings, has spent on these buildings more than 160,000. They are its own property, and are maintained entirely at its expense. The government of the Academy was by the " Instrument " vested in " a president and eight other persons, who shall form a council." Four of these were to retire every year, and the seats were to go by rotation to every academician. The number was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten in 1875. The rules as to retirement and rotation are still in force. Newly elected academicians begin their two years' service as soon as they have received their diploma. The council 'has, to quote the "Instrument," "the entire direction and management of the business " of the Academy in all its branches; and also the framing of new laws and regulations, but the latter, before coming into force, must be sanctioned by the general assembly and approved by the sovereign. The general assembly consists of the whole body of academicians, and meets on certain fixed dates and at such other times as the business may require; also at the request to the president of any five members. The principal executive officers of the Academy are the president, the keeper, the treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all now elected by the general assembly, subject to the approval of the sovereign. The president is elected annually on the founda- tion day, loth December, but the appointment is virtually for life. No change has ever been made in the conditions attached to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried instead of an unsalaried post. The treasurership and librarian- ship, both offices originally held not by election but by direct appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, the holders being subject to re-election every five years, and the keepership is also held upon the same terms; while the* secretaryship, which up to 1873 had always been filled like the other offices by an academician, has since then been held by a layman. Other officers elected by the general assembly are the auditors (three academicians, one of whom retires every year), the visitors in the schools (academicians and associates), and the professors of painting, sculpture and architecture who must be members and of anatomy and chemistry. There are also a registrar, and curators and teachers in the schools, who are appointed by the council. The thirty-six original academicians were named by George III. Their successors have been elected, up to 1 867, by academi- cians only since that date by academicians and associates together. The original number was fixed in the " Instrument " at forty, and has so remained. Each academician on his election has to present an approved specimen of his work called his diploma work before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign for signature. On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general assembly. The class of associates, out of whom alone the academi- cians can be elected, was founded in 1769 they were " to be elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled to every advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, excepting that of having a voice in the deliberations or any share in the govern- ment of the Academy." Those exhibitors who wished to be- come candidates had to give in their names at the close of the exhibition. This condition no longer exists, candidates having since 1867 merely to be proposed and seconded by members of the Academy. On election, they attend at a council meeting to sign the Roll of Institution as an associate, and receive a diploma signed by the president and secretary. In 1867 also associates were admitted to vote at all elections of members; in 1868 they were made eligible to serve as visitors in the schools, and in 1886 to become candidates for the professorships of painting, sculpture and architecture. At first the number of associates was limited to twenty; in 1866 the number was made indefinite with a minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the minimum was raised to thirty. Vacancies in the lists of academi- cians and associates caused by death or resignation can be filled up at any time within five weeks of the event, except in the months of August, September and October, but a vacancy in the associate list caused by election only dates from the day on which the new academician receives his diploma. The mode of election is the same in both cases, first by marked lists and afterwards by ballot. All who at the first marking have four or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest then go to the ballot. Engravers have always constituted a separate io8 ACADEMY class, and up to 1855 they were admitted to the associateship only, the number, six, being in addition to the other associates; now the maximum is four, of whom not more than two may be academicians. A class of honorary retired academicians was established in 1862, and of honorary retired associates in 1884. The first honorary foreign academicians were elected in 1869. The honorary members consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a secretary for foreign correspondence, and professors of ancient history and ancient literature. These posts, which date from the foundation of the Academy, have always been held by distinguished men. Academy Schools. One of the most important functions of the Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged alone, was the instruction of students in art. The first act, as has been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to establish schools " an Antique Academy," and a " School for the Living Model " for painters, sculptors and architects. In the first year, 1769, no fewer than seventy-seven students entered. A school of painting was added in 1815, and special schools of sculpture and architecture in 1871. It would occupy too much space to follow the various changes that have been made in the schools since their establishment. In one important respect, however, they remain the same, viz. in the instruction being gratuitous no fees have ever been charged. Up to the removal of the Academy to its present quarters the schools could not be kept permanently open, as the rooms occupied by them were wanted for the exhibition. They are now open all the year round with the exception of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months of August and September. They consist of an antique school, upper and lower schools of painting, a school of drawing from the life, a school of modelling from the life and an architectural school. Ad- mission is gained by submitting certain specimens of drawing or modelling, and the successful candidates, called probationers, have then to undergo a further test in the schools, on passing which they are admitted as students for three years. At the end of that time they are again examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term of two years. These examinations are held twice a year, in January and July. Female students were first admitted in 1860. There are many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be gained by the various classes of students during the time of studentship, including travelling studentships of the value of 200 for one year, gold and silver medals, ahd prizes varying from 50 to 10. There are per- manent curators and teachers in all the schools, but the principal teaching is done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected to serve in each school. The average cost of maintaining these schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, prizes, books, main- tenance of building, &c., is from 5000 to 6000 a year, apart from certain scholarships and prizes derived from moneys given or be- queathed for this purpose, such as the Landseer scholarships, the Creswick prize, the Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship and gold medal. Charities. Another of the principal objects to which the profits of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been the relief of dis- tressed artists and their families. From the commencement of the institution a fund was set apart for this purpose, and subsequently a further sum was allotted to provide pensions for necessitous members of the Academy and their widows. Both these funds were afterwards merged in the general fund, and various changes have from time to time been made in the conditions under which pensions and donations have been granted and in their amount. At the present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount may be given to academicians and associates, sixty years of age, who have retired and whose circumstances show them to be in need, provided the sum given does not make their total annual income exceed a certain limit, and the same amounts can be given to their widows subject to the same conditions. No pensions are granted without very strict inquiry into the circumstances of the applicant, who is obliged to make a yearly declaration as to his or her income. The average annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about 2000. Pensions are also given according to the civil service scale to certain officers on retirement. It may be stated here that with the exception of these pensions and of salaries and fees for official services, no member of the Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the funds of the institution. Donations to distressed artists who are or have been exhibitors at the Royal Academy, their widows and children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice a year in February and August. The maximum amount that can be granted to any one applicant in one donation is 100, and no one can receive a grant more than once a year. The average yearly amount thus expended is from 1200 to 1500. In addition to these charities from its general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of artists, not members of the Academy, certain other funds which have been bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, viz. the Turner fund, the Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, the Newton bequest and the Edwards fund (see below). Exhibitions. The source from which have been derived the funds for carrying on the varied work of the Royal Academy, its schools, its charities and general cost of administration, and which has enabled it to spend large sums on building, and provided it with the means of maintaining the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions. With the exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some of which was spent in building the gallery containing the statues and bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions have provided the sole source of revenue, all other moneys that have come to the Academy having been either left in trust, or been constituted trusts, for certain specific purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained 136 works, of which more than one-half were contributed by members, and brought in 699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was 489, of which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum received was 3069: Is. This increase continued gradually with fluctuations, and in 1836, the last year at Somerset House, the number of works was 1154, and the receipts were 5179: 193. No great addition to the number of works exhibited took place at Trafalgar Square, but the receipts steadily grew, and their careful management enabled the Academy, when the time came for moving, to erect its own buildings and become no longer dependent on the government for a home. The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington House rendered it possible to increase the number of works exhibited, which of late years has reached a total of over 2000, while the receipts have also been such as to provide the means for further building, and for a largely increased expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted that the number of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed the space available. In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the number sent was 3011. This went on increasing, with occasional fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it reached the number of 13,462. The annual winter exhibition of works by old masters and deceased British artists was begun in 1870. It was never intended to be a source of revenue, but appreciation by the public has so far prevented it from being a cause of loss. The summer exhibition of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in May, and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter exhibition of works by deceased artists opens on the first Monday in January, and closes on the second Saturday in March. The galleries containing the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of art are open daily, free. Presidents of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1768- 1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt (president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820; Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820-1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830- 1850; Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850-1865; Sir Francis Grant, 1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878-1896; Sir John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896. The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with the history, the theory and the practice of the various branches of the fine arts, some of them of great rarity and value. It is open daily to the students and members, and to other persons on a proper introduction. The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are: The Turner fund (]. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides sixteen annuities of 50 each, for artists of repute not members of the Academy, also a biennial scholarship of 50 and a gold medal for a landscape painting. The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the income of which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, is spent on pictures and sculpture. (See CHANTREY.) The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides an annual prize of 30 for a landscape painting in oil. The Cooke fund (E. W. Cooke, R.A.), which provides two annuities of 35 each for painters not members of the Academy, over sixty years of age and in need. The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides four scholarships of 40 each, two in painting and two in sculpture, tenable for two years, open to students at the end of the first two years of studentship, and given for the best work done during the second year. The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R. A.), which provides two annual prizes of 30 and. 10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture. The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R. A.), which provides sevenannuities of 80 each for deserving artists, not members of the Academy, in need of assistance. The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an annual sum of 60 for the indigent widow of a painter. The Bizofund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific investigation into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c. The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing 40 a year for the benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers. The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received from Mrs Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their brother, the income from which, about 300, is expended on the decoration of public places and buildings. The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists chiefly of pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral value. More serious works are: William Sandby, The History of the Royal Academy of Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn from circulation on a question of copyright); Report from the Select Committee on Arts and their Con-, nexion with Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1836); Report of the Royal Commission on the Royal Academy, with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1863); Martin ACADIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA 109 Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A. Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860); C R. Leslie, R.A., and Torn Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A. (London, 1865); J. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late), and Fred. A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., " The Royal Academy in the Last Century," Art Journal, 1889-1891. But the chief sources of informa- tion on the subject are the minute-books of the council and of the general assembly, and the annual reports, which, however, only date from 1859. (F. A. E.) ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson in 1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and slates, with dark grey limestones, which are well developed at St John, New Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and Braintree in E. Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle Cambrian age and possess a Paradoxides fauna. They have been correlated with limestone beds in Tennessee, Alabama, Central Nevada and British Columbia (St Stephen). See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology, ist ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878. ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to that part of the mainland of North America lying between the latitudes 40 and 46. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the words used in transferring the French possessions to Britain were " Nova Scotia or Acadia." See NOVA SCOTIA for the limits included at that date under the term. ACANTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, para- sitic worms,' with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal, but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., " Worms, &c.," by permission of ' nillan & Co., Lid. FIG. i. A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus, Rud., attached to a iece of intestinal wall, X 4. B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified. leans of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly, forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus \igas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live in eat numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate, sually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the body cavity of some invertebrate, most often an insect or crustacean, more arely a small fish. The body is divisible into a proboscis and trunk with sometimes an intervening neck region. The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal ows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or tiree shapes. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its avity is separated from the body cavity by a septum or pro- oscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity (fig. 2). But he whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, ithdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two etractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the eptum to the body wall (fig. 3). The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this covers the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering, amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the syncytium is a not very regular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endo- thelium. In their minute structure the muscular fibres resemble those of Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longi- tudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base. From the circular canal two sac-like, diverticula called the From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. FIG. 2. A longitudinal section through the anterior end of Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from Hamann). a, The proboscis not fully ex- b, Proboscis-sheath. [panded. c, Retractor muscles of the pro- d, Cerebral ganglion. [boscis. e, Retinaculum enclosing a nerve. /, One of the retractors of the g, A lemniscus. [sheath. h, One of the spaces in the sub- cuticular tissue. *, Longitudinal muscular layer. ;', Circular muscular layer. k, Line of division between the sub-cuticular tissue of the trunk and that of the pro- boscis with the lemnisci. " lemnisci " depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when it is wished to expand the proboscis. There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for circula- tion or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala live. J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion. The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the proboscis- sheath or -septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2). Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the com- plex retains the old name of " reti