THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.

SECOND ten 1777—1784.

THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.

FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.

SIXTH twenty 1823—1824.

SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.

EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.

NINTH „, twenty-five 1875—1889.

TENTH „ ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME I

A to ANDROPHAGI

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910

NR

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company

DEDICATED BY PERMISSION

TO

HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH

KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS

EMPEROR OF INDIA

AND TO

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1970

PREFATORY NOTE

THE Encyclopedia Britannica, of which the Eleventh Edition is now issued by the
University of Cambridge, has a history extending over 140 years. The First Edition,
in three quarto volumes, was issued in weekly numbers (price 6d. each) from 1768 to
1771 by "a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland." The proprietors were Colin MacFarquhar, an
Edinburgh printer, and Andrew Bell, the principal Scottish engraver of that day. It seems that
MacFarquhar, a man of wide knowledge and excellent judgment, was the real originator of the
work, though his want of capital prevented his undertaking it by himself. The work was edited
and in great part written by William Smellie, another Edinburgh printer, who was bold enough
to undertake "fifteen capital sciences" for his own share. The numerous plates were engraved
by Bell so admirably that some of them have been reproduced in every edition down to the
present one.

The plan of the work differed from all preceding "dictionaries of arts and sciences," as
encyclopaedias were usually called until then in Great Britain; it combined the plan of Dennis de
Coetlogon (1745) with that in common use — on the one hand keeping important subjects together,
and on the other facilitating reference by numerous and short separate articles arranged in
alphabetical order. Though the infant Encyclopedia Britannica omitted the whole field of history
and biography as beneath the dignity of encyclopaedias, it speedily acquired sufficient popularity to
justify the preparation of a new edition on a much larger scale. The decision to include history
and biography caused the secession of Smellie; but MacFarquhar himself edited the work, with
the assistance of James Tytler, famous as the first Scottish aeronaut, and for the first time produced
an encyclopaedia which covered the whole field of human knowledge. This Second Edition was
issued in numbers from June 1777 to September 1784, and was afterwards bound up in ten quarto
volumes, containing (8595 pages and 340 plates) more than three times as much material as the
First Edition.

These earliest editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica consisted mainly of what may be
described as compilation; like all their predecessors, from the time of Alsted to that of Ephraim
Chambers, they had been put together by one or two men who were still able to take the whole of
human knowledge for their province. It was with the Third Edition that the plan of drawing on
specialist learning, which has since given the Encyclopedia Britannica its high reputation, was first
adopted. This edition, which was begun in 1788 and completed, in eighteen volumes, in 1797, was
edited by MacFarquhar until his death in 1793, when about two-thirds of the work were completed.
Bell, the surviving proprietor, then appointed George Gleig — afterwards Bishop of Brechin — as

vii

viii PREFATORY NOTE

editor, and it was he who enlisted the assistance, as contributors, of the most eminent men of science
then living in Scotland. Professors Robison, Thomas Thomson and Playfair were the most
notable of these new specialist contributors, and a Supplement in two volumes was issued in 1801
to allow them to extend their work to those earlier letters of the alphabet which had already been
issued by MacFarquhar. It was their labours which first gave the Encyclopedia Britannica its
pre-eminent standing among works of reference, and prepared the way for it to become, as a later
editor claimed, not merely a register but an instrument of research, since thereafter the leading
specialists in all departments were invited to contribute their unpublished results to its pages.

In the Fourth Edition, published by Andrew Bell in twenty volumes from 1 80 1 to 1810, the
principle of specialist contributions was considerably extended, but it was only brought to such
degree of perfection as was possible at the time by Archibald Constable, "the great Napoleon of the
realms of print," who purchased the copyright of the Encyclopedia Britannica soon after Bell's death
in 1809. Constable lavished his energy and his money on the famous "Supplement to the Fourth,
Fifth and Sixth Editions," which in 1813 he commissioned Macvey Napier to edit. It was with
the appearance of this Supplement that the Encyclopedia Britannica ceased to be a purely Scottish
undertaking, and blossomed out into that great cosmopolitan or international enterprise which it has
since become. The most eminent writers, scholars and men of science in England and on the
continent of Europe, as well as in Scotland itself, were enlisted in the work: Sir Walter Scott,
Jeffrey, Leslie, Playfair and Sir Humphry Davy, Dugald Stewart — who received the then unpre-
cedented sum of .£1000 for a single contribution — Ricardo, Malthus and Thomas Young, with
foreign men of science like Arago and Biot. From this time onward, indeed, a list of the
contributors to successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica would be a list of the most
eminent British and American writers and thinkers of each generation; the work had become the
product of the organized co-operation of acknowledged leaders of the world's thought in every
department of human knowledge. For this advance the credit is mainly due to Constable.

The Fifth and Sixth Editions, each in twenty volumes, issued by Constable between 1815 and
1824, were practically reprints of the Fourth, the Supplement — issued in six volumes from 1816 to
1824 — being considered adequate to supply their deficiencies. The Seventh Edition, edited by
Macvey Napier on the same lines as the Supplement, of which it incorporated a great part, was
brought out by a new publisher, Adam Black, who had bought the copyright on Constable's failure.
This edition was issued from 183010 1842, and was comprised in twenty-one volumes, which included
a general index to the whole work. The Eighth Edition, under the editorship of T. Stewart Traill,
was issued by the firm of A. & C. Black, from 1853 to 1860, in twenty-one volumes, with a separate
index volume.

The Ninth Edition was then undertaken by the same firm on a scale which Adam Black con-
sidered so hazardous that he refused to have any part in the undertaking, and he accordingly
advertised his retirement from the firm. This Edition began to appear in 1875, under the editor-
ship of Thomas Spencer Baynes, and was completed in 1889 by William Robertson Smith. It
consisted of twenty-four volumes, containing 21,572 pages and 302 plates, with a separate index
volume. Adam Black's prognostications of failure were signally falsified by the success of the work,
of which nearly half a million sets — including American pirated and mutilated editions — were
ultimately sold. The great possibilities of popularity for the Encyclopedia Britannica in Great

PREFATORY NOTE ix

Britain were only realized, however, when in 1898 The Times undertook to sell a verbatim reprint of
the Ninth Edition at about half the price originally asked for it by the publishers. The success of
this reprint led to the publication by The Times in 1902 of an elaborate supplement in eleven New
Volumes (one containing new maps and one a comprehensive index to the whole work), constituting,
with the previous twenty-four volumes, the Tenth Edition. The Eleventh Edition, which super-
sedes both Ninth and Tenth, and represents in an entirely new and original form a fresh survey
of the whole field of human thought and achievement, written by some 1500 eminent specialists
drawn from nearly every country of the civilized world, incorporating the results of research and the
progress of events up to the middle of 1910, is now published by the University of Cambridge,
where it is hoped that the Encyclopedia Britannica has at length found a permanent home.

It will be seen from this brief survey of the history of the Encyclopedia Britannica that, while
the literary and scholarly success of the work has been uniform and continuous, its commercial
career has naturally been subject to vicissitudes. Six different publishing firms have been at
various times associated, with its production; and the increasing magnitude of the work, con-
sequent on the steady growth of knowledge, made this wellnigh inevitable. The Encyclopedia
Britannica has to-day become something more than a commercial venture, or even a national
enterprise. It is a vast cosmopolitan work of learning, which can find no home so appropriate
as an ancient university.

The present publication of the new Encyclopedia Britannica by the University of Cambridge
is a natural step in the evolution of the university as an educational institution and a home
of research. The medieval University of Cambridge began its educational labours as an
institution intended almost exclusively for the instruction of the clergy, to whose needs its
system of studies was necessarily in a large measure accommodated. The Revival of Learning,
the Renaissance and the Reformation widened its sphere of intellectual work and its interests,
as well as its actual curriculum. The igth century saw the complete abolition of the
various tests which formerly shut the gates of the English universities against a large part of
the people. The early establishment in Cambridge of special colleges for women was also a
sign of expanding activities. About the same time the University Extension movement, first
advocated at Cambridge in 1871 on the ground that the ancient universities were not mere
clusters of private establishments but national institutions, led to a wider conception of the
possibilities of utilizing the intellectual resources of the universities for the general diffusion of
knowledge and culture; and the system of Local Examinations brought the university into close
contact with secondary education throughout the country. But the public to which the University
of Cambridge thus appealed, though wider than that of the college lecture-rooms, was still
necessarily limited. Practically it is only through the medium of the University Press that
Cambridge can enter into and maintain direct relations with the whole of the English-speaking
world. The present time seems appropriate for an effort towards thus signally extending the
intellectual and educational influence of the university.

To this end, the University of Cambridge has undertaken the publication of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and now issues the Eleventh Edition of that work. These twenty-eight volumes and
index aim at achieving the high ambition of bringing all extant knowledge within the reach of
every class of readers. While the work, in its present form, is to some extent based on the

x PREFATORY NOTE

preceding edition, the whole field has been re-surveyed with the guidance of the most eminent
specialists. The editors early decided that the new edition should be planned and written as a
whole, and refused to content themselves with the old-fashioned plan of regarding each volume as a
separate unit, to be compiled and published by itself. They were thus able to arrange their material
so as to give an organic unity to the whole work and to place all the various subjects under
their natural headings, in the form which experience has shown to be the most convenient for
a work of universal reference. An important consequence of this method of editing is that the
twenty-eight volumes are now ready for publication at the same time, and that the complete work
can be offered to the public in its entirety. Although the work has been reduced to the smallest
compass consistent with lucidity — bibliographies of all subjects which call for assistance of this
nature being provided in aid of more detailed study — the aim throughout has been to maintain the
highest standard of scholarly authority, and to provide a thorough elucidation of important scientific
problems for which the modern inquirer has no adequate text-books. This Eleventh Edition
of the Encyclopedia Britannica is now, therefore, offered to the public by the University of
Cambridge in the hope and belief that it will be found to be a trustworthy guide to sound learning,
and an instrument of culture of world-wide influence.

CAMBRIDGE,

November I,

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

IN the Prefatory Note the history of the production of the successive editions of the Encyclopedia
Britannica has been briefly told; and elsewhere in these volumes, under the heading of
ENCYCLOPAEDIA (vol. ix. p. 369), an account is given in greater detail of the particular form of
literature to which that name applies. It is no longer necessary, as was done in some of the
earlier editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to defend in a Preface the main principle of the system
by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan under the headings most directly
suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of an arrangement of material
based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper names has established of the book
itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to the multiplication
of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution of the Eleventh
Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn.

The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors.

It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In
addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and

simple, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannica has always been to give reasoned dis-

..,,.. . A Debt to earlier

cussions on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the e<jitions

results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are
themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of
systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources
through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches
of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor — for the

name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol-

...-,-»...,. • r u • • 11 • j • • *r. Their special

umes which left the main fabric untouched — was universally recognized as giving me .

most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus
gained by the Encyclopedia Britannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship —
the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge — carries with
it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet
in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment
must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this
respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great
services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia
Britannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car-
ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work.1 To

1 In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the
Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article DRAMA, may be cited: — "It is proper to state here . . . that this article is reprinted as it originally
appeared in the supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of this work without any of those adaptations which the course of time and change

xi

xii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest,
and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a
new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work
contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which
in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation.

• In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the
Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is
that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision — is, indeed, a new edifice as com-
pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter
there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the
conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication.

The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopaedia otherwise than
in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered
prohibitive. Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875
mand the twenty-fifth in 1889, was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep-
tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the
possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1881 when Spencer
Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same
editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang-
ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopaedia
can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from
the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of
knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol-
umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in
another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical
order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but
each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered, and there is every

Defect of chance that some integral portion of what had previously been published may be

division under . ... . _, ., . .. «•/*.!. -NT- ^ T-J^- c ^i

different dates stultified. Those who were responsible for the execution of the Ninth Edition of the

Encyclopedia Britannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a
collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a
modern public for "up-to-date-ness" had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason-
able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria.
But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that
made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question,
later history could be added. It was the fact that, owing to its system of publication, its arrangement
was not encyclopaedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being
systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been
written originally on a faulty principle.

Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued
by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any

work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume.
^h'dn I*1"* On this svstem the Public has been furnished with the Oxford New English Diction-
employed. ary (st^ incomplete in 1910, though work had begun in the early 'sixties and the first

volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French
La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica
to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained
in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which

of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cases. We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose
splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as it proceeded from his own hand,
leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh
Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the
Seventh Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth!

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xiii

converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, made it imperative to
extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a
new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of
facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was
bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other
sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects
the convenience of the purchaser — as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modern History;
the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency-
clopaedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes,
and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in
such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the
organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and
the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start
the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the
knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, such a worif^
whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many
distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling.
And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly
more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the
old system.

The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an
entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre-
cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given
to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared .
with other encyclopaedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study n0ss/6/e.
or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which
resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to
learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention
be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required
for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the
subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it
was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as
the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed
that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress
of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously
no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned
on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail,
irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed
in all its parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to
represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole
was issued.

This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora-
tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis-
appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the
new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site — in this "T^
case the whole field of knowledge — was mapped out afresh under the advice of special-
ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different
areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi-
ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a
more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who
dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial
direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica an organic unit.

xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than
had been included in the Ninth Edition — some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul-
taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance hi
.. a work of reference to be applied systematically by the editorial staff. The authority

which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important
feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the
Encyclopaedia Britannica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his
preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said: — "The use of initials (as signatures to articles)
was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge
which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated
/ th it °^ m ^e ^»cyeto£a«Ka, but no effort has been spared on the part of the editorial staff to
secure the accuracy and sufficiency of every contribution, and to prevent those repeti-
tions and inconcinnities which necessarily occur where each contributor is absolutely and solely re-
sponsible for the articles which bear his name." The principle here enunciated, which represents the
tradition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the matter of the correct relationship between editors and
contributors, and the responsibility attaching to individual signatures, has been adopted hi the
Eleventh Edition, but with all the advantages resulting alike from simultaneous production and
from the fact that the Editor-in-Chief was assisted by a much larger staff, working under conditions
which enabled the editorial control to be effective to a degree unattainable under the earlier
system. In concert with the numerous eminent writers whose signatures give individual inter-
est and weight to their contributions, the whole work — and not only the unsigned articles,
fo^reference" >many °^ Wflicn indeed have equally high authority behind them — passed through the
detailed scrutiny of the editorial staff, whose duty it was to see that it provided what
those who used any part of the book could reasonably expect to find, to remedy those "inconcinnities"
to which Robertson Smith alluded, and to secure the accuracy in the use of names, the inclusion of dates,
and similar minutia, which is essential in a work of reference.

A great deal of the older fabric was obviously incompatible with the new scheme of treatment; but,

where possible, those earlier contributions have been preserved which are of the nature of classics in the

world of letters. By a selective process which, it is believed, gives new value to the old

material ' material — by the revision, at the hands of their own authors or of later authorities, of

such articles or portions of articles as were found to fit accurately into their several places

—or by the inclusion under other headings of a consideration of controverted questions on which the

writers may have taken a strong personal view, itself of historical interest — their retention has been effected

so as to conform to the ideal of making the work as a whole representative of the best thought of a later

day.

Questions of Formal Arrangement.

Both hi the addition of new words for new. subjects, and in the employment of different words
for old subjects, the progress of the world demands a reconsideration from time to time of the

headings under which its accumulated experiences can best be presented in a work which
. ,. employs the dictionary plan as a key to its contents. No little trouble was therefore

expended, in planning the Eleventh Edition, on the attempt to suit the word to the sub-
ject in the way most likely to be generally useful for reference. While the selection has at times been,
of necessity, somewhat arbitrary, it has been guided from first to last by an endeavour to follow the
natural mental processes of the average educated reader. But it was impossible to interpret what

is "natural" in this connexion without consideration for the advances which have

been made hi terminological accuracy, alike in the technicalities of science and
and common J'

sense. m "** f°rms °* language adopted by precise writers, whose usage has become or

is rapidly becoming part of the common stock. The practice of modern schools

and the vocabulary of a modern curriculum, as well as the predominating example of expert

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xv

authorities, impose themselves gradually on the public mind, and constitute new conventions which
are widely assimilated. In forecasting what would be for the convenience of a new generation of
readers, it has seemed best to aim at adopting the nearest approach to correct modern terminology,
while avoiding mere pedantry on the one hand, and on the other a useless abandonment of well-
established English custom.

It is easier, however, to lay down principles than to carry them out consistently in face of the ob-
stinacy of the materials with which one is dealing in an encyclopaedia which attempts to combine accu-
rate scholarship with general utility and convenience. In the case of biographical articles, _. ,
for instance, it was decided that the proper headings were the names by which the in-
dividuals concerned are in fact commonly known. Thus "George Sand" is now dealt with under her
pen-name (SAND, GEORGE) and not under that of Madame Dudevant; "George Eliot" is no longer hid-
den away under her married name of Mrs Cross; and "Mark Twain" is taken as the permanent name
by which the world will know Mr Clemens. But it is not only in the case of pseudonyms that there
is. a difficulty in deciding upon the heading which is most appropriate. In variance with
the practice of the Dictionary of National Biography, all articles on titled persons are here etJ^"tf
arranged under the title headings and not the family names. In principle it is believed
that this is much the more convenient system, for in most cases the public (especially outside the British
Islands) does not know what the family name of an English peer may be. Moreover, the system adopted
by the Dictionary of National Biography sacrifices a very important feature in connexion with these bio-
graphical articles, namely, the history of the title itself, which has often passed through several families
and can only be conveniently followed when all the holders are kept together. As a rule, this system
of putting peers under the headings of their titles agrees with the principle of adopting the names by
which people actually are called; but sometimes it is too glaringly otherwise. Nobody would think of
looking for Francis Bacon under the heading of Viscount St Albans, or for Horace Walpole under that
of Earl of Orford. In such cases what is believed to be the natural expectation of readers has
been consulted. The exceptional use, however, of the family name as a heading for persons of title has
been reserved strictly for what may be regarded as settled conventions, and where reasonably possi-
ble the rule has been followed; thus Harley and St John are dealt with as Earl of Oxford and Viscount
Bolingbroke respectively. On the other hand, when a celebrity is commonly known, not under his
family name but under a title which eventually was changed for a different one of higher rank, the more
convenient arrangement has seemed to be — notwithstanding general usage — to associate the article with
the higher title, and so to bring it into connexion with the historical peerage. Thus the account of the
statesman commonly called by his earlier title of Earl of Danby is deliberately placed
under his later title of Duke of Leeds, and that of Lord Castlereagh under Marquess of Use of the
Londonderry. If the result of such exceptions to the rule might seem to be that in cer-
tain cases a reader would not know where to turn, the answer is that a reference to the Index, where cross-
references are given, will decide. In the text of the work, although a great deal has been done to refer
a reader from one article to another, mere cross-references — such as " Oanby, Earl of; see LEEDS, DUKE
or" — are not included as distinct entries; it was found that the number of such headings would
be very large, and they would only have duplicated the proper function of the Index, which
now acts in this respect as the real guide to the contents and should be regarded as an integral part of
the work.

The reference just made to the Dictionary of National Biography may here be supplemented by a
few words as to the British biographies in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The
whole standard of biographical writing of this kind has undoubtedly been raised by the labours of Sir
Leslie Stephen, Dr Sidney Lee, and their collaborators, in the compilation of that invaluable work; and
no subsequent publication could fail to profit, both by the scholarly example there set,

and by the results of the original research embodied in it. But in the corresponding Progress in

,. , . ,, „ , ,. ° . treatment of

articles in the hncydopodia Bntanmca advantage has been taken of the opportunity for biography.

further research and the incorporation of later information, and they represent an in-
dependent study, the details of which sometimes differ from what is given in the Dictionary, but must
not for that reason be thought in haste to be incorrect. Allowance being made for a somewhat different

xvi EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

standard in the selection of individuals for separate biographies, and for the briefer treatment, the at-
tempt has been made to carry even a step forward the ideals of the Dictionary in regard to accuracy of
detail and critical judgment. This has largely been made possible by the existence of the Dictionary,
but the original work done in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the same field-
drawing as it can upon a number of biographical articles, already classics, hi its earlier editions — gives

it an independent authority even in the sphere of British national biography. More-
character over' ^e mclusi°n o* biographies of eminent persons who died after the Dictionary was

supplemented in 1901, and of others still living in 1910, results hi a considerable extension
of the biographical area, even as regards individuals of British nationality hi the narrowest sense. The
articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, however, are of course not limited to personages of the British
Islands. Not only are biographies here included of the great men and women of French, German,
Italian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Scandinavian, Japanese, and other foreign nationalities, as well as
of those of the ancient world, but the same standard of selection has been applied to American and
British Colonial biography as to English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. Indeed the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica may now claim for the first time to supply a really adequate Dictionary of American National
Biography, covering all those with whom the citizens of the United States are nationally concerned.
It thus completes its representation of the English-speaking peoples, to all of whom English
history, even in its narrower sense, is a common heritage, and in its evolution a common ex-
ample.

Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in
the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries

into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can
sa^ to ^e un^versa^> though in particular cases there is a convention which it would
names. aDSUrd to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would

be pragmatical hi the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of call-
ing all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had
a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the
English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomen-
clature is desirable and feasible, but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutschland
and the French I'Allemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly

Cologne (Koln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English
CU bl ° names m an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds hi less

important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different
English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give
them several varieties of form ; and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference
for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society
of London — the premier geographical society of the world — might co-operate hi an attempt to secure

the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The
art/ lar Society, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this require-
ment, though it has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's
system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very
large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The co-operation of the Royal
Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopedia Britannica to give prominent literary
expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was
found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent
spelling which would represent its own judgment and authority. It is hoped that by degrees this spell-
ing may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized
by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of trans-
literation, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some
form of Anglicization becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart
from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most authori-

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xvii

tative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being
given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European na-
ion in possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international „ .
agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common
nglish variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none per-
istent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with
he least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called
Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard
\.o its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the German official nomenclature, from the older
English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still
perpetuate it.

In the case of personal names, wherever an English spelling has become sufficiently established
both in literature and in popular usage it has been retained, irrespectively of any strict linguistic value.
Foreign names in English shape really become English words, and they are so treated
here; e.g. Alcibiades (not Alkibiades), Juggernaut (not Jagganath). But discrimination
as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made /anguages,
all the more difficult, especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental
originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ-
ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In
the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, various eminent
Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the
Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well-
established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the
Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per-
sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we
believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental names had
been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention
of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and
customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names in the headings and for ordinary use through-
out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article.
While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex-
ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of
Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have
been specially prepared for each language ; for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted,
but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed
to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article BABYLONIA
is specially devoted to an elucidation of the divergences between the renderings given by individual
Assyriologists.

While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature,
at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition
makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood
that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and
personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get
the public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in
purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate
pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical
weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long
as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly
pronounced — and it will be long before these conditions can be fulfilled — even a phonetic system of spell-
ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already
exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than to invent a new one. The point
is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very

xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

essentials of the comprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical

signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except within the narrowest of sects.

This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader

is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected, — to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub-

m~ stantially applies to many other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome

to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring

accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encyclopaedia Britannica is

intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship

to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high

education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the

world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to

be a stranger.

With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous
editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and
to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which
would more naturally form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now
been made to arrange the material rather according to the heading under which, in an
encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the
technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c., would be
discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters of a continuous treatise.
But each such chapter or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the
dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha-
betical order of headings. Under the name of the common subject of the science as a
encyclopaedia . , ., , . , ,

method. whole, its history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the

separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter — on each of which often
a single specialist has unique authority — are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which
the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific
material — a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the
general account of details which would overload it — has been adopted throughout the Eleventh
Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more
authoritative survey has been attained, within the limits possible to such a work, than ever
before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only
cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general
heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all
T , anywhere in the book; whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing

^ S//I^/C ... ,, , _ 1.1 • • i " r

treatise. headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or

less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in
detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of
an intelligent reader.

In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions

as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at

independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original

headings form of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to make separate headings of any words

which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological

reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers.1 The labours of Sir James

Murray and his colleagues on the Oxford New English Dictionary, which has only become accessible

since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published, have enabled a precise

examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words,

together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings

1 Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their
interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among
the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The Index in all such
cases must be consulted, whether for word or name.

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix

under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan,
combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a
comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As
a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the professional
<)r scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to any one speaking the

English language; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology in ImPortance of
,. , ,. , . . ' ., , , ,,. ,. °J , terminological

any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuracy,

still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to impart instruc-
tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the
educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated,
and connected with the facts for which properly they stand.

Some Points as to Substance.

In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it may be remarked
first that, as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has
been dominated throughout by the historical point of view. Any account which
purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether hi the realm of mind or in ,. * \ff '/"' ,°
that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but
what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the
historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under-
stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have
been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art
and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, — all
subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the
successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their own account, but also throw light on what
goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely
widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther
and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only
by the date at which the Encyclopedia Britannica is published. Any contemporary description is
indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the
available resources have >been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn
of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as part of a con-
sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be
true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia
to prophesy.

In this connexion it is advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been
incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic
development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available
is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics.
to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of
the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially
for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an
encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such
a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con-
siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by
accident is the last before publication would often be entirely misleading, owing to their being
subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included
in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive
accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing
concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by,

xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

and new statistics on all subjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their
historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted
simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their
precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much
has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or
in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as
it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from
the fact that statistics are inserted not as events in themselves — this they may or may not be,
according to the subject-matter — but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human
activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed
hi the balance of the judicious historian.

While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must
be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over

, ,, the construction of the work as a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its
The spirit of .

science execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it,

that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every
subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or
any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme,
each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter-
dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the
treatment of any large subject. Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the
system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the
scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual
treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion, — the
increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and controversy
objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism.

The title of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of
natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a

considerable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount of
The compara- . ...... • -r,

tive method, information it contains concerning the corresponding activities m other countries. By

approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every
department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have
arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is
appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But
the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense : new branches of study have arisen which
are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given
to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion,
folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail
which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce
to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered
of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and
expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming
him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited by the comparative method in
recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient
is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both
the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Com-
parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy.
The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings,
in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each
particular structure, but with the corresponding features in the rest of the animal kingdom, the study
of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy
and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter-

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi

connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and
progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society.

In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Britannica in relation to the active con-
troversies of the time," Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition
(1875), referred to the conflict of opinion then raging in regard to religion and
science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon .
to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to
deal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot
be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy." The same policy has in-
spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopedia Britannica itself has no side or party; it attempts
to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and
controversy at all, it is manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless; its value as a source of
authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were
iot able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar-
tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat-
sfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far' as criticism is concerned, in
such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without prejudice to the
argument. The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out
altogether; that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is
only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine
and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub-
jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid
the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another,
impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent
opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms,
and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it. In order to give the fullest
expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con-
tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. They have been selected as representative after the most careful con-
sideration and under the highest sense of editorial responsibility. The proportion of space devoted
to these subjects is necessarily large, because they bulk largely in the minds of thinking people;
and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative
claims may naturally vary. The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre-
sent Western civilization are, however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus
is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time
of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at that
time raged round the application of historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less
acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary
history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religion
which formerly prevailed. Science and theology have learnt to dwell together; and a reverent
attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined,
without arriere-pensee, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and
development.

Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less
than the literary text; and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography
and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was
possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye,
and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material
in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text; and a
large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration
represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The
microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the

xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art.
Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete
examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has
co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible
their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of
beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account.
Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which
they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope,
orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view; either the cartographers have
worked with the text before them — often representing new geographical authority on the part of
the contributors — or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff
as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that
any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general
index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes
of Gotha, the publishers of Stieler's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis; and the others
have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial
staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout
been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition.

Conclusion.

In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large
number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be
glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the
list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to
give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken
an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for
the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular
sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and Botany, which were under
the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and
Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's
Advisers on assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative
special Anatomy (in association with Mr F. G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The

subjects. whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and

Dr Rendle; and their supervision, in all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer-
ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by Mr H.
B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of
Topographical Geology, Dr J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr
F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon
Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A.
Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was
responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly,
Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the
Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and
Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help.

Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E.
M. Walker of Oxford, as regards subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge,
who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning
generally; Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with
Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted on Jewish subjects.
Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas

EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii

Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance in regard to
their various subjects were— Lord Rayleigh and Mr W. C. D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir
Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir E. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H.
Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr
T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof. W. E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A.
Grierson (Indian Languages), the Rev. G. W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman
History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr
W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W. F. Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art),
Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof. J. G. Robertson
(German Literature), Mr J. S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music),
Prof. H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W. M. Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of
Harvard (American Physiography).

These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the
editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh
Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining
their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which SUpp0rt.
it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which
drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate
information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion,
to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here. The
interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII.
graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to be used for the purpose
of making the coloured plates which accompany the article KNIGHTHOOD. Makers of history like Lord
Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while
not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of
institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental
or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers, — from many such quarters answers
have been freely given to applications for information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia
Britannica.

In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his
chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity. Prof. J. T. Shotwell,
of Columbia University, U.S.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint _. _. „
Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant-
Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the
direction of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and
with articles on American subjects; to his loyal and efficient co-operation, both on the special subjects
assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot
be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart-
ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T. A. Ingram, Mr H. M. Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R.
Howarth, Mr F. R. Cana, Mr C. O. Weatherly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove,
Mr C. F. Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev. A. J. Grieve, Mr. W. E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur
B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a
special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control.
On the New York staff Mr Whinery had the efficient help of Mr R. Webster, Dr N. D. Mereness, Dr
F. S. Philbrick, Dr W. K. Boyd, Dr W. O. Scroggs, Mr W. T. Arndt, Mr W. L. Corbin and Mr G. Gladden.

A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the
Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double
purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be The jndex
made for compiling the Index which would eventually be published; and as the reference-
cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different
writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points
of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes

xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION

much in this way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular
mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published,
represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department ; and in order to put it into
shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction
of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use
of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents,
brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of
the work itself, — a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public.

HUGH CHISHOLM.

LONDON,

December 10, 1910.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME I. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. A. R.*

A. C. L.
A. D.
A. E. S.

A. F. B.
A. F. P.

A. Gir.

A. G. H.
A. H. J. G.

A. J. B.
A. J. G.

A. Mw.

A. M. C.
A. M. Cl.

C. E.*

C. F. A.

ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J

Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin H Airy.
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. L

SIR ALFRED COMYN LYALL, K.C.B. f Abdur Rahman;

See the biographical article: LYALL, SIR A. C. L Afghanistan: History.

AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / Addison (in part).

See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN.

ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology in Cam- "i Acanthocephala.
bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.

ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Alpaca.

Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. f

Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford ; Professor of English History in the University -j Aconcio.
of London. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. I

ARTHUR GIRAULT.

Professor of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the "j Algeria: History.
International Colonial Institute. Author of Principes de colonisation (1907-1908). L

A. G. HADCOCK (late R.A.)

Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

J Ammunition (in part).

ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). ,.

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's H Agrarian Laws {in part),
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law, &c.

ALFRED JOSHUA BUTLER, M.A., D.LITT. J* Abyssinian Church.

Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. L

REV. ALEXANDER J. GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Adoptianism; Alford;

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent"! AiCAn \j . Amhrnea Q*
College, Bradford. I A1SOp' V'' Ambrose' st-

ALLAN MAWER M.A. J JEthelflaed; JEthelred L;

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- -j jpth-ietan- ZFth»l«iPirri
Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Algol.

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \

AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f

Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of 4 Agrarian Laws (m part).

Roman History, 133-70 B.C.

. Acclimatization.

ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article : WALLACE, A. R.

ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A., LL.D. (Glasgow). f ..

Fellow of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford; formerly Reader in Greek, Oxford Uni- H Aeschylus.
versity.

ARTHUR WILLEY, D.Sc., F.R.S. J Amphioxus.

Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon.

ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.

BUDGETT MEAKIN (d. 1906).

Author of The Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire; &c.

CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., LITT.D. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article : BEMONT, C.

CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.

Magdalen College, Oxford.

'CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

L

/Aberdeen, 4th Earl of.

L

J Almohades (in part);
\ Almoravides (in part).

•; Agenais.

f Algebra: History.

\

Alexandria: Battle.

.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 American Civil War;
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [Ammunition (in part).

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.

xxv

xxvi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

C. F. R. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, PH.D. f Alcott, A. B.;

Professor of English, Dartmouth College, U.S.A. \ Alcott L M

C. L. H. CALDWELL LIPSETT. J _

Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. 1 Amdi; Agra.

C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. i

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J ., , - c

potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1 Aiexana r 01 bervia.
1902-1903. [

C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. I"

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -j Alcuin.
£tudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.

C. PI. REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f

Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred the •< Alfred the Great.
Great; &c. Ford's Lecturer, 1901.

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr.

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of J Andrew of Lonejumeau
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1
Author oi'Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [

C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f j£tnelred II

King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. 1

C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f , .

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \ Advertisement (in part).

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Abu Hanifa;

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. | Ahmad Ibn Hanbal.

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899-
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at

Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Amasia; Anazarbus.

D. H. DAVID HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, .
1217-1688 ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.

Adalia; Adana; Aegean
Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo;
Alexandria; Alexandretta;
Alexandria Troas;

Abbadides; Abd-Ar-Rahman;
Admiral; Agreda;
Almogavares; Almohades;
Almoravides; Alphonso;
America: History;
American War of Inde-
pendence: Naval Operations;
American War of 1812.

D. M. REV. D. MEIKLEJOHN. J Adams, John Couch.

D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. r ., ,,, T ... „

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. j Alexander, w. L., Alion, H.

D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign J AlexanQ "•> OI
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia. \ Alexander III., of Russia.

E. B.* ERNEST C. F. BABELON. f

Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dcpt. of Medals and Antiquities -! Africa, Roman,
at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly-^ Amalric.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College.

E. Ch. EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D. f Adams» Jonn;

Professor of History, Harvard University. 1 Adams, John Qumcy;

L Adams, Samuel.
E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lrrr. r

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. 1 Acoemetl.

E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Aasen; Almqvist;

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. J. Anacreontics;

Andersen, Hans Christian.
E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. l .u,,,. »„„-„.,„.•.,.

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. J .

~] Aegina.
E> He- EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. ; .f,:. . /-„ ,nt.i,,, Tffn.

Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa ; &c i of/. { t P y> '

E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. ' } ****&>&•

Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cam- J Alani

bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography.

E. J. R. EMANUEL JOSEPH RISTORI, PH.D., Assoc.M.lNST.C.E. 'f

Member of Council, Institute of Metals. 4 Aluminium.

E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.

Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. S Aegina: History.

E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Abdomen;

Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, "1 Ah«spA«i<!' Adfltiniik

Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE.

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester ; J Alcoforado.

Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.

E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. 4 Alexander the Great.

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus.

E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). /Acolyte;

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. \ Allen, William.

E. V. REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895). / Abbey;

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. I Abbot.

E. W.* EDGAR WHITAKER (d. 1905). i Ahmed Veflk

Formerly Times correspondent at Constantinople. t "

F. A. E. FRED. A. EATON / Academy, Royal.

Secretary to the Royal Academy. L

F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Ablution; Agape;

Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy, -j Anabaptists;
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I Ancestor-Worship.

F. Fn. FRANK FINN, F.Z.S. f Acclimatization

Late Assistant Director of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. \

,, . r .ffithelbald; .ffithelberht;

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. J j^thelfrith' JEthelred-

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.

> .ffithelwuli; Alamanni.

F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F^R.ANTHROP.INST.

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital knd the London School of Medicine for Worne™ -! Alimentary Canal;

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, -j '
Formerly Hunteriari Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Anatomy.

F. H. Ne. FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S. f

Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and Chemistry. \ Alloys (in part).

F. y. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. [ .. cimhfii.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- •< * *"* e''

logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. [ Akhmim; Amasis; Ammon.

Abyssinia: Geography;

Africa: Geography, History (in
part) ; Albert Edward Nyanza
(in part) ; Albert Nyanza (in

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA.

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.

F. S. FRANCIS STORR. j AcademieS.

part); Alexandria (in part);
Algeria: Geography.

Editor of the Journal of Education (London). Officier d'Academie (Paris). \

F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS. r

Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of " Great Writers " Series. *! About.

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r Agate; Alabaster;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J Alexandrite;
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Amber' Amethyst

G.* COUNT ALBERT EDWARD WILFRED GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. f .

A.D.M.O., War Office; Colonel, Grenadier Guards. Mission to Abyssinia, 1897. \ Abyssinia: History.

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S.

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J AlyteS.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. f

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of -I Ahom.
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909.

G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., LL.D.

Head of Faculty of Science, and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba -| Alberta.
University, 1891-1904. Vice-President of Royal Society, Canada, 1908.

G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S.

Formerly Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales. Sometime •{ Algebra: Special.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

G. C. R. GEORGE CROOM ROBERTSON. r Abelard (in part).

See the biographical article : ROBERTSON, G. C. \

G. E. C. COLONEL GEORGE EARL CHURCH. f Amazon.

See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. \

G. E. W. GEORGE EDWARD WOODBERRY, Litt.D., LL.D. f

Professor of Comparative Literature at Columbia University, 1891-1904. Author of -| American Literature.
Edgar Allan Poe; Makers of Literature; America in Literature; &c.

G. F. B. G. F BARWICK. J Alfred> Duke of Saxe-Coburg;

Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British i Alice Grand-Duchess Of Hesse.

G. L. GEORGE LUNGE, PH.D. (Breslau), HON. DR!NG. (Karlsruhe). /Alkali Manufacture.

See the biographical article: LUNGE, G. \

xxviii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

G. P. M. GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. I"

Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London School of -| Albino.
Medicine for Women.

G. W. B. GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, A.M., Ph.D. f

Professor of History of Greece and Rome in Columbia University, New York. 1 Ampmetyony.
Author of The Roman Assemblies; &c.

' Abu-l-'ala; Abu-l-'Atahiya;

G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

Abulfaraj; Abulfeda;
Abu-1-Qasim; Abu Nuwas;
Abu Tammam; Abu Ubaida;

Akhtal: Alqama Ibn 'Abada;
Amru'-ul-Qais.
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Agassiz, J. L. R.
President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. [Acton Lord- A?nn<itii»tan-

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of H A]h" / t"" 0 °[ , '
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition. B"> ra B tonsort.

H. C. C. HERBERT CHALLICE CROUCH, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. J

Anaesthetist and Teacher of Anaesthetics at St Thomas's, Samaritan and French ~{ Anaesthesia.
Hospitals, London. L

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of the Times Engineering -j Alchemy.
Supplement. Author of British Railways.

H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. /AH... «

Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; &c. \ A1Dany» Countess 01.

H. P. J.* HENRY PHELPS JOHNSTON. f American War of Independ-

Author of Royalist History of the Revolution ; The Yorktown Campaign; &c. I ence: Land Operations.

H. R. H.* H. R. HAXTON. -j Advertisement.

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G. J" .„, , „ „ .

Member for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of The Call to Arms. \ Ammunition: Small Arms.

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -| Amphitheatre.
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire.

H. V. K. CAPTAIN HOWARD V. KNOX, M.A. f .

Exeter College, Oxford. { UIK Flora and Fauna.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f nji,..,. .,„,,, . .,

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1902. \ a

H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. c

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester, i Anah.

H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. r ,

Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. j Amedeo, Ferdmando, of Savoy.

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K. C.S.I.

See the biographical article: YULE, Sir H. \ Afghanistan: History.

J. A. Ba. J. ARTHUR BARRETT, LL.B. f Admiralty Jurisdiction:

New York Bar, 1880. U.S. Supreme Court Bar, 1901. |_ United States.

J. A. E. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E.

Director of (British) Naval Education, 1903. Hon. Fellow of King's College, J .. _
Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University 1 Air-Engine.
of Cambridge, 1890-1903.

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of A —
University College,' London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and "] AmPer Der-
University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. [

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f

Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Albian.

J. B. B. JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LiTT.D., LL.D. f AI.-!,., T *« ni

See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ "

J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Albania-

Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of J . ,
St Alexander of Bulgaria. \ Alexander of Bulgaria.

J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f

Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the •< Akkad.
Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. L

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r Acosta, J. de;

Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Alarcon J R de*
Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MacColl Lecturer in the 4 ..
University of Cambridge. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Alarcon> r- A- ae'>
Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I Aleman; Amadis de Gaula.

J. F. R. JAMES FORD RHODES, LL.D. f ., r _

See the biographical article: RHODES, J. FORD. \ Aaa ns> •*• '•

J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A.

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. ~\ Ancyra.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. L

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XXIX

J. G. Gr.
J. G. Sc.
J. H. P.

J. H. R.
I.

J.L.*

J. L. M.

J. M. M.

J. P.-B.
J. P. Pe.

J. R. C.

J. R. D.
J.S.
J. S. P.

J. S. K.
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.

J. T. S.*
J. V. B.
Jno. W.

J. W. D.
K. S.
L. D.*

L. J. S.
L.V.*

JOHN G. GRIFFITHS. J Accountants.

Fellow and late President, Institute of Chartered Accountants. L

SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C I.E. j Akyab.

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; &c. (.

JOHN HENRY POYNTING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J .

Mason Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science, Birmingham 1 ACOUStlCS.

University. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M. A., LL.D. (Edin.). J AhBV__.B. Ailk

Author of Feudal England ; Peerage and Pedigree ; &c. I ADeyal

JULES ISAAC. J AmhnUo r H'

Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons, France. \ AD lse> u- a •

SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. f

Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in J Aether
Cambridge University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of Aether and
Matter; &c.

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J Amathus.
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London i Anaxagoras (in part).
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST J Adam, Robert.

Editor of the Guardian (London).

JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Anbar
the University of Pennsylvania. In charge of the University Expedition to Baby- |
Ionia, 1 888-1 895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of and S Absorption of Light.
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. I

COLONEL JOHN RICHARD DODD, M.D., F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C.
Administrative Medical Officer of Cork Military District.

JAMES SULLY, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SULLY, J.

Ambulance.

Aesthetics.

Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Agglomerate;

Amphibolite; Andesite.

JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey,
burgh University.

JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). f

Sec. Royal Geog. Soc. Hon. Memb. Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, -< Abbadie; Africa: History.
&c. Editor of Statesman's year-book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. \_

JOHN T. BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical -j Altai.
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. L

Formerly Fellow of J Anpi,nvv
History •" ^» iTn,'. 1 finc vy-

Uni-

I

\ Abelard (in part).

/Acts of the Apostles.

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London.

University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the

versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.

JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

J. VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D.

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. f

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Alien;
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict 1 Allegiance.
of Laws: Chapters on the Principles of International Law, part i. " Peace," part ii.
War."

CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N.

Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c.

Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE.

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER.

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine.

LUIGI YILLARI.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in
east of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and
Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c.

Anchor.

r Accordion; Aeolian Harp;
\ Alpenhorn.

J Adrian I., II., III.;

I. Alexander I., II. (popes).

(Albite; Alunite;
Amblygonite; Ampibole;
Analcite; Anatase;
Andalusite.

(Accoramboni;
Alexander VI. (pope);
Amari.

XXX

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

M. Br.

M. G.

M. 6. D.

M. Ha.
M. H. C.

M. Ja.
M. M. Bh.
M. N. T.

H. 0. B. C.
M. P.*
N. V.

0. E.

0. H.*
0. T. M.

P. A.

P. A. A.
P. A. G.

P. A. K.
P. A. M.

P. C. H.

P. C. Y.
P.GI.

MARGARET BRYANT.

/Alexander the Great:

I Legends.

MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By- I
z. inline Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. 1
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.

RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G. C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829- f
1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India,
1868-1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of J Amnthill Rarnn
Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. 1
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European
Politics; Notes from a Diary; &c. I

MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S. f

Professor of Zoology in University College, Cork. Formerly Professor of Natural -\ Amoeba.
History in Queen's College, Cork, and Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland. L

MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., K.C., D.C.L.

President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General j

Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated •< "Alabama" Arbitration.

Council of Law _Rep9rting. Chairman of Quarter Sessions, Westmorland.

Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford.

MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.

Author of j Adad-

SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGREE, K.C.I.E. ("

Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. (C.) Bethnal Green, North-East, 1895-1906. -< ASa
Author of Small History of the East India Company.

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. c

Fellow and Lecturer of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Greek) Agesilaus;
Epigraphy. ^ Corresponding Member of the German Imperial Archaeological 1 Agis.

Lecturer in Greek

Institute. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University.
Birmingham University, 1905-1908.

LEON JACQUES MAXLME PRINET.

Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'tS de 1'Histoire de
France, and of the Soci6t<§ de 1'Ecole de Charles.

Acarnania; Achaean League;
at| Actium; Aetolia; Ambracia.

Albret;

Alencon, Counts of.

Ailly;

Alexander V. (pope).

S. OTTO EPPENSTEIN, PH.D.

Member of Scientific Staff at Zeiss's optical works, Jena.
Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrnmenie nach Abbe.

Editor of 2nd ed. of \ Aberration.

OTTO HEHNER, PH.D.

Formerly President of the Society of Analytical Chemists.

OTIS TUFTON MASON (d. 1908).

Curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington, 1884-1908.
Authorof Woman's Sharein Primitive Culture ; Primitive Traveland Transportation ; &c.

PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne,

Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les hSterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' siecle.
PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D.JURIS.

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
P. ANDERSON GRAHAM.

Editor of Country Life. Author of The Rural Exodus: the Problem of the Village and

the Town.

Adulteration.

America: Ethnology and
Archaeology.

Alain de Lille;

Albigenses.

Alsace-Lorraine.

Allotments.

C Altai ; Amur :
| Anarchism.

District ;

PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S., LATE MAJOR R.A.

Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint General Secretary I Ateebraic Forms
British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, Ordnance College. President 1 *orms.

of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896.

PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demonstrator Abiogenesis ; Actinozoa ;

in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891 Alimpntarv

Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1 ? . /.

1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- I ml Ma *** Part>-

1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology.

1

| Aberdeen, 1st Earl of;
\Allestree, R.

A ; Accent ;
Alphabet.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XXXI

P. La.

R. A. S. M.
R. K. D.

R. L.*
R. N. B.

R. P. S.

R. S. C.
R. Tr.
R. V. H.
W. P.
S. A. C.

S. E. B.
T.As.

T. A. I.
T. A. J.

T. H.
T. H. H.
T. H. H.*

T. K. C.
T. W. R. D.

V. B. L.

PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J AIDS' Ceoloev
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian
Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology.

ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.

Acre; Ai; Altar.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum ; -i. Aleock Sir R.
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and
Literature of China ; &c.

RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., [ Amblvpoda-

Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; \ . .

The Deer of all Lands ; The Game A nimals of Africa ; &c. I Aneylopoda.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political
History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513—1900 ; The First Romanovs, 1613 to
1725 ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706, &c.

Aagesen; Absalon;
Adolphus Frederick;
Alexander Nevsky;
Alexius Mikhailovich;
Alexius Petrovich;
Alin; Andrassy, Count;
Andrew II. of Hungary.

Aisle.

R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's .
College, London. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of
Architecture: East and West; &c.

ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., LiTT.D. J .

Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester; formerly Professor of Latin j Aequi.
in University College, Cardiff.

ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.

Dean, Fellow and Lecturer, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar of ] Agriculture (in part).
Christ Church, Oxford.

ADMIRAL SIR RICHARD VESEY HAMILTON, G.C.B. f Admiralty Administration

Senior Naval Lord of Admiralty, 1889-1891. President, Royal Naval College, 1 (British)
Greenwich, 1891-1894.

REGINALD W. PHILLIPS, D.Sc., F.L.S. f

Professor of Botany in the University College of North Wales. Author of Morpho- "j Algae.
logy of the Algae, &c. I

Aaron; Abimelech;
Abraham; Ahab;
Amalekites;
Ammonites.

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
Author of Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D. ["

Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in the University of Yale. I American Law
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. President of the Inter- 1
national Law Association. President of the American Historical Association. I

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), F.S.A. I" Adrja' Aemilia,yia;,

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J Agrlgentum; Alba Fucens;
logy at Rome. Alba Longa; Aletrium;

I Anagnia; Ancona.

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Affiliation.

T. ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo-
logical Society.

THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., D.LiTT.

See the biographical article : HODGKIN, T.

THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S.

See the biographical article : HUXLEY, THOMAS H.

COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. ("
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian

Ababda;

Africa: Ethnology.

Alaric.
-j Amphibia (in part).

Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c.

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.D.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester University.
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secre
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c.

VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.

Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College,
to the Corporation of the City of London.

Afghan Turkestan.

- Adam; Amos.

President of the Pali
Secretary and Librarian of Royal 1

Abhidhamma°

Ananda.

Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner J Acetylene.

SIR JOSEPH WALTON (d. IQIO).

'Formerly Judge of the King's Bench Div.
Bar, 1899.

Chairman of the General Council of the -j Affreightment.

XXX11
W. A. B. C.

W A. P.

W. Ba.
W. C. R.-A.
W. E. G.

W. FT.
W. F. Sh.

W. G.*
W. G. F. P.

W. Hi.
W. M. D.

W. M. F. P.
W. M. R.
W. 0. B.

W. Ri.

W. S.

W. T. S.
W. W.
W. W. F.*

W. W. R.*

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Projessor of English History ,_St JDavid's

Aar; Aarau; Aargau; Adda;
Adige; Albula Pass; Alp;

the T*ddi; 'Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in

History, &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. L Altdorf.

f Abbot; Aix-la-Chapelle:
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Congresses;

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,-! Alexander I. of Russia*

f\v(/\rA Anfhr*r rtf A//i//*r*». 7?«r/iVw> ' £rr

All, of lannma; Alliance;
I Ambassador.

College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of*.

,1 _ wf&jj. f*~fi~ i- r*-:-u u. r>..ij- *~ c.,..'* -/,..,./. TI.~ A ij*~ ;., A;,,f*,~» *~j ;« i Aipes lYianunies; Alps;

Oxford. Author of Modern Europe;

Abenezra.

WILLIAM BACKER, PH.D.

Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest.

SIR WILLIAM CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: ROBERTS-AUSTEN, SIR W. C

SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G.

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, I Albert Edward Nyanza;
Egypt. Under- Secretary of State for Public Works. Adviser to the Ministry of 1 Albert Nyanza (in part).
Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L

WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. (d. 1907).
Author of Handbook of Agriculture.

WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A.

Senior Examiner in the Board of Education.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.

WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S.

-I Alloys (in part).

-j Agriculture (in part).

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -< Algebra.

H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal;
Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coalmining ; &c.

I ifrina-

-™ '

- -

[ Algeria: Geology.

SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D.

Judge of the King's Bench Div. President of International Law Associa^n, 1905. J Admiralty, High Court of;
Author of Book of Church Law. Edited 2nd ed. of Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law, "l Admiralty Jurisdiction.
and 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law.

WALTER HIBBERT, A.M.I. C.E., F.I.C., F.C.S.

Lecturer on Physics and Electro-Technology, Polytechnic, Regent Street, London.

WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D.

Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical

Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c.
WILLIAM M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D., PH.D.

See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. F.

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.

Archdeacon of Birmingham. Formerly Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford, 1884-1891,
and Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891—1900.

WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LITT.D.

Disney Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in
Classics. Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy.
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age
of Greece, &c.

WILLIAM SPALDING.

See the biographical article: SPALDING, W.

REAR-ADMIRAL W. T. SAMPSON, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SAMPSON, W. T.

WILLIAM WALLACE.

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub- Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans.

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

J Accumulator,

J America: Physical Geography.

J Abydos.

j Andrea del Sarto.

I Absolution.

J Achaeans.

J Addison (in part).

f Admiralty Administration
\ (United States).

\ Anaxagoras (in part).

Ambarvalia.

r Adrian IV., V., VI.;

J Alexander III., IV., VII., VIII.;

i, Ancyra, Synod of.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Abbreviation.

Acid.

Aconite.

Addison's Disease.

Adoption.

Advocate.

Advowson.

Aeronautics.

Aerotherapeutics.

Agapemonites.

Age.

Alabama.

Alaska.

Alb.

Albumin.

Alcohol.

Alcohols.

Aldehydes.

Alexandrian School.

Alhambra.

Alimony.

Alismaceae.

Almanac.

Aloe.

Alum.

Amazons.

Ambo.

Ammonia.

Amsterdam.

Ana.

Andaman Islands.

Andes.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME I

A This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in the
Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.
In Phoenician, a, like, the symbols for e and for o, did
not represent a vowel, but a breathing ; the vowels
originally were not represented by any symbol. When the
alphabet was adopted by the Greeks it was not very well fitted
to represent the sounds of their language. The breathings
which were not required in Greek were accordingly employed
to represent some of the vowel sounds, other vowels, like i and u,
being represented by an adaptation of the symbols for the
semi-vowels y and w. The Phoenician name, which must have
corresponded closely to the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by
the Greeks in the form Alpha (a\<j>a). The earliest authority
for this, as for the names of the other Greek letters, is the
grammatical drama (ypannariKri Qeupia) of Callias, an earlier
contemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters,
containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in
Athenaeus x. 453 d.

The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest
of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest
Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the
8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests
upon its side thus — ^ \ <£. In the Greek alphabet of later times
it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local
varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by
the angle at which the cross line is set — ^ /\ fa /) P|, &c. From
the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans
and from them has passed to the other nations of western
Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription

I found in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that
on a golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET),
the letters are still identical in form with those of the western
Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are compara-
tively rare in Greek, as /^, or unknown, as ^. Except possibly
Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet
directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received
it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the
writing of early inscriptions is no less careful than in Latin, the
A takes the form fQ, to which the nearest parallels are found
in north Greece (Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only
sporadically).

i. i

In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the
short sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte (i);
English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely
to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was
a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H.
Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history
of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On
the other hand, the long sound of a in the Attic and Ionic dialects
passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was
represented by the same symbol as the original e-sound (see
ALPHABET : Greek). The vowel sounds vary from language to
language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent
in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a
whether long or short, and also to represent several different
vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English
Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds,
which are represented by a in English. In general it may be
said that the chief changes which affect the a-sound in different
languages arise from (i) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing
from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced
farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination
with rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the
rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into the
formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced
by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c.
(see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., §§ 906, 784).
The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of
Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Madoi, with a.
in the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MaSot),
is changed into Medoi (Mi?5ot), with an open e-sound instead
of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this sound
is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with i (as in
English seed). The first part of the process has been almost
repeated by literary English, a (ah) passing into e (eh), though
in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further
into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet,
op. cit. § 783).

In English a represents unaccented forms of several words,
e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and of various prefixes the history of
which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford,
1888), vol, i.,p.,4. , . (P. Gi.)

5

AA— AAR

As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for
various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first
of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being
the first of the litter -ae nundinales at Rome), and generally as
a sign of priority.

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal
affirmative proposition in the general form " all x is y." The
letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirm-
ative " some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and
the particular negative " some x is not y." The use of these
letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin
verbs A/Irmo (or AIo), "I assert," and nEgO, "I deny."
The use of the symbols dates from the i3th century, though
some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is
also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.).

In Shipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality of con-
struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships
are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and
assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to
other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship.
See SHIPBUILDING. It is popularly used to indicate the highest
degree of excellence.

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The
word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to the Latin
aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach; Scand. a, aa, pronounced o). The
following are the more important streams of this name:—
Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of
Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the
north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi-
gable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can-
tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes
Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the
Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the
Werre at Herford, the Miinster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and
others.

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, in
which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he
became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen-
hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for
drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation
law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he
won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be
mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret,
Bemaerkinger om Reltigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-
1872); Fortegnelse over Relssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark,
Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc-
cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this
department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils
were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of
the sources, his energetic demonstration of his subject and his
stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most
amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection
and respect.

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.Biog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887);
Samlade Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen,
1863). (R. N. B.)

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani names
for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifolia, plants exten-
sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff
which their roots contain. The name is also applied to the dye,
but the common trade name is Suranji. Its properties are due to
the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com-
pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra-
quinone.

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop,
and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south bank
of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat.
Pop. (1901) 31,457- The situation is typical of the north of
Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into aij irregular

lake, with low, marshy shores and many islands. North-west is
the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer.
South-east lies the similar Lille Vildmose. A railway connects
Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north,
and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The
harbouris good and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a
growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and
fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the I7th cen-
tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid-
dle of the 1 8th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt
in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the I4th century or
earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art
and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is Norre Sundby,
connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail-
way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom.
Aalborg received town -privileges in 1342, and the bishopric dates
from 1554.

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg,
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian
Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com-
munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and
tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood.
There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet
Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to
1802, when it was annexed to Wiirttemberg.

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county),
145 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Norvo, which
enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the
principal shipping-place of Sondmore district, and one of the chief
stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the
Jb'rund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje
at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nord-
fjord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to
Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund
is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and
Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are
the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the pth
century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 23rd
of January 1904, Aalesund was the scene of one of the most
terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns,
built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole
town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population
had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes.
Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were
so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom,
and by the German government, while the British government
also offered it.

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman,
was born at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government
official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after
reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em-
bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under
Reshid Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand
vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio of
foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this
capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. Again
becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than
five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 1856.
In 1867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's
visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal-
ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the
sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist,
he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against
whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He
died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871.

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both rises
and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total length (including
all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about
181 m., during which distance it descends 5135 ft., while its

AARAU— AARHUS

drainage area is 6804 sq. m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in
the canton of Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the
Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, form-
ing on the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.),
past Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain.
A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of
Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that
lake it receives its first important affluent, the Liitschine (left),
and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between
Interlaken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in
order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake
it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built.
It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly direction,
but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near
Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the
Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the
Nidau Canal and then runs E. to Biiren. Henceforth its course is
N.E. for a long distance, past Soleure (below which the Grosse
Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the
Wigger, right), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the
Suhr on the right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in
on the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first
the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or
Linth (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when
they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.)

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly
Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right
bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the
Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 m. N.W.
of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable
features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides
collections of various kinds) some good painted glass of the i6th
century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery
of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 — the monks are now
quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library
contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS.
coming from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are
many industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving,
foundries, andjactories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien-
tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich
Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze
statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important
military centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine-
yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in
1415, and in 1798 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic
republic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths
of Schinznach, just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg,
the original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.)

AARD-VARK (meaning " earth-pig "), the Dutch name for the
mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see EDEN-
TATA). Several species have been named. Among them is the
typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa,
and the northern aard-vark (0. aethiopicus) of north-eastern
Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some-
what pig-like; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs
are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears
disproportionately long; and the tail very thick at the base and
tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short
thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which
the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with
a long extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in
the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 175 in. ; but a large indi-
vidual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the Cape aard-vark
is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the
skin to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and
is further distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and
ears. These animals are of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and

generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a
hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on
the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but
the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked.

AARD-WOLF (earth- wolf), a South and East African carni-
vorous mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck
and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on
decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites.

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.),
whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-9
sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 172 sq. m.
and vineyards 8-2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous
Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of
the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The
surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts
and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered
mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot
sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein-
felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg
the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are
the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden
(with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman
settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population in
1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990
Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im-
portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants),
Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants),
Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants).
Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting,
tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the
Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up
to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many
historical old castles (e.g. Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and
former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that
family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of
the main causes of the civil war called the " Sonderbund War," in
1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly
from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of
five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla-
ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every
i zoo inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum" exists in the
case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of " initiative "
in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution.
The canton sends 10 members'to the federal Nationalrat, being
one for every 20,000, while the two Slander ate are (since 1904)
elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes.

In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the
Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen,
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, named
the Freie Amter or " free bailiwicks " (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen,
and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as " subject
lands" by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese
bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re-
mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus
the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic)
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad-
mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation.

See also Argoria (published by the Cantonal Historical Society),
Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols.,
St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische Slrohindustrie,
Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt. Burganlagen und Wehrbauten
d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols.,
1904-1906; W. Merz and F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant.
Argau, 3 vols., Aarau, 1898-1905; J. Miiller, Der Aargau, 2. vols.,
Zurich, 1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthiimer, Aarau, 1877;
E. Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.)

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east
coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second
largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of
Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The district is low-lying, fertile
and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from all

AARON— AASEN

parts of the country. The harbour is good and safe, and agricul-
tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the
chief imports. The cathedral of the I3th century (extensively
restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of
art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur-
esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander-
borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa,
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 500 ft.
in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district
of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of
the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of
Aarhus dates at least from 951.

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest-
hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of
Egypt (see EXODUS ; MOSES) . The greater part of his life-history
is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist-
ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find
a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the
events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been
sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the " mount of God "
(Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he plays onlya secondary part in the incidents
at Pharaoh's court. After the "exodus" from Egypt a striking
account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount
(Ex. xxiv. i seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the side
of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod,
enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and
Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua
ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv.
12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence
of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron
that the golden calf was made (see CALF, GOLDEN). This was
regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition,
led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his
life (cp. Deut. ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account
of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a
series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii.
seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com-
pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure
offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited
from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they
had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kadesh
" holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it
was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above
also met their death (Lev. x. 3 ; cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51).
Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ;
the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num.
xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 ; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional
scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7).

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have
arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for
Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention
between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies
only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he
was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It
is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter-
onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give
him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as
high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding
of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. ; for
parallels see Gray, comm. ad loc., p. 217). The latter story illus-
trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the
development of priestly ritual : the old account of Korah's
revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and
now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in
general, and (6) the confirmation of the superior privileges of the
Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which
can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.).

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known
after the grandson as the " hill of Phinehas " (Josh. xxiv. 33). Little

historical information has been preserved of either. The name
Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of
a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is
only another form of Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is
said to have belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and
Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note-
worthy, and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (l Chron. iv. 17)
with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In view
of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting
the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron
is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi-
tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in
favour of the view that he was the founder of the cult at Bethel
(Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the
Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name,
which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) is
based upon Aron, " ark " (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. N. Land),
it must be placed in a line with the other un-Hebraic and difficult
names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, apparently, of
South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin.

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood,
see the articles LEVITES and PRIEST. (S. A. C.)

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall
flowering plants (" hag taper," " golden rod," &c.). In archi-
tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting
leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the
Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8).

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele-
brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His
talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van
Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a
diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France.
He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve
years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the
French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt
in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his
former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin.
He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned
the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder
a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be-
came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange,
and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on
special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis-
played so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu ranked
him among the three greatest politicians of his time.

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and lexico-
grapher, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on
the sth of August 1813. His father, a small peasant-farmer
named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm-
work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and
when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his
native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore-
sen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in
Hero, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually,
and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young
peasant became master of many languages, and began the
scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed
himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy
his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore;
his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the
Sondmore language ( 1 843) . His remarkable abilities now attracted
general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un-
disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the
result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of
the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects
appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication
dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Nor-
wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the
different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite
folke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications, the most
important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this
artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since
by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have
once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official

AB— ABACUS

language in the place of Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed
poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should
be used ; one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently
acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant
dialect-literature of the last half-century, from Vinje down to
Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars
and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Chris-
tiania, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity,
but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about
the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-
word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he
had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire
attention to his philological investigations ; and the Storthing — •
conscious of the national importance of his work — treated him in
this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in
years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be
said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but
little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place
in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least
selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many
thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their
schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania
on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public
honours. (E. G.)

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh
of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to
the period of the isth of July to the ijth of August. The word
is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar
names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death
of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of
Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple
by Nebuchadrezzar (586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70).

ABA. (i) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and
called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu-
factured in Bulgaria; (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin
Arabs.

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic
origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea,
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them-
selves " sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the
Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent
the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location to-day is
almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They
were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized
them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and
convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of
embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted
as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile
valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in
the telegraph service across the Arabian desert. They inter-
married with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi
and elsewhere long before the Egyptian invasion (A.D. 1820-1822).
They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts.
The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by
an hereditary " chief." Although nominally a vassal of the
Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a por-
tion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers
from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to
him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger,
who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have
since diminished, having probably amalgamated with the
Bisharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a
powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled
with Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued
con tact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, To-
Bedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before strangers,
as they beh'eve that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring
ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile have much fellah blood in
them. As a tribe they claim an Arab origin, apparently through

their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the
fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who
go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a
physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but
small: the average height is little more than 5 ft., except in the
sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion
is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and
hair luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous
and faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be
honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor,
never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy
after the British occupation of Egypt. Their chief settlements are
in Nubia, ;where they live in villages and employ themselves in
agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk
the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal-
burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi-
ally in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the
Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats,
or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times.
They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or
their " mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the
latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious,
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a
girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her
mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far
from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1898)
many " friendlies " were recruited from the tribe.

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, HADEN-
DOA, KABBABISH; and the following authorities: — Sir F. R. Win-
gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1891) ; Giuseppe Sergi,
Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H.
Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Rus-
segger, Die Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.)

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis,
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.).

ABACUS (Gr. a/k£, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailloir), in archi-
tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief
function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi-
trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus
is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric
orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic
order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is
rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. In
later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle
volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman
and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet
on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.
In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides
are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep-
tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle) ; and
the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin-
thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo
moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is
square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved,
and the same was retained in France during the medieval period;
but in England, in Early
English work, a circular
deeply moulded abacus
was introduced, which in
the I4th and isth cen-
turies was transformed
into an octagonal one.
The diminutive of
Abacus, ABACISCUS, is
applied in architecture to
the chequers or squares
of atessellated pavement.
" Abacus " is also the
name of an instrument
employed by the ancients
for arithmetical calculations;
being used as counters. Fig.

FIG. i. — Roman Abacus.

pebbles,
i shows

bits of bone or coins
a Roman abacus taken

ABADDON— ABANDONMENT

6 302 715408
FIG. 2. — Chinese Swan-Pan.

from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven
shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads
running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi-
cates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on
the shorter bars denote fives, — five units, five tens, &c. The
rod 6 and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces ;
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce.

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles the
Roman abacus in. its construction and use. Computations are

made with it by means of
balls of bone or ivory run-
ning on slender bamboo
rods, similar to the simpler
board, fitted up with beads
strung on wires, which is
employed in teaching the
rudiments of arithmetic in
English schools.

The name of "abacus"
is also given, in logic, to an
instrument, often called the " logical machine," analogous to
the mathematical abacus. It is constructed to show all the
possible combinations of a set of logical terms with their nega-
tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations are
affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words,
i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems.
These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments
of the " logical slate," on which were written in vertical columns
all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made
logically out of a definite number of terms. These were com-
pared with any given premises, and those which were incom-
patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are
inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance,
which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus
be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given
series of premises. The principal examples of such machines
are those of W. S. Jevons (Element. Lessons in Logic, c. xxiii.),
John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135),
and Allan Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic,
1883).

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning " destruction." In
poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under-
world or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. ji). In Rev. ix. n
Abaddon ("AjSoSScoy) is used of hell personified, the prince of
the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon (q.v.),
the " destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
padie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are
employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23,
shamayim (" heaven "), and makom (" place ") among the
Rabbins, are used of God.

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of
Pars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the
high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former
and 1 70 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place
of the Abadeh-Iklid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele-
graph and post offices, and is famed for its carved wood-work,
small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear
and box trees.

ABAE ("Af3<u), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in Greece,
famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, one of those con-
sulted by Croesus (Herod, i. 46). It was rich in treasures (Herod,
viii. 33) , but was sacked by the Persians, and the temple remained
in a ruined state. The oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g.
by the Thebans before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple
seems to have been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was
in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35),
though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple,
was undertaken by Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured
certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull. Corresp. Hell. vi.
171), and these were confirmed by the Romans. The polygonal
walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preserva-

tion on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. above the little
plain of Exarcho ; one gateway remains, and there are also
traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of
the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a pre-
cinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples ; these
were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but
very little was found.

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163;
Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke).

(E. GR.)

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m. S.S.W. of
Krasnoyarsk, in lat. S4°2o' N., long. 9i°4o' E. This is considered
the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and is remark-
able for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues of men from
seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics. Peter the
Great had a fort built here in 1707. Pop. 2000.

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various
species of the shell--fish of the Haliotidae family, with a richly
coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort jof Haliotis is
also commonly called " ear-shell," and in Guernsey " ormer "
(Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). The abalone shell is found
especially at Santa Barbara and other places on the southern
Californian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament.
The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in
China and Japan.

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,
the "rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings v. 12), now generally
identified with the Barada (i.e. " cold ") and the A'waj (i.e.
" crooked ") respectively, though if the reference to Damascus
be limited to the city, as in the Arabic version of the Old Testa-
ment, Pharpar would be the modern Taura. Both streams run
from west to east across the plain of Damascus, which owes to
them much of its fertility, and lose themselves in marshes, or
lakes, as they are called, on the borders of the great Arabian
desert. John M'Gregor, who gives an interesting description of
them in his Rob -Roy on the Jordan, affirmed that as a work of
hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the canals,
by which the Abana and Pharpar were1 used for irrigation, might
be considered as one of the most complete and extensive in the
world. As the Barada escapes from the mountains through a
narrow gorge, its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or " rivers,"
the name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana.

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE-
VILLE D' (1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.
He was Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and
organized the defence of the Tuileries for the loth of August.
Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss
guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation
and sent to Orleans to be tried. At the end of August the As-
sembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude
Fournier, " the American." At Versailles they learned of the
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were
murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792. Fournier
was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to
meltre abandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon
being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban "),
in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or
possession. Its signification varies according to the branch of
the law in which it is employed, but the more important uses of
the word are summarized below.

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of pro-
ceedings commenced in the High Court of Justice either because
the plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action or
for other reasons. Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, con-
siderable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring
another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT) ; but since 1875
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who

ABANO— ABATIS

has delivered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes to
abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only on
condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter.

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the
ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive
total loss of the thing insured. For the requisites and effects of
abandonment in this sense see INSURANCE, MARINE.

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a young child
under the age of two, which is an indictable misdemeanour, is
dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO.

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside perman-
ently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing
a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in
deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not
must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. See
DOMICILE.

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some
accommodation*or right in another's land, such as right of way,
free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT.

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in Eng-
land recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it.

ABANO, PIETRO D" (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher, was
born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 1250,
or, according to others, in 1246. After studying medicine and
philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where he speedily gained
a great reputation as a physician, and availed himself of it to
gratify his avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an
exorbitant fee. Perhaps this, as well as his meddling with
astrology, caused him to be charged with practising magic, the
particular accusations being that he brought back into his purse,
by the aid of the devil, all the money he paid away, and that he
possessed the philosopher's stone. He was twice brought to trial
by the Inquisition ; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and
he died (1316) before the second trial was completed. He was
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed
and burned ; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public pro-
clamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in effigy. In
his writings he expounds and advocates the medical and philo-
sophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian writers. His
best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum quae inter
philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472 ; Venice, 1476),
and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French
translation was published at Lyons in 1503.

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei ; it is 6 m. S.W. by
rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4556. Its hot springs and mud
baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as
Aponi fans or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the ancient
baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato del Bagni
d' Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the
so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454),
small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were per-
haps found here in the i6th century.

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet of
Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 B.C., or two
or three centuries later. According to the legend, he travelled
throughout the country, living without food and riding on a
golden arrow, the gift of the god ; he healed the sick, foretold the
future, worked miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague
(Herod, iv. 36 ; lamblichus, De Vit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas
credits him with several works : Scythian oracles, the visit of
Apollo to the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose
theogony.

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface,
as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so
as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.

ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the
Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or
doing away with ; a term used especially in various legal phrases.

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to a
person or public authority injured by a public nuisance of de-
stroying or removing it, provided no breach of the peace is com-
mitted in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement is
also allowed provided there be no breach of the peace, and no
damage be occasioned beyond what the removal of the nuisance
requires. (See NUISANCE.)

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death
of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before the
entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of possession.
It differs from intrusion, which is a similar entry by a stranger on
the death of a tenant for life, to the prejudice of the reversioner,
or remainder man ; and from disseisin, which is the forcible or
fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. (See
FREEHOLD.)

ABATEMENT OF DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable
assets (see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportion-
ately, and they must accept a dividend. Also, in the case of
legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable
are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in
proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any
particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities are also subject to
the same rule as general legacies.

ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the de-
feating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of
fact, such as a defect in form or the personalincompetency of the
parties suing, pleaded by the defendant. It did not involve the
merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In
criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a
common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up for
the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, by alleging
misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant. Its effect
for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826,
which required the court to amend according to the truth, and
the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered description
of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now
abolished (R.S.C. Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING.

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any of
the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, and does
not become defective by the assignment, creation or devolution
of any estate or title pendentelite (R.S.C. Order 17, r. i). Crim-
inal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor,
being in theory instituted by the crown, but the crown itself
may bring about their termination without any decision on the
merits and without the assent of the prosecutor.

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse.

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate
and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by
the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK;
REBATE.)

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indi-
cating some kind of degradation or dishonour. It is called also
rebatement.

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512-1571), a celebrated
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at
Bologna. He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552-1571). His pic-
tures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace and natural
colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are in different collec-
tions ; one of the finest, in the Dresden Gallery, represents the
martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul.

ABATIS, ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning a heap

8

ABATTOIR— ABBADIDES

of material thrown), a term in field fortification for an obstacle
formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops
directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with wire.
The abatis is used alone or in combination with wire-entangle-
ments and other obstacles.

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often
employed in English as an equivalent of " slaughter-house "
(<;.».), the place where animals intended for food are killed.

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1670-1767), a learned Frenchman, was
born of Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc. His father
died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revo-
cation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps
to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother
contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as
fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last
reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on
escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the
time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great pro-
ficiency in languages, physics and theology. In 1698 he went to
Holland, and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P.
Jurieu and J. Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was intro-
duced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest
defenders of his discoveries. Sir Isaac corrected in the second
edition of his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and,
when sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, " You are
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me." The reputation
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to
return to Geneva. There from 171 5 he rendered valuable assist-
ance to a society that had been formed for translating the New
Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of
philosophy in the university in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the
sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he
died at a good old age, in 1767. Abauzit was a man of great
learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be
discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell
of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject
of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his
praises, addressed to him, in his Nouvelle HSlotse, a fine pane-
gyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had
come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen
Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant,
his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into
their possession, because their own religious opinions were
different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical
articles from his pen appeared in the Journal Helvttique and else-
where, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's Dic-
tionnaire de musique (1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on
the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a
reply from Dr Leonard Twells. He also edited and made valuable
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la rtpublique de Geneve. A
collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770
((Etivres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London in 1773
(CEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them were translated
into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774).

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebier's
Histoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and W. Orme's
BMiotheca Biblica (1824).

'ABA YE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (?.».), born in the
middle of the 3rd century. He died in 339.

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of the Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study of
the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led to
the compilation of the Talmud. He is commonly known as Rab.

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on
the downfall of the western caliphate. It lasted from about 1023
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was singu-
larly active and typical of its time. The founder of the house was
Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 1023. He was
the chief of an Arab family settled in the city from the first days
of the conquest. The Beni-abbad were not of ancient descent,
though the poets, whom they paid largely, made an illustrious

pedigree for them when they had become powerful. They .were,
however, very rich. Abd-ul-Qasim gained the confidence of the
townsmen by organizing a successful resistance to the Berber
soldiers of fortune who were grasping at the fragments of the
caliphate. At first he professed to rule only with the advice of a
council formed of the nobles, but when his power became estab-
lished he dispensed with this show of republican government, and
then gave himself the appearance of a legitimate title by protect-
ing an impostor who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When
Abd-ul-Qasim died in 1042 he had created a state which, though
weak in itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about
it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the Mahom-
medans of Arab and native Spanish descent against the Berber
element, whose chief was the king of Granada. Abbad, surnamed
El Motaddid, his son and successor, is one of the most remarkable
figures in Spanish Mahommedan history. He had a striking re-
semblance to the Italian princes of the later middle ages and the
early renaissance, of the stamp of Filipo Maria Visccnti. El
Motaddid was a poet and a lover of letters, who was also a
poisoner, a drinker of wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the
utmost degree. Though he waged war all through his reign he
very rarely appeared in the field, but directed the generals, whom
he never trusted, from his " lair " in the fortified palace, the
Alcazar of Seville. He killed with his own hand one of his sons
who had rebelled against him. On one occasion he trapped a
number of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into
visiting him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot
room of a bath. It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the
enemies he had killed — those of the meaner men to be used as
flower-pots, while those* of the princes were kept in special chests.
His reign until his death on the 28th of February 1069 was mainly
spent in extending his power at the expense of his smaller neigh-
bours, and in conflicts with his chief rival the king of Granada.
These incessant wars weakened the Mahommedans, to the great
advantage of the rising power of the Christian kings of Leon and
Castile, but they gave the kingdom of Seville a certain superiority
over the other little states. After 1063 he was assailed by
Fernando El Magno of Castile and Leon, who marched to the
gates of Seville, and forced him to pay tribute. His son,
Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim Abenebet — who reigned by the title
of El Motamid — was the third and last of the Abbadides. He
was a no less remarkable person than his father and much more
amiable. Like him he was a poet, and a favourer of poets. El
Motamid went, however, considerably further in patronage of
literature than his father, for he chose as his favourite and prime
minister the poet Ibn Ammar. In the end the vanity and
featherheadedness of Ibn Ammar drove his master to kill him.
El Motamid was even more influenced by his favourite wife,
Romaica, than by his vizir. He had met her paddling in the
Guadalquivir, purchased her from her master, and made her his
wife. The caprices of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of
Motamid in his efforts to please her, form the subject of many
stories. In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be as
faithless as his father. His wars and his extravagance exhausted
his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by taxes. In 1080
he brought down upon himself the vengeance of Alphonso VI.
of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental barbarity. He had
endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the Christian king with
false money. The fraud was detected by a Jew, who was one of
the envoys of Alphonso. El Motamid, in a moment of folly and
rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned the Christian members
of the mission. Alphonso retaliated by a destructive raid. When
Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, El Motamid called in Yusef ibn
Tashfin, the Almoravide (see SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES).
During the six years which preceded his deposition in 1091, El
Motamid behaved with valour on the field, but with much
meanness and political folly. He endeavoured to curry favour
with Yusef by betraying the other Mahommedan princes to him,
and intrigued to secure the alliance of Alphonso against the
Almoravide. It was probably during this period that he sur-
rendered his beautiful daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who

ABBADIE— ABBAS II.

made her his concubine, and is said by some authorities to have
married her after she bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillations
and submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate
which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and extor-
tion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef a
" fetva " authorizing him to remove them in the interest of
religion. In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville. El Motamid,
who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his sons to
surrender the fortresses they still held, in order to save his own
life. He died in prison in Africa in 1095.

AUTHORITIES. — Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, Leiden,
1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum Arabum loci de
Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. H.)

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D' (1810-1897), and AR-
NAUD MICHEL D' (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their
travels in Abyssinia during the first half of the igth century.
They were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815. The parents re-
moved to France in 1818, and there the brothers received a
careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy sent
Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being pub-
lished at a later date (1873) under the title of Observations relatives
a la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger
Abbadie spent some time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two
brothers started for Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February
1838. They visited various parts of Abyssinia, including the then
little-known districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together
and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues,
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in
favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography,
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their
materials for publication. The younger brother, Arnaud, paid
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853. The more distinguished
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies re-
lating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues.
He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who impugned his
veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kaffa. But
time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown
that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong
in his contention — hotly contested by Beke — that the Blue Nile
was the main stream. The topographical results of his explora-
tions were published in Paris in 1860-1873 m Geo&esie d' Ethiopie,
full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps.
Of the Geographie de V Ethiopie (Paris, 1890) only one volume has
been published. In Un Catalogue raisonnedemanuscritstthiopiens
(Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts col-
lected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, in-
cluding a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hernias, with the Latin
version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the
geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions.
Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques he published in
1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the
course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The
general account of the travels of the two brothers was published
by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of Douze ans dans la Haute-
Ethiopie. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris
Geographical Society in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the
Legion of Honour and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He
died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding
40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of
its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million
stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.)

ABBADIE, JAKOB (i6s4?-i727), Swiss Protestant divine,
was born at Nay in Bern. He studied at Sedan, Saumur and
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen. After spending some
years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, where
he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied Marshal

Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became minister
of the French church in the Savoy, London. His strong attach-
ment to the cause of King William appears in his elaborate de-
fence of the Revolution (Defense de la nation britannique, 1692) as
well as in his history of the conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la
grande conspiration d' Angleterre) . The king promoted him to the
deanery of Killaloe in Ireland. He died in London in 1727.
Abbadie was a man of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but
is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were
translated from the original French into other languages and had
a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of
these are Traite de la veriti de la religion chretienne (1684); its
continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ (1689); and
L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692).

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.) who flour-
ished c. 270-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of Greek by
Jews. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is
very often cited in the Talmud.

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph), French
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of
the i3th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace
(Heb. Yerah, i.e. moon,lune), and he further took the name
Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel. The descendant of
men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the
study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted
with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well
as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to
1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian
rationalism, which, through the medium of the works of Maimon-
ides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience
to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He, there-
fore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title
Minhat Kenaot, i.e. " Jealousy Offering ") called upon the famous
rabbi Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona to come to the aid of
orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent
Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier
proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were
less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from
the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret
in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish
rabbis. On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV.
in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the
letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history
is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical
poetry and works on civil law.

AUTHORITIES. — Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. Bislichis
(Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins franc. ais, pp. 647 foil.;
Perles, Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth, pp. 15-54; Jewish En-
cyclopaedia, s.v. " Abba Mari."

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning
dynasty. As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim
Pasha (q.v.) , his real or supposed uncle. The death of Ibrahim in
November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August
following, on the death of Mehemet Ali — who had been deposed
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness, — Abbas succeeded
to the pashalik. He has been generally described as a mere
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish
gentleman of the old school. He was without question a re-
actionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his time shut
up in his palace. He undid, as far as lay in his power, the works
of his grandfather, good and bad. Among other things he abol-
ished trade monopolies, closed factories and schools, and reduced
the strength of the army to 9000 men. He was inaccessible to
adventurers bent on plundering Egypt, but at the instance of the
British government allowed the construction of a railway from
Alexandria to Cairo. In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha
Palace by two of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said
Pasha.

ABBAS II. (1874- ),khedive of Egypt. Abbas Hilmi Pasha,

IO

ABBAS I.— ABBAZIA

great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the I4th of July
1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive of Egypt on
the 8th of January 1892. When a boy he visited England, and he
had an English tutor for some time in Cairo. He then went to
school in Lausanne, and from there passed on to the Theresianum
in Vienna. In addition to Turkish, his mother tongue, he ac-
quired fluency in Arabic, and a good conversational knowledge
of English, French and German. He was still at college in
Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the
Khedivate; and he was barely of age according to Turkish law,
which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the
throne. For some time he did not co-operate very cordially with
Great Britain. He was young and eager to exercise his new
power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the
British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by
intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some
time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his
great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt to under-
stand the importance of British counsels. He paid a second visit
to England in 1900, during which he frankly acknowledged the
great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself
ready to follow their advice and to co-operate with the British
officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a
sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation,
the reconquest of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous
irrigation works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound educa-
tion, each received his approval and all the assistance he could
give. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in state-
craft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, near Cairo,
would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at
Montaza, near Alexandria, he created a similar establishment.
He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children.
Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, the heir-apparent, was born on the
zoth of February 1899.

ABBAS I. (c. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called the
Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1 586) . In the midst of
general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of Khorasan,
and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 1586. Deter-
mined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he first directed
his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs, who occupied and har-
assed Khorasan. After a long and severe struggle, he regained
Meshed, defeated them in a great battle near Herat in 1597, and
drove them out of his dominions. In the .wars he carried on with
the Turks during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes
were numerous, and he acquired, or regained, a large extent of
territory. By the victory he gained at Bassora in 1605 he ex-
tended his empire beyond the Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was
forced to cede Shirvan and Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies
of the Turks and Tatars were completely defeated near Sultanieh
in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and
on the Turks renewing the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a
year's siege in 1623. In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from
the Portuguese, by the assistance of the British, and much of its
trade was diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was
named after the shah. When he died, his dominions reached
from the Tigris to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not
only by his successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his
court and of the buildings which he erected, but also by his re-
forms in the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged com-
merce, and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did
much to facilitate it. To foreigners, especially Christians, he
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and
Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his confidence.
His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny
and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered from his fits of
jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and the eyes of his other
children were put out, by his orders.

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert
Sherley, &c. (London, 1825); Sir C. R. Markham, General Sketch
of the History of Persia (London, 1874).

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad,
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan em-

pire. The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim to the
throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652), the eldest
uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they regarded
themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as opposed to the
Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya. Throughout the second
period of the Omayyads, representatives of this family were
among their most dangerous opponents, partly by the skill with
which they undermined the reputation of the reigning princes by
accusations against their orthodoxy, their moral character and
their administration in general, and partly by their cunning
manipulation of internecine jealousies among the Arabic and non-
Arabic subjects of the empire. In the reign of Merwan II. this
opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the
fourth in descent from Abbas, who, supported by the province of
Khorasan, achieved considerable successes, but was captured
(A.D. 747) and died in prison (as some hold, assassinated). The
quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the
name of Abu'l-Abbas as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on
the Greater Zab (750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was
proclaimed caliph.

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual strife
and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, in place of the
old-fashioned austerity of thought and manners. Mansur, the
second of the house, who transferred the seat of government to
Bagdad, fought successfully against the peoples of Asia Minor,
and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and Mamun (813-
833) were periods of extraordinary splendour. But the empire as
a whole stagnated and then decayed rapidly. Independent mon-
archs established themselves in Africa and Khorasan (Spain had
remained Omayyad throughout), and in the north-west the
Greeks successfully encroached. The ruin of the dynasty came,
however, from those Turkish slaves who were constituted as a
royal bodyguard by Moqtasim (833-842). Their power steadily
grew until Radi (934-941) was constrained to hand over most
of the royal functions to Mahommed b. Raik. Province after
province renounced the authority of the caliphs, who were merely
lay figures, and finally Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad
(Feb. 28th, 1258). The Abbasids still maintained a feeble
show of authority, confined to religious matters, in Egypt under
the Mamelukes, but the dynasty finally disappeared with Mota-
wakkil III., who was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople
by Selim I.

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a detailed account
of the dynasty will be found.

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a younger
son of the shah, Feth Alf, but on account of his mother's royal
birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with
the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in Euro-
pean fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He
was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by
both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another
in the East. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas continued
the war against Russia, but his new ally could give him very little
assistance, and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvan-
tageous peace. He gained some successes during a war between
Turkey and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked
his army, and a treaty was signed in 1823. His second war with
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some
territory. When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought to
restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was nominally
under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at
Meshed in 1833. In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed Mirza, suc-
ceeded Feth Ali as shah. Abbas was an intelligent prince,
possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of
the comparative simplicity of his life.

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government
of Tiflis, 50 m. S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 m. E.
of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped
valley. It has hot sulphur baths (935°-! 183° Fahr.) and an
astronomical observatory (4240 ft.).

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in

ABBESS— ABBEY

ii

Istria, 56 m. S.E. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900) 2343. It is
situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at the
foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded by
beautiful woods of laurel. The average temperature is 50° Fahr.
in winter, and 77° Fahr. in summer. The old abbey, San Giacomo
della Priluca, from which the place derives its name, has been
converted into a villa. Abbazia is frequented annually by about
16,000 visitors. The whole sea-coast to the north and south of
Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, and contains several smaller
winter-resorts. The largest of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situ-
ated 5 m. to the south.

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fern, form of abbas, abbot), the female
superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The mode of election,
position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally
with those of an abbot (q.v.). The office is elective, the choice
being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The
abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction,
together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and
holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The
council of Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years
of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedi-
ence of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop.
As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual
functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She can-
not ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England
abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield
in 694, where they signed before the presbyters.

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks
and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions
to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period,
A.D. 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the
government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female
superior.

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess ( 4 e&w«»)
has in some cases — e.g. Itzehoe — survived to designate the heads
of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as Stifle,
i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income
for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses
(Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. This office of abbess
is of considerable social dignity, and is sometimes filled by prin-
cesses of the reigning houses.

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 m.
from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m. N.W. of Amiens
on the Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 18,971.
It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly
on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is
canalized from this point .to the estuary. The streets are narrow,
and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of
wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways. The most
remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran, erected in the
1 5th, i6th and i7th centuries. The original design was not
completed. The nave has only two bays and the choir is insig-
nificant. The fagade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant
Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic towers. Abbeville has
several other old churches and an hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of
the 1 3th century. Among the numerous old houses, that known
as the Maison de Francois I", which is the most remarkable,
dates from the i6th century. There is a statue of Admiral
Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief square. The public institutions
include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. Abbeville is an
important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established
manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building
and locksmiths' work are carried on; there is active commerce
in grain, but the port has little trade.

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first
appears in history during the gth century. At that time belong-
ing to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards governed by the
counts of Ponthieu. Together with that county, it came into the
possession of the Alencon and other French families, and after-

wards into that of the house of Castille, from whom by marriage
it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of England. French and English
were its masters by turns till 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras,
it was ceded to the duke of Burgundy. In 1477 it was annexed
by Louis XI., king of France, and was held by two illegitimate
branches of the royal family in the .i6th and i7th centuries,
being in 1696 reunited to the crown.

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the ist of April 1852. He
left the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company
with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an
illustrator. In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England to
gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert Herrick.
These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, and were
followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer
(1887), for a volume of Old Songs (1889), and for the comedies
(and a few of the tragedies) of Shakespeare. His water-colours
and pastels were no less successful than the earlier illustrations
in pen and ink. Abbey now became closely identified with the
art life of England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of
Painters in Water-Colours in 1883. Among his water-colours are
" The Evil Eye " (1877); " The Rose in October" (1879); " An
Old Song" (1886); "The Visitors" (1890), and "The Jong-
leur " (1892). Possibly his best known pastels are " Beatrice, "
" Phyllis," and " Two Noble Kinsmen." In 1890 he made his
first appearance with an oil painting, " A May Day Morn," at
the Royal Academy in London. He exhibited " Richard duke of
Gloucester and the Lady Anne " at the Royal Academy in 1896,
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in
1898. Apart from his other paintings, special mention must be
made of the large frescoes entitled " The Quest of the Holy Grail,"
in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied for some
years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward VII.
to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many portraits
elaborately grouped. The dramatic subjects, and the brilliant
colouring of his oil pictures, gave them pronounced individuality
among the works of contemporary painters. Abbey became a
member not only of the Royal Academy, but also of the National
Academy of Design of New York, and honorary member of the
Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts
(Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, etc. He received
first class gold medals at the International Art Exhibition of
Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898, at the Paris Exhibitions
of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 1903; and was made a cheva-
lier of the French Legion of Honour.

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a monastery,
or conventual establishment, under the government of an ABBOT
or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from an abbey in that the
superior bore the name of prior instead of abbot. This was. the
case in all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury,
Ely, Norwich, &c., where the archbishop or bishop occupied the
abbot's place, the superior of the monastery being termed prior.
Other priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys,
to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; but in later
times the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost.

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTI-
CISM) with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells
or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the
abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or
singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrange-
ment. The formation of such communities in the East does not
date from the introduction of Christianity. The example had
been already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae
in Egypt.

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics were
accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, at no
great distance from some village, supporting themselves by the
labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the
supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious

12

ABBEY

fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther
away from the abodes of men into mountain solitudes or lonely
deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the " cells " or huts
of these anchorites. Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian
Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the
most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and
his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of
followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into
the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They
refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that
of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic com-
munity, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little
dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as
Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.),
" without any conscious design of his own, had become the
founder of a new mode of living in common, Coencbitism." By
degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were
arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses
in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells
came to be known as Laurae, AaOpot, " streets " or " lanes. "

The real founder of cocnobian (KOIJ^S, common, and 0io5, life)
monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of
the beginning of the 4th century. The first community estab-
lished by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper
Egypt. Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering
3000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies
could reckon 50,000 members. These coencbia resembled vil-
lages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one
sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest
character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.E. iii. 14),
contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common
refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They
ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they
could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The
monks spent all the time, not devoted to religious services or
study, in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian
monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the
300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pacho-
mian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 camel-drivers
and 1 5 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus
or steward, who was subject to a chief oeconomus stationed at
the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour
was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The
money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores
for the support of the communities, and what was over was
devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the
several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency
of an archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from n&vdpa, a fold),
and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration
for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian
institution. We learn many details concerning those in the
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks
lived in separate huts, <caX6/3ia, forming a religious hamlet on the
mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a
common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common
meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over,
reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in
the day they joined in prayers and psalms.

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of
space and convenience of access from one part of the community
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable
of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the neces-
s*nta sary edifices were ranged round one or more open
courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the
convent of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the
designation of a monastery generally, being converted into a
female saint).

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an

area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to a
length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on
the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near
the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the
monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L.
The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with
buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The
outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and
storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected
with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a
two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner
court is surrouiwied by a cloister (EE), from which open the
monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruci-
form domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex.
In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a
dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of
the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refec-
tory (G), a large cruciform building, about too feet each way,
decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a
semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace

A. Gateway.

B. Chapels.

C. Guest-house.

D. Church.

E. Cloister.

F. Fountain.

G. Refectory.
H. Kitchen.
I. Cells.

K. Storehouses.
L. Postern gate.
M. Tower.

FIG. I. — Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir).

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot.
This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental
monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. St
Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vato-
pede, also on Mount Athos. This enormous establish-
ment covers at least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many
separate buildings within its massive walls that it resembles
a fortified town. It lodges above 300 monks, and the establish-
ment of the hegumenos is described as resembling the court of a
petty sovereign prince. The immense refectory, of the same
cruciform shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500
guests at its 24 marble tables.

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows
a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of
cells on either side of an oblong gallery.

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and develop-
ment to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480). His rule was
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceed-
ing anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and
splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Bene-
dictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres
of population in England, France and Spain. The number
of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is

ABBEY

llt-m-
dlctlae.

SI Uall.

FIG. 2. — Plan of Coptic Monastery.
A. Narthex. B. Church.

amazing. Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order
alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were
uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where
necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the
monasteries :stand close to the steep bank of a river) to
accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We
have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the
Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time
and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to
us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of
St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, which puts us in pos-
session of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first
class towards the early part of the Qth century. This curious and

interesting plan has been
made the subject of a
memoir both by Keller
(Zurich, 1844) and by Pro-
fessor Robert Willis (Arch.
Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp.
86-117. To the latter we
are indebted for the sub-
stance of the following de-
scription, as well as for the
plan, reduced from his
elucidated transcript of the
original preserved in the
archives of the convent.

C. Corridor, with cells on each side. Tuhc 8eneral appearance of

D. Staircase. tne convent is that of a

town of isolated houses with

streets running between them. It is evidently planned in com-
pliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible,
the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life,
as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the
religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a mill,
a bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accommoda-
tion for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the
walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside
its limits.

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described : —
The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a
quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all
great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms
the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community.
In closest connexion with the church is the group of buildings
appropriated to the monastic life and its daily requirements — the
refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room
for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary
conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged
about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording
communication sheltered from the elements between the various
buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house
and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the in-
firmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its head-
master's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside
the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that
he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to
hospitality are divided into three groups,— ^one for the reception of
distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a
third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed
to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery, — the
hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of
the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the
south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a
guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of
buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is
placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated
from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are
reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are con-
nected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still
farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted
to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the
church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-
three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of
nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the
west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open
" paradise " (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole

area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A)
stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir ; the
altar of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the
western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the
church on either side of the western apse (FF).

The " cloister court " (G) on the south side of the nave of the

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
FF,

G.
H.

K.

L.

M.

N.

O.

Pi.

P2.

Q.

K.

S.
T.

FIG. 3. — Ground

CHURCH.
High altar.
Altar of St Paul.
Altar of St Peter.
Nave.
Paradise.
Towers.

MONASTIC BUILDINGS.

Cloister.

Calefactory, with dormitory
over.

Necessary.

Abbot's house.

Refectory.

Kitchen.

Bakehouse and brewhouse.

Cellar.

Parlour. [over.

Scriptorium with library

Sacristy and vestry.

House of Novices — I .chapel ;
2. refectory; 3. calefac-
tory; 4. dormitory; 5.
master's room; 6. cham-
bers.

Infirmary — 1-6 as above in
the house of novices.

Doctor's house.

Physic garden.

plan of St Gall.

U. House for blood-letting.
V. School.

W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
\i.\i. Guest-house for those of

superior rank.

XjXj. Guest-house for the poor.
Y. Guest-chamber for strange

monks.

MENIAL DEPARTMENT.

Z.

a.

b.

c, c

d.

e.

f-

Factory.

Threshing-floor.

Workshops.

Mills.

Kiln.

Stables.

Cow-sheds.
s. Goat-sheds.
«. Pig-sties. *'. Sheep-folds.
k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's

sleepine-chambers.
/. Gardener s house.
m, m. Hen and duck house.

Poultry-keeper's house.

Garden.

Cemetery. [bread.

Bakehouse for sacramental

Unnamed in plan.
5, j, A. Kitchens.
t, t, t. Baths.

church has on its east side the " pisalis " or " calefactory " (H), the
common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the
floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter-
house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It
appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house,
and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefac-
tory is the " dormitory " opening into the south transept of the
church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with

ABBEY

readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the " necessarium " (I) ,
a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme
care. The southern side is occupied by the " refectory " (K), from
the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This
is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is con-
nected by a long passage with a building containing the bakehouse and
brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms.of the servants. The upper
story of the refectory is the " vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes
of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is an-
other two-story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and
store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by
one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the
monastery area, is the " parlour " for interviews with visitors from
the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is
the " scriptorium " or writing-room (Pi), with the library above.

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself.
Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e.
refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or chapel on one side, placed
back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath
and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to
the " oblati " or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an
" infirmary " (R).

The " residence of the physicians " (S) stands contiguous to the
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the
monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a
chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The " house for blood-
letting and purging " adjoins it on the west (U).

The " outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a
large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition,
and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the
scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the
side wall of the church. The two " hospitia " or " guest-houses " for
the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X] X2) comprise
a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by
sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and
bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen
and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their
horses. There is also an " hospitium " for strange monks, abutting
on the north wall of the church (Y).

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to
the south, stands the " factory " (Z), containing workshops for shoe-
makers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders,
trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths,
with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm-
buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malt-
house (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (/), goat-
stables (g), piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants'
and labourers quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen
and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the
keeper (»). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery,
lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in all. In the same
way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs,
and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince,
&c., planted there.

A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its an-
nexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved in the
Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. As elucidated by Professor Willis,1 it exhibits
Cathedral, the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th
century, and enables us to compare it with that of the
9th as seen at St Gall. We see in both the same general principles
of arrangement, which indeed belong to all Benedictine monas-
teries, enabling us to determine with precision the disposition of
the various buildings, when little more than fragments of the
walls exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more
commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is also a
separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall.

The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate
groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the group of
buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of these, to the
west and east, are the "halls and chambers devoted to the
exercise of hospitality, with which every monastery was pro-
vided, for the purpose of receiving as guests persons who visited
it, whether clergy or laity, travellers, pilgrims or paupers." To
the north a large open court divides the monastic from the menial
buildings, intentionally placed as remote as possible from the

lThe Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of the
Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert Willis.
Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869.

conventual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake-
house, brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of
the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the
church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary
department. The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great
hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium.

The most important group of buildings is naturally that de-
voted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the great
cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with
the daily life of the monks, — the church to the south, the refectory
or f rater-house here as always on the side opposite to the church,
and farthest removed from it, that no sound or smell of eating
might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the east the dormitory,
raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent,
and the lodgings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was
committed the provision of the monks' daily food, as well as that
of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged in the
immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and close to the
guest-hall. A passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the
smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm
monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of
the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and
chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out
into the green court or herbarium, lies the " pisalis " or " cale-
factory," the common room of the monks. At its north-east
corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium, a
portentous edifice in the form of a Norman hall, 145 ft. long by
25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It was, in common with all
such offices in ancient monasteries, constructed with the most
careful regard to cleanliness and health, a stream of water running
through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory runs
from east to west for the accommodation of the conventual
officers, who were bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the
refectory, but outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices con-
nected with it: to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, sur-
mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to
the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small
kitchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are
two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall,
at which the monks washed before and after taking food.

The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three
groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east angle of
the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral,
as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were
assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings were near the west end
of the nave, in which ordinary visitors of the middle class were
hospitably entertained. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were
relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as
far as possible from the other two.

Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine
abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be
traced, with those described above. The cloister and
monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, Abbey.
was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the
eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a
vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept.
The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The
small cloister lies to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still
farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the
table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their
chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the
west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions
of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as " the
Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster
King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.

St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed,
exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three York.
sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the
fourth side. The entrance -was by a strong gateway (U) to the
north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the

ABBEY

church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devo-
tions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south
was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are com-
pletely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the
grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapter-
house (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices
(K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary
has perished completely.

Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements,
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the
cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of

BOOTH**

-Churton's Monastic Ruins.

Offices.

Cellars.

Uncertain.

Passage to abbot's house.

Passage to common house.

Hospitium.

Great gate.

Porter's lodge.

Church of St Olaf.

Tower.

Entrance from Bootham.

FIG. 4.
St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).

A. Church. O.

B. Chapter-house. P.

C. Vestibule to ditto. Q.

E. Library or scriptorium. R.

F. Calefactory. S.

G. Necessary. T.
H. Parlour. U.
I. Refectory. . V.
K. Great kitchen and court. W.
L. Cellarer's office. X.
M. Cellars. Y.
N. Passage to cloister.

as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrange-
ments deduced from the examples described may be regarded
as invariable.

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay
and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in
material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first
religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed,
until by the loth century the decay of discipline was so complete
in France that the monks are said to have been frequently un-
acquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that
they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses
generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic
orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modifica-
tion of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of

these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its
name from the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon,
near which, about A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine clua
abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine
and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was
succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the
order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid ruk
was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys,
who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while
new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance
to the " archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the
1 2th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in
the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.
The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most
extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea
of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when,
A.D. 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals,

FIG. 5.— Abbey of Cluny, from Viollet-le-Duc.
A. Gateway. F. Tomb of St Hugh. M. Bakehouse.

B. Narthex.

C. Choir.

D. High-altar.

E. Retro-altar.

G. Nave.
H. Cloister.
K. Abbot's house.
L. Guest-house.

N. Abbey buildings.
O. Garden.
P. Refectory.

a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthu-
sians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons,
the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of
Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the
abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within
the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number.
Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent
church, were swept away at the close of the i8th century. When
the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruc-
tion, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church,
had been rebuilt.

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resem-
blance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was
656 ft. by 130 ft. wide. The nave was 102 ft. and the aisles 60
ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side.
Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each
furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept
was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated
in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semi-
circular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church,
or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked
by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large
stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of
immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the

i6

ABBEY

case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an
immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, accommodating
six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned
with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with
Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We
are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings
(N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the
entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.

The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes,
founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few
fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best
preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre,
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans
of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They
show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.
In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac
houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors
of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor
become " abbeys " till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celeb-
rity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With
their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations
became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their
predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.

The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in
the last years of the nth century, had a wider diffusion, and a
Cistercian I°n8er an<^ more honourable existence. Owing its real
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedic-
tines, in the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorset-
shire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its
name from Citeaux (Cistercium) , a desolate and almost inacces-
sible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and Bur-
gundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are
undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St
Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently
sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses,
the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116.
The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this
reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself
to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The
characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest sim-
plicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower — a central one
— was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary
pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was
omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it
was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless
ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the
candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be
evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested
itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared,
the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not
merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monas-
teries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys.
They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at
Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so
rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the
brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide
swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable
forests, were their prevailing features. The " bright valley,"
Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the " valley of Worm-
wood," infamous as a den of robbers. " It was a savage dreary
solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his com-
panions were reduced to live on beech leaves." — (Milman's Lai.
Christ, vol. iii. p. 335.)

All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the
locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. The
Clairvaux. 8eneral arrangement and distribution of the various
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, fur-

nished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive works.
The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, artificially
diverted from the small rivulets which flow through the precincts,
furnishing the establishment with an abundant supply in every
part, for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary
requirements of the brotherhood and for the use of the offices
and workshops.

The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall, running from
N. to S., into an outer and inner ward, — the former containing
the menial, the latter the monastic buildings. The precincts are
entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western extremity, giving
admission to the lower ward. Here the barns, granaries, stables,
shambles, workshops and workmen's lodgings were placed, without
any regard to symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.
Advancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the

A.
FIG. 6. — Clairvaux, No. I (Cistercian), General Plan.

A. Cloisters.

B. Ovens, and corn

and oil mills.

C. St Bernard's cell.

D. Chief entrance.

E. Tanks for fish.

F. Guest-house.

G. Abbot's house.
H. Stables.

I. Wine-press and
hay-chamber.

K. Parlour.

L. Workshops and
workmen's lodg-
ings.

M. Slaughter-house.

N. Barnsand stables.

O. Public presse.

P. Gateway.

R. Remains of old

monastery.
S. Oratory.
V. Tile-works.
X. Tile-kiln.
Y. Water-courses.

outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communica-
tion between the two. On passing through the gateway, the outer
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade of the
monastic church in front. Immediately on the right of entrance was
the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On
the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommodation
of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H). The church
occupied a central position. To the south was the great cloister (A),
surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to the east
the smaller cloister, opening out of which were the infirmary, novices'
lodgings and quarters for the aged monks. Still farther to the east,
divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the vegetable
gardens and orchards, and tank for fish. The large fish-ponds, an
indispensable adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the for-
mation of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and
which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these vast
establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls.

Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the distinctly monastic
buildings on a larger scale. The usually unvarying arrangement of
the Cistercian houses allows us to accept this as a type of the monas-
teries of this order. The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists

ABBEY

of a vast nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept
and short apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb
in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and usually
square.) To the east of each limb of the transept are two square
chapels, divided according to Cistercian rule by solid walls. Nine
radiating chapels, similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls
of the monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays
of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in the extreme
western bays of the nave for thefratres convent, or lay brothers. To
the south of the church, so as to secure as much sun as possible,
the cloister was invariably placed, except when local reasons forbade
it. Round the cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with
the monks' daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened out of
the east walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept. In

FIG. 7. — Clairvaux

A. Church.

B. Cloister.

C. Chapter-house.

D. Monks' parlour.

E. Calefactory.

F. Kitchen and court.

G. Refectory.
H. Cemetery.

I. Little cloister.
K. Infirmary.

, No. 2 (Cistercian),

L. Lodgings of nov
ices.

M. Old guest-house.

N. Old abbot's lodg-
ings.

O. Cloister of super-
numerary
monks.

P. Abbot's hall.

Q. Cell of St Bernard

R. Stables.

Monastic Buildings.

S. Cellars and store-
houses.

T. Water-course.

U. Saw-mill and oil-
mill.

V. Currier's work-
shop,

X. Sacristy.

Y. Little library.

Z. Undercroft of dor-
mitory.

Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided by pillars
and arches into two or three aisles. Between it and the transept we
find the sacristy (X), and a small book-room (Y), armariolum, where
the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from the library. On
the other side of the chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D)
communicating with the courts and buildings beyond. This was
sometimes known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the
privilege of conversation here. Here also, when discipline became
relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were allowed to
display their goods. Beyond this we often find the calefactorium or
day-room — an apartment warmed by flues beneath the pavement,
where the brethren, half frozen during the night offices, betook them-
selves after the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease
their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the day. In
the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the south cloister
walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually assigned to it is
occupied by the vaulted substructure of the dormitory (Z). The dormi-

tory, as a rule; was placed on the east side of the cloister, running
over the calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept,
where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the church for
nocturnal services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the
necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanli-
ness, a water-course invariably running from end to end. The re-
fectory opens out of the south cloister at G. The position of the
refectory is usually a marked point of difference between Benedictine
and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Canterbury, the refec-
tory ran east and west parallel to the nave of the church, on the side
of the cloister farthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monas-
teries, to keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from
the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, at right
angles to the axis of the church. It was often divided, sometimes
into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles. Outside the refectory
door, in the cloister, was the lavatory, where the monks washed their
hands at dinner-time. The buildings belonging to the material life
of the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the church ,
to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court was the
kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery and larder, and the im-
portant adjunct of a stream of running water. Farther to the west,
projecting beyond the line of the west front of the church, were vast
vaulted apartments (SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above
which was the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various work-
shops, which convenience required to be banished to the outer pre-
cincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned by water, and a currier's
shop (V), where the sandals and leathern girdles of the monks were
made and repaired.

Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small
cloister (I), opening from the north side of which were eight small
cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works for the
library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible by a turret
staircase. To the south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed.
This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious disputations
customary among the Cistercians. From this cloister opened the
infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and
other dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of build-
ings we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the
novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). Detached from
the great mass of the monastic edifices was the original abbot's house
(N),with its dining-hall (P). Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye
of the father of the whole establishment should be constantly over
those who stood the most in need of his watchful care, — those who
were training for the monastic life, and those who had worn them-
selves out in its duties, — was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the establish-
ment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the brethren, lay to
the north side of the nave of the church (H).

It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement
of a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly
denned system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base
court nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging
to the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of
labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings devoted
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,
— the kitchen, cellars, &c., — form a court of themselves outside
the cloister and quite detached from the church. The church
refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging to the pro-
fessional life of the brethren surround the great cloister. The
small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells, library, hall for
disputations, &c., is the centre of the literary life of the com-
munity. The requirements of sickness and old age are carefully
provided for in the infirmary cloister and that for the aged and
infirm members of the establishment. The same group contains
the quarters of the novices.

This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the illus-
tration of the mother establishmet of Clteaux.

A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to the gate
of the monastery, reached by an avenue of trees. On one side of the
gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably the almonry, „.
with a dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the
other side is a chapel(D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger knock
at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo gratias,the opportunity for the exercise
of hospitality being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening
:he door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing — Benedicite.
He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot.
However important the abbot's occupations might be, he at once
lastened to receive him whom heaven had sent. He also threw
limself at his guest's feet, and conducted him to the chapel (D) pur-
x>sely built close to the gate. After a short prayer, the abbot com-
mitted the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it
was to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he

i8

ABBEY

might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate-
house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round
which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern
side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G),
detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At
H, also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot's
house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there
was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large
cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end
projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from the
base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister
contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory,
with the monks' dormitory above (M), communicating with the south
transept of the church. At L was the staircase to the dormitory.
The small cloister is at W, where were the carols or cells of the
scribes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At
R we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is sur-
rounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches,

FIG. 8

— Bird's-eye view

of Citeaux.

I.
a.

A.

Cross.

H.

Abbot's house.

R.

Infirmary.

3.

B.

Gate-house.

I.

Kitchen.

S.

Doortothechurch

4-

C.

Almonry.

K.

Refectory.

for the lay bro-

5.

I).

Chapel.

L.

Staircase to

dor-

thers.

6.

E.

Inner gate-house.

mitory.

T.

Base court.

7-

F.

Stable.

M

Dormitory.

V.

Great cloister.

8.

G.

Dormitory of

lay

N.

Church.

W

Small cloister.

brethren.

P.

Library.

X.

Boundary wall.

9-

through which streams of water are introduced. It will be noticed
that the choir of the church is short, and has a square end instead of
the usual apse. The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule,
is very low. The windows throughout accord with the studied
simplicity of the order.

The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such ex-
tensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall,
Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same plan,
with slight local variations. As an example, we give the ground-
plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one of the best pre-
served. The church here is of the Cistercian type,
with a short chancel of two squares, and transepts
with three eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls
(2 2 2). The whole is of the most studied plainness. The
windows are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium.
The cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the
nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house (5),
between which and the south transept is a small sacristy (3),

and on the other side two small apartments, one of which was
probably the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the
calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this whole
range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening by stairs
into the south transept of the church. At the other end were the
necessaries. On the south side of the cloister we have the re-
mains of the old refectory (n), running, as in Benedictine
houses, from east to west, and the new refectory (12), which,
with the increase of the inmates of the house, superseded it,
stretching, as is usual in Cistercian houses, from north to south.
Adjacent to this apartment are the remains of the kitchen,
pantry and buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen
near the refectory entrance. The western side of the cloister is,
as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper
story the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the

.i.-\i>-.'.X.;.-- [. 8 -.X.; .Xj :- !.X.'.X

FIG. 9. — Kirkstall Abbey,

' Church.
Chapels.
Sacristy.
Cloister.
Chapter-house.
Parlour.

Punishment cell (?).
Cellars, with dormitories for

conversi over.
Guest-house.

Yorkshire (Cistercian).

10. Common room.

11. Old refectory.

12. New refectory.

13. Kitchen court.

14. Calefactory or day-room.

15. Kitchen and offices.
16-19. Uncertain ; perhaps offices

connected with the in-
firmary.
20. I nfirmary or abbot's house.

south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the walls and
foundations of a secondary group of considerable extent. These
have been identified either with the hospitium or with the
abbot's house, but they, occupy the position in which the infir-
mary is more usually found. The hall was a very spacious apart-
ment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 48 ft. 9 in. in breadth,
and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds lay
between the monastery and the river to the south. The abbey
mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west. The mill-
pool may be distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill
stream.

Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the largest
and best preserved Cistercian houses in England. But the
earlier buildings received considerable additions and
alterations in the later period of the order, causing
deviations from the strict Cistercian type. The church
stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the

ABBEY

buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the
stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three-
aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its
eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and
buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk.

FIG. 10. — Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire.

A. Naveof thechurch.

N. Cellar.

Z. Gate-house.

B. Transept.
C. Chapels.

O. Brewhouse.
P. Prisons.

ABBOT'S HOUSE.

D. Tower.

Q. Kitchen.

i. Passage.

E. Sacristy.

R. Offices.

2. Great hall.

F. Choir.

S. Refectory.

3. Refectory.

G. Chapel of nine

T. Buttery.

4. Buttery.

altars.

U. Cellars and store-

5. Storehouse.

H. Cloister.

houses.

6. Chapel.

I. Chapter-house.

V. Necessary.

7. Kitchen.

K. Base court.

W. Infirmary (?).

8. Ashpit.

L. Calefactory.

X. Guest-houses.

9. Yard.

M. Water-course.

Y. Mill bridge.

10. Kitchen tank.

Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted sub-
structure (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars
and store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi
above. This building extended across the river. At its S.W.
corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above the
swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its usual

position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept.
As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed the position of
the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and calefactory, and of
the infirmary (W) (unless there is some error in its designation)
above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX).
We may also call attention to the greatly lengthened choir,
commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203-1211, and carried on
by his successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an
eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220-1247,
and to the tower (D), added not long before the dissolution by
Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very unusual position at the north-
ern end of the north transept. The abbot's house, the largest and
most remarkable example of this class of buildings in the king-
dom, stands south to the east of the church and cloister, from
which it is divided by the kitchen court (K), surrounded by the
ordinary domestic offices. A considerable portion of this house
was erected on arches over the Skell. The size and character of
this house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious
house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks the
wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern simplicity
of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one of the most
spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval times, measur-
ing 170 ft. by 70 ft. Like the hall in the castle at Winchester,
and Westminster Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18
pillars and arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for
the designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, was
a domestic oratory or chapel, 465 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen
(7), 50 ft. by 38 ft. The whole arrangements and character of
the building bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the
humble father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by
vows to a life of poverty and self-denying toil. In the words of
Dean Milman, " the superior, once a man bowed to the earth
with humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit
bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on
his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before
him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the realm."
— (Lat. Christ, vol. iii. p. 330.)

The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so called
from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiari-
ties. This order had its first seat in England at Col-
chester, where a house for Austin canons was founded •*ustla

Canons.

about A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As
an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between
monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of
parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great
length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is
usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ
Church (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton,
Kirkham, &c., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the
northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at
Bolton, Brinkburn and Lanercost. The arrangement of the
monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's
lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of
the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of St
Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedral church of
that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings,
which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type.
The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is re-
markable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the
upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establish-
ment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated
date.

The Premonsiratensian regular canons, or White canons, had
as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect
remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham,
Kent. The head house of the order in England was
Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the
Austin canons, founded, A.D. 1119, by Norbert (born
at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontre, a
secluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy in the diocese
of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's
lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long

20

ABBEY

maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth
impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence
and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England
shortly after A.D. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in
Lincolnshire, near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby
Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping
banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly
placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings
occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as
at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding build-
ings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The
church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their
northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave — that to the
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each tran-
sept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave
or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This
church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion
to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is

FIG. II. — St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral).

H. Kitchen.

I. Kitchen court.

K. Cellars.

L. Abbot's hall.

P. Abbot's gate way.

R. Infirmary.

S. Friars' lodging.
T. King's hall.
V. Guest-house.
W. Abbey gateway.
X. Barns, stables, &c
Y. Lavatory.

A. Church.

B. Great cloister.

C. Little cloister.

D. Chapter-house.

E. Calefactory.

F. Refectory.

G. Parlour.

not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons
wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; there-
fore they built their church like a long room.

The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno,
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrange-
ment of a monastic institution. The principle of this
order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary
life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel
plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his
twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux,
near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establish-
ments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the
order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive sim-
plicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnifi-
cence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the
Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St
Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in
the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small
detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded
by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister.
In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in
the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to
attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when
the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of
the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter -house,
as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French
chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from
Viollet-le-Duc.

The whole establishment is surrounded by a wall, furnished at in-
tervals with watch towers(R) . The enclosure is divided into two courts,
Clermont °f which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from
which the cottages of the monks (I) open, is much the larger.
The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery,

including the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from B, the monks'
choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south
(S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X) — these
buildings occupying their normal position — and the chapel of
Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the re-
fectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister.
To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the side
chapels (M ) , we find the cell of the sub-prior (a) , with its garden. The
lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, im-
mediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gate-
way of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is
before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the
stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries
(Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). At Z is the prison.
(In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham,
there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the
monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage
(F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells
of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great

A. Church.

B. Monks' choir.

C. Prior's garden.

D. Great cloister.

E. Chapter-house.

F. Passage.

G. Prior's lodg-

ings.

H. Dovecot.

I. Cells.

K. Chapel of Pont-
gibaud.

L. Sacristy.

M. Chapel.

N. Stables.

O. Gateway.

P. Guest-cham-
bers.

Q. Barns and
granaries.

R. Watch-tower.

S. Little cloister.

T. Bakehouse.

V. Kitchen.

X. Refectory.

Y. Cemetery.

Z. Prison.

a. Cell of sub-

prior.

b. Garden of do.

FIG. 12. — Carthusian monastery of Clermont.

cloister is 1 8. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little
dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room (C), warmed by a
stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table,
a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and
the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the
inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt
his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and
through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being
seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance
of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose,
affording no view either inwards or outwards. H is the garden,
cujtivated by the occupant of the cell. At K is the wood-house.
F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end.

The above arrangements are found with scarcely any varia-
tion in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire
Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland,
the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal
of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order,
about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English
example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order.
The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless.
Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the
two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, re-
fectory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain
and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number.
It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being
about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own

ABBEY

21

garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two
or three rooms on the ground -floor, lighted by a larger and a
smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to
the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall,
through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of
his cell and the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond.
By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through
which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by
turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in
or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch — an arrange-
ment belonging to all Carthusian houses — exists at Miraflores,
.near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480.

A. Cloister gallery.

B. Corridor.

C. Living-room.

D. Sleeping-room.

E. Closets.

F. Covered walk.

G. Necessary.
H. Garden.

I. Hatch.

K. Wood-house.

FIG. 13. — Carthusian cell, Clermont.

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by
Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into England.
The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Rich-
mond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 1414. The
dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been
remarkably large. The great court measured 300 ft. by 250
ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; the hall was no
ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The most celebrated
historically is the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir
Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which is preserved by the
famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton
A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming.

An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete
without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or
Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Domini-
cans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites,
the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the
beginning of the i3th century, when the Benedictines, together
with their various reformed branches, had terminated their
active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new re-
ligious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns,
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their
buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrange-
ment, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it.
Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of
hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves,
totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and
character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by
transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies,
one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left
entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is
often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted
structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end
was usually square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a
polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept,
sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This
arrangement is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small
friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities

of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of
towers; but in the I4th and isth centuries, tall, slender towers
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good
example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally
peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of
the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a
cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel
aisles, while the refectory — a room of immense length, quite
detached from the cloister — stretched across the area before the
west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two
parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel.
The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister,
which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house
and sacristy on the east. As examples of English
friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those QiOUCesier.
of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester,
may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich
departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's
Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier
examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and
aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing
at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic buildings
remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent
at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side
of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west
side and on the south the dormitory of the i3th century. This
is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles
on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain.
On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date.
At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the
ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a
continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower be-
tween the nave and the choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite
or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey Hulne.
of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in
England, founded A.D. 1240. The church is a narrow oblong,
destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The
cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c., to the
east, with the dormitory over. The pripr's lodge is placed to
the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance
gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of
the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin
Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated
date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very
light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of
the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of
Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still
standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name.
Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars
afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine
of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: — " The friars who have been
founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of
kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous
edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their
incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of
poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their
profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival
order just rising in popularity.

Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more
smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted Cetfj_
on some outlying estate. As an example, we may
refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's,
a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in
the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of
Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of building, of
which the eastern part formed the chapel and the western
contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it
was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey
mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to
a Cluniac house, were called Obedientiae. The plan given by

22

ABBON OF FLEURY— ABBOT

Viollet-le-Duc of the Priory of St Jean des Bans Hommes, a
Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the
village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments
comprised every essential feature of a monastery, — chapel,
cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped ac-
cording to the recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae
differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten-
tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior,
and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the
duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm-
servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the
monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They
gave employment to a body of coniiersi and labourers under the
management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller
—the granges, like their parent institutions, affording shelter
and hospitality to belated travellers.

AUTHORITIES. — Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, Architecture monas-
tique (1852-1856) ; Vipllet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnee de I'archi-
lecture fran$aise; Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886);
Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.)

ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945-
1004), a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He
distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was
especially proficient in science as known in his time. He spent
two years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire
(988). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a
threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in 1004,
in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an
Epitome de vilis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Palrologia Latino, vol. 139).
His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in which much
of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great import-
ance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially with
reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).

See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885) ;
Cuissard-Gaucheron, " L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du ioe
siecle," in Memoires de la socicte archeol. de I'Orleanais, xiv. (Orleans,
1875) ; A. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France.

ABBOT, EZRA (1810-1884), American biblical scholar, was
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April
1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 1847,
at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to Cambridge,
where he was principal of a public school until 1856. He was
assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 1872,
and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue,
combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary
catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more
general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic cata-
logue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of
New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard
Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, though his
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life,
appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future
Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and
published separately in 1864. His publications, though always
of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large
extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concord-
ances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises,
&c.; but he took a more conspicuous and more personal part in
the preparation (with the Baptist scholar, Horatio B. Hackett)
of the enlarged American edition of Dr (afterwards Sir) William
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867-1870), to which he contri-
buted more than 400 articles besides greatly improving the
bibliographical completeness of the work; was an efficient
member of the American revision committee employed in
connexion with the Revised Version (1881-1885) °f tne King

James Bible; and aided in the preparation of Caspar Rene
Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of
Tischendorf. His principal single production, representing his
scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was The Author-
ship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second
edition, by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a
lecture, and in spite of the compression due to its form, up to
that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evi-
dence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the com-
pletes! treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from
Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884.
He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of March
1884.

See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).

ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of
Canterbury, was born on the igth of October 1562, at Guildford
in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied,
and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master
of University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester
in 1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university,
and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of
the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the earl
of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of
England and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James I.) in
this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry
in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards,
and in less than a year was raised to that of Canterbury. His
puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treat-
ment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to
the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit
of the Lady Frances Howard against the earl of Essex, and again
in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declara-
tion permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a
promoter of the match between the elector palatine and the
Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected mar-
riage of the prince of Wales with the infanta of Spain. This
policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he
had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court,
though the king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while
hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt
from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of
the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly
distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melan-
choly. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this
accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though
the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had
led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully
indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of
ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after
this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the king
gave a casting vote in the archbishop's favour, though signing
also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the arch-
bishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of
his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in
his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation
of Charles I. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached
by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February
1626-1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's
demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute
non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led
Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them
in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however,
soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's
powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived
from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in
undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the sth of
August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place,
where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300
a year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in
view and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists.
He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being

ABBOT

his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was
reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the
Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions.

The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England.

ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as
" The Puritan," has been oddly and persistently mistaken for
others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writ-
ings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as
by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a
different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not
clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East
Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603-1604, his mother (or
grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his
early life and training nothing is known. He married a daughter
of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his
monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells,
he bravely held the manor house against Princes Rupert and
Maurice during the civil war. As a layman, and nevertheless a
theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he
holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period.
The terseness of his Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made
easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with
the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators.
His Vindiciae Sabbatki (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief Notes
upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows,
was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648.

AUTHORITIES. — MS. collections at Abbeyville for history of all of
the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington ; Dug-
dale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730, p. 1099 ; Wood's Athenae
(Bliss), ii. 141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath.

ABBOT, ROBERT (is88?-i662?), English Puritan divine.
Noted as this worthy was in his own time, and representative
in various ways, he has often since been confounded with others,
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles dedi-
catory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepc, out Sinne and
Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had " received all " his " worldly
maintenance," as well as " best earthly countenance " and
" fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was
the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent.
He had received his education at Cambridge, where he pro-
ceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book
historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I
have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years,
and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full." The
former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or perhaps 1587-1588
—the " Armada " year — as his birth-time; the latter to 1616-
1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters
(1626), he describes himself as formerly " assistant to a reverend
divine . . . now with God," and the name on the margin is
" Master Haiward of Wool Church (Dorset)." This was doubt-
less previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and
effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where his parish-
ioners were as his own " sons and daughters " to him. Yet,
Puritan though he was, he was extremely and often unfairly
antagonistic to Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook
until 1643, when, Parliament deciding against pluralities of
ecclesiastical offices, he chose the very inferior living of South-
wick, Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards
succeeded the " extruded " Udall of St Austin's, London, where
according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 1657. He
disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662. Robert Abbot's
books are conspicuous amongst the productions of his time by
their terseness and variety. In addition to those mentioned
above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her
Children (1646), and A Christian Family builded by God, or Direc-
tions for Governors of Families (1653).

AUTHORITIES. — Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings,
ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. ii.
218, which confuses him most oddly of all with one of the ejected
ministers of 1662.

ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843), English actor, was born in
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath
in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent
Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his
first decided success. He was Pylades to Macready's Orestes in
Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made his
first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the parts of
Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius (1820) and of
Modus in his Hunchback (1832). In 1827 he organized the com-
pany, including Macready and Miss Smithson, which acted
Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London he played
Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of Abbot's
melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great (1817)
and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at Covent Garden.
He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland.

ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac
abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form
abbad-em changed in i3th century under influence of the
Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the i?th
century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and chief governor of a
community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or
archimandrite. The title had its origin in the monasteries of
Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became
accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the
head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful
title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome, who denounced
the custom on the ground that Christ had said, " Call no man
father on earth " (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xxiii. 9),
but it was soon restricted to the superior. The name "abbot/'
though general in the West, was never universal. Among the
Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, &c., the superior was
called Praepositus, "provost," and Prior; among the Francis-
cans, Custos, " guardian "; and by the monks of Camaldoli,
Major.

In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of
the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Some-
times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several,
each of which had its own abbot as well. Cassian speaks of an
abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number
exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St Benedict, which, until
the reform of Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has
jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevit-
able, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until
the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme
abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order,
was definitely recognized. New styles were devised to express
this new relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called
abbas abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles
abbas generalis, or magister or minister generalis.

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the
abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the
" doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For the reception of
the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his
monks were commanded to attend the nearest church (Novellae,
133, c. ii.). This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a
monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city,
and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova-
tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity
being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but,
before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots
seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not pres-
byters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the
office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of
the 7th century, and partially so up to the nth. Ecclesiastical
councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that held
at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches,
23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, c. A.D.
690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting

ABBOT

bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples
are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times.
Abbots were permitted by the second council of Nicaea, A.D. 787,
to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was
adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical
monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks,
almost without exception, took holy orders.

Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the nth century.
The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly
subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case
recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal
control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of
Aries, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of
bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be
traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it
increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of
exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal
control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received
an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, intro-
duced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil
by the 1 2th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio,
and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres
of influence in his diocese. In the i2th century the abbots of
Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots
more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance
of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard
and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves
and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear
mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the
nth century, but the documents on which this claim is based
are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. in
1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monas-
tery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The mitred
abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney,
Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Col-
chester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's
Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading,
Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winch-
combe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally
yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV.
(Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in
which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot
of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish
abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be
made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented
with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that
the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of
outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their
own house.

The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to
be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran
council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders,
with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted
by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, to confer the tonsure
and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the
West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in A.D.
1489 permitted by Innocent IV. to confer both the subdiaconate
and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the
power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the
religious habit.

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the
abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election
was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserv-
ing to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the bene-
diction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal
jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred
by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses
of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict,
the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required;

but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was
necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of
legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no
suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from
another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct
others, one also who had learned how to command by having
practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was
allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot
in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example
in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually en-
croached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had
usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France,
with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs
of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was
canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was
directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop.

The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot
in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of
Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at
the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the mem-
bers of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding
up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of
the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced
by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The
monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand,
and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.
He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held,
and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon.

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited,
however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general
establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule,
however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his
orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute
his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn.
Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission
to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by
those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will
as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others, —
e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or
endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his
powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the
compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should
obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they
commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eusloch. de custod. virgin.). So despotic
did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charle-
magne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments
from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while
the rule of St Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment
for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of ex-
communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired
by their abbess.

The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and
reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared
either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His
letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the
king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to
kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without
his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to
him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded
to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict
appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain
guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to
luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that the
abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the
ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest.
These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to
secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds
with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate
extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot con-
descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon
him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At
St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the centre of the

ABBOTSFORD

high table, and was served on silver plate, and sumptuously
entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality.
When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St
Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table,
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be
the same as that of the monks. But by the loth century the
rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints
of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and
assumed a secular dress.1 This was a necessary consequence of
their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at
that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power,
abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by
celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their
men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester,
c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare-
hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots
vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with
gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on
their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The
bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated
on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and
shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power
was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we
read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur-
dered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-ordered
court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen,
who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been
brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for
the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an
honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500
persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the
vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries,
and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted
to upwards of too persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendome
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.

In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred
to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, as
to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the
Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or
military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even
came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief
magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi.
Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis,
Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c.

Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensorcs, abbacomites, abbates laid,
abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, abbatiarii, or
sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of
the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice
of commendation, by which — to meet a contemporary emergency
— the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay
lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the em-
perors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with
rich abbeys held in commendam. During the Carolingian epoch
the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs
or benefices, and by the loth century, before the great Cluniac
reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of
St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example
of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by
making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without
any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse
was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts
of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely
a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in
lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the
foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of

1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is charged by
Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman.

spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank
in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in
the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in
form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject
to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to
perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus),
but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis). When
the great reform of the nth century had put an end to the direct
jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot con-
tinued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late
as the I3th century and later, the actual head of the community
retaining that of dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots
with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer;
and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers
(abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over
the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the
West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the i2th
century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been
handed over to laymen, benejiciarii, for life, or for part of their
lives, by the emperors.

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place
of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior
of the monastery were performed by a prior.

The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the Catholic
church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the
English " Father," being loosely applied to all who have re-
ceived the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated
in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat
between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), to appoint abbis
commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expecta-
tion of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the
church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed
— abbes de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes
(ironically) abbes de sainte esptrance, abbes of St Hope — came
to hold a recognized position. The connexion many of them
had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly
in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate
course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a
distinctive dress — a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.
Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many
of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility
as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbe.
The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy
title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in people's minds
with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient
general term applicable to any clergyman.

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt)
is sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction,
and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries
converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of
these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover,
founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of
Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum,
who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy
of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory of the
kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot,
prior and the " convent " of canons (Stiftsherren).

See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du Cange,
Glossarium med. et inf. Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie Robertson, Hist,
of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond Martene, De antiquis
ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. F. R. de Montalembert, Les
moines d'occident depuis S. Benott jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860-1877) ;
Achille Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franqaises (Par. 1892).

(E. V. ; W. A. P.)

ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott,
situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose,
Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly i m. from Abbotsford
Ferry station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk
and Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of
100 acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy)
Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the
neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was added to from time to
time, the last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield

26

ABBOTT

(afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new
house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general
ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side
overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish
Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and
curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of
the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his
residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of
fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library
and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors.
The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert
Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in ex-
change for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's
works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property,
having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent
possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart , J. R. Hope
Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the
Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the
" Abbotsford Club," a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland
clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's-
honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected
with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864.

See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford and
Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country.

ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT (1838- ), English school-
master and theologian, was born on the 2Oth of December 1838.
He was educated at the City of London school and at St John's
College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the
classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became
fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding
masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at
Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster
of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of twenty-
six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired in 1889, and
devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr Abbott's
liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his
educational views and in his books. His Shakespearian Gram-
mar (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology.
In 1885 he published a life of Francis Bacon. His theo-
logical writings include three anonymously published religious
romances — Philochristus (1878), Onesimus (1882), Silanus ( 1 906) .
More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological
discussion The Kernel and the Husk (1886), Fhilomythus (1891),
his book on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his
article " The Gospels " in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable
stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St Thomas
of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (i8g8),Johannine Vocabu-
lary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906).

His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known
tutor of Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of
Greece.

ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at
Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano
voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel
Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important
concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name,
and toured extensively in the United States, where she had a
great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. Wetherell. She
died at Salt Lake City on the sth of January 1891.

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for
the young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the I4th of
November 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820;
studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and
1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst
College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association
in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in
Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor
of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury,
Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and
in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848

of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York City. He was
a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, brief histories and
biographies, and religious books for the general reader, and a
few works in popular science. He died on the 3ist of October
1879 at Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time
since 1839, and where his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott
founded in 1844 the Abbott School, popularly called " Little
Blue." Jacob Abbott's " Rollo Books "—Rollo at Work, Rollo
at Play, Rollo in Europe, &c. (28 vols.) — are the best known of
his writings, having as their chief characters a representative
boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two
generations of young American readers a service not unlike that
performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of
Evenings at Home, Sandford and Merlon, and the Parent's
Assistant. Of his other writings (he produced more than two
hundred volumes in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10
vols.), twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series
of thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and
the Young Christian, — all of which had enormous circulations.

His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin
Abbott (1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott
(q.v.), and Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also
well-known authors.

See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the
Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward Abbott (New York, 1882),
with a bibliography of his works.

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American
writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the i8th of September
1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated
with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York
City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical
biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of a
partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very readable
History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various
elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are treated with some
skill in arrangement, but with unfailing adulation. Dr Abbott
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry
at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844,
when he retired from the ministry, preached successively at
Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, Massachusetts. He died
at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the I7th of June 1877. He was
a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of his-
tories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but
were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in
history. In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction,
his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother,
Jacob Abbott.

ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author,
was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the i8th of December
1835, the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University
of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the bar
in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after
studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, was ordained
a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor
of a church inTerre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New
England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to
1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedman's)
Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote him-
self to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Maga-
zine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and was
co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward
Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth
Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years
later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union,
renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts
toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian
and nearly Unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his
published works also.

His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869) ; Illustrated Commentary
on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study in Human Nature
(1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Christianity (Lowell
Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Chris-
tianity and Social Problems (1897) ; Life and Letters of Paul (1898) ;

ABBOTTABAD— ABBREVIATION

27

The Life that Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights
of Man (1901) ; Henry Ward Beecher (1903) ; The Christian Ministry
(1905); The Personality of Cod (1905); Industrial Problems (1905);
and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907). He edited Sermons of
Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868).

ABBOTTABAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above sea-
level, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the Hazara
district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after its founder,
Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district after the annexa-
tion of the Punjab. It is an important military cantonment and
sanatorium, being the headquarters of a brigade in the second
division of the northern army corps. In 1901 the population of
the town and cantonment was 7764.

ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening;
more particularly, an " abbreviation " is a letter or group of
letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent
them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single
words and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and
recognized, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions
(see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and very many are in
use at the present time. A distinction is to be observed between
abbreviations and the contractions that are frequently to be
met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books,
whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular
collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary sym-
bols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution
for a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent
ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently
added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a
superlative.

I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS. — The following list contains
a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the writings
and inscriptions of the Romans: —

A.

A. Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus,

Antique, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum,

Aut.

A.A. Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum.

AA. August!. AAA. Augusti tres.

A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.1
A.A.V. Alter ambove.
A.C. Acta causa, Alius civis.

A.D. Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum.

A.D.A. Ad dandos agros.
AED. Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas.
AEM. and AIM. Aemilius, Aemilia.
AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico.
A-F. Actum fide, Auli filius.

AG. Ager, Ago, Agrippa.

A.G. Animo grato, Aulus Gellius.

A.L.AE. and A.L.E. Arbitrium litis aestimandae.
A.M. and A.MILL.Ad milliarium.
AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante.

ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona.
ANT. Ante, Antonius.
A.O. Alii pmnes, Amico optimo.

AP. Appius, Apud.

A.P. Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate.

A.P.F. Auro (or argento) publico feriundo.
A.P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus.
A.P.R.C. Anno post Romam conditam.
ARG. Argentum.
AR.V.V.D.D. Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono

dedit.

AT. A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER.
A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare opprtere.
AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius.

A.V. Annos vixit.

A.V.C. Ab urbe condita.
AVG. Augur, Augustus.

AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres.
AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provincial Romanorum.

B.

B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium,

Bonus, Brutus, Bustum.
B. for V. Berna Bivus, Bixit.

B.A. Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis.
BB. or B.B. Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus.
B.D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum.
B.DD. Bonis deabus.

1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales.

B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti.

B.F. Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.

g.J. Bona femina, Bona filia.

B.H. Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres.

B.I. Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium.

B.M. Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.

B.N. Bona npstra, Bonum nomen.

BN.H.I. Bona hie invenies.

B.P. Bona paterna, Bonorum pptestas, Bonum publicum.

Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita.
B.RP.N. Bono reipublicae natus.
BRT. Britannicus.
B.T. Bonorum tutor, Breyi tempore.

B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.

B.V.V. Balnea vina Venus.
BX. Bixit, for vixit.

C.
C. Caesar, Caius, Caput, Causa, Censor,Civis, Cohors, Colonia ,

Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo,

Custos. ,

C. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.

C.B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui

bono.
C.C. Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con-

silium cepit, Curiae consulto.
C.C.C. Calumniae cavendae causa.

C.C.F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius.
CC.VV. Clarissimi viri.

C.D. Caesaris decreto, Caius Decius, Comitialibus diebus.

CES. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.

Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
C.H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.

C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex.

CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.

CL.V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.
C.M. Caius Marius, Causa mortis.
CN. Cnaeus.

COH. Coheres, Cohors.

COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna.
COLL. Collega, Colpni, Coloniae.
COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.
CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis.
COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.

C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit

ponendum.
C.R. Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.

Caesar, Communis, Consul.
C.V. Clarissimus or Consularis vir.

CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.

D.

D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,

Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus,

Donum.

D.C. Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar.

D.D. Dea Dia.Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono

dedit.

D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
D.E.R. De ea re.
DES. Designatus.

D.I. Dedit imperatpr, Diis immprtalibus, Diis inferis.

D.I.M. Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.
D.M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.
D.O.M. Deo Optimo Maximo.
D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia

sua.

E.

Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex.
EG. Aeger, Egit, Egregius.

E.M. Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.
EQ.M. Equitum magister.
E.R.A. Ea res agitur.

F.

F. Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix,

Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit,

Functus.

F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissum, Fiduciae causa.

F.D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit.

F.F.F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato.
FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius.

F.L. Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.

FR. Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius.

F.R. Forum Romanum.

G.

G. Gaius ( = Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemina, Gens,

Gesta, Gratia.

G.F. Gemina fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F, Gemina

pia fidelis.

ABBREVIATION

GL. Gloria.

GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus ( = Cnaeus).

G.P.R. Genio populi Romani.

H.

H. Habet, Heres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora.

HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules.
H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.

H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta raulier, Hora mala.
H.S.E. Hie sepultus est, Hie situs est.
H.V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.

I.
I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse,

Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus.
IA. . Jam, Intra.

I.C. Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile.

ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum.

Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei.
I.D.M. Jovi deo magno.
I.F. In foro, In fronte.

I.H. Jacet hie, In honestatem, Justus homo.

IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa.

IMP. Imperator, Imperium.
I.O.M. Jovi optimo maximo.

I. P. In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona.

I.S.V.P. Impensa sua vivus posuit.

K.

K. Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra.

K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae.

L.
L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius,

Lucius, Ludus.

LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus.

L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum.
LEG. Legatus, Legio.

LIB. Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius.

LL. Leges, Libentissime, Liberti.

L.M. Libens merito, Locus monument!.

L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer.

LVD. Ludus.
LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit.

M.
M. Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marius,

Marti, Mater,Memoria,Mensis, Miles, Monumentum,

Mortuus, Mucius, Mulier.
M'. Manius.

M.D. Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit.
MES. Mensis. MESS. Menses.
M.F. Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit.
M.I. Matri Idaeae, Matri Isidi, Maximo Jovi.

MNT.andMON. Moneta.
M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit.

M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum.

MVN. Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC.
M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit.

N.
N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero,

Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Nume-

rius, Numerus, Nummus.
NEP. Nepos, Neptunus.
N.F.C. Nostrae fidei commissum.

Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe.
N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir.

NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum.

NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris.
N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parte diei), Non potest.

O.

O. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa.

OB. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis.

O.C.S. Ob cives servatps.
O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus.
O.H.S.S. Ossa hie sita sunt.
OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum.

O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant.

P.
P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,

Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,

Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.
P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia consti-

tuta, Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate

censoria.

Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius.
P.M. Piae memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus.

P.P. Pater patratus,Pater patriae,Pecunia publica.Praepositus,

Primipilus, Propraetor.
PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.

Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus.
P.R.C. Post Romam conditam.

PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii. Propraetor.

P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae

saluti.
P.V. Pia victrix, Praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.

Q.

Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,

Quintus, Quirites.

8.D.R. Qua de re.
.I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.
8Q. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.

.R. Quaestor reipublicae.

R.
R. Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,

Rufus, Rursus.

R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis.

RESP. and RP. Respublica.
RET. P. and RP. Retro pedes.

S.

S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,

Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub,
Suus.

SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.

S.C. Senatus cpnsultum.

S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam

dedit.

S.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.
SER. Servius, Servus.
S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis.
SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.

Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.
S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus.
S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scriptum.

S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.

T.

T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma,

Tutor.

TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius.
TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus.

T.F. Testamentum fecit.Titi filius,Titulum fecit.Titus Flavius.

TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.

T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.

TVL. Tullius, Tufius.

V.
V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir,

Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum.
V.A. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annps.

V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.

V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.

V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.

V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.

V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.

II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS. — Of the different kinds of
abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are
examples : —

A.M. Ave Maria.

B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus.

CC. Carissimus (also plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.

D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux.

D.N.PP. Dominus noster Papa.

FF. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).

I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus.

I.D.N. In Dei nomine.

KK. Karissimus (or -mi).

MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.

O.S.B. Ordmis Sancti Benedicti.

PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus.

R.F. Rex Francorum.

R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.

S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas.

S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia.

S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria.

S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium.

S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.

V. Venerabilis, Venerandus.

V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.

III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE. — The import of these
will often be readily understood from the connexion in which
they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common
abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture,
months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and
mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like " Mr," &c.

The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
be conveniently classified under the following headings: —

ABBREVIATION

29

I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS.

A.A. Associate of Arts.

A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts.

A.D.C. Aide-de-Camp.

A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.

A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy.

A.R.I. B. A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects.

A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.

B.A. Bachelor of Arts.

Bart. Baronet.

B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D. Bachelor of Divinity.

B.LL. Bachelor of Laws.

B.Sc. Bachelor of Science.

C. Chairman.

C.A. Chartered Accountant.

C.B. Companion of the Bath.

C.E. Civil Engineer.

C.I.E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire.

C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery.

C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George.

C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India.

D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.

D.D. Doctor of Divinity.

D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature.

D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).

D.Sc. Doctor of Science.

D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order.

Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York.1

F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.

F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.

F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons

(Glasgow).

F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians

in Ireland.

F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society.
P.M. Field Marshal.
F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society.
F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.
F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society.
F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.
F.R.I. B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects.
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society.
F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society.
G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.
G.C.I. E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian

Empire.

G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.
G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India.
G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.

His or Her Highness.

His or Her Imperial Highness.

His or Her Imperial Majesty.

His or Her Majesty.

His or Her Royal Highness.

His or Her Serene Highness.

Judge.

(Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor), Doctor of

Canon or Civil Law.

(Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.
Justice of the Peace.
King's Counsel.

Knight Commander of the Bath.
Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.

H.H.

H.I.H.

H.I.M.

H.M.

H.R.H.

H.S.H.

jic.D.
J.U.D.

KPC.

K.C.B.

K.C.I.E.

K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.

K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India.

K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.

K.G. Knight of the Garter.

K.P. Knight of St Patrick.

K.T. Knight of the Thistle.

L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.

L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor.

L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice.

1 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes
for his surname the name of his see ; thus the prelates of Canterbury,
York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves with their initials
(Christian names only), followed by Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin.
(sometimes London.), &c.

L.J. Lord Justice.

L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts.

LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.

LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.

LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.

L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.

L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.

L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.

M.A. Master of Arts.

M.B. . (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine.

M.C. Member of Congress.

M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.

M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.

M.P. Member of Parliament.

M.R. Master of the Rolls.

M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.

M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

M.R.I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.

Mus.B. Bachelor of Music.

Mus.D. Doctor of Music.

M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order.

N.P. Notary Public.

O.M. Order of Merit.

P.C. Privy Councillor.

Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.

P.P. Parish Priest.

P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy.

R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.

R. & I. Rex et Imperator.

R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.

R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music.

R.E. Royal Engineers.

Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.

R.M. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.

R.N. Royal Navy.

S. or St. Saint.

S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland] .

S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred

Theology.

V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.

V.G. Vicar-General.

V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.

W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland] . Equivalent to Attorney.

2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND

MEASURES.2

Ib. or Ib. (libra), pound (weight).

m. or mi. mile, minute.

i>l. minim.

mo. month.

na. nail.

oz. ounce.

pk. peck.

po. pole.

pt. pint.

q. (quadrans), farthing.

qr. quarter.

qt. quart.

ro. rood.

Rs.3 rupees.

s. or/ (solidus), shilling.

s. or sec. second.

sc. or scr. scruple^

sq. ft. &c. square foot, &c.

St. stone.

yd. yard.

ac. acre,

bar. barrel,

bus. bushel,

c. cent.

c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c.
cwt. hundredweight.

d. (denarius), penny,
deg. degree.

dr. drachm or dram,

dwt. pennyweight,

f. franc,

fl. florin.

ft. foot,

fur. furlong,

gal. gallon,

gr. grain,
h. or hr. hour,

hhd. hogshead,

in. inch,

kilo, kilometre.

L.,2 £,2 or /. (libra), pound
(money).

3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS.

A. Accepted.

A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ.

ace., a/c. or acct. Account.

A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.

A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universe,4 or Alles Erdreich

1st Oesterreich Unterthan.

Act. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.
A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan

era).

2 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same
way; e.g. ° ' " for "degrees, minutes, seconds " (circular measure);
?i 3. 3 f°r "ounces, drachms, scruples." | is probably to be traced
to the written form of the z in "oz."

* These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar)
are placed before their amounts.

4 It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of
Austria, first adopted by Frederick III.

ABBREVIATORS— ABDALLATIF

A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world.

A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon.

Anon. Anonymous.

A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building of the

city (i.e. Rome).
A.V. Authorized version of the Bible.

b. born.

B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary.
B.C. Before Christ.

c. circa, about.

C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter.

C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.

cent.1 (Centum), A hundred, frequently £100.

Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare.

Ch. or Chap. Chapter.

C.M.S. Church Missionary Society.

Co. Company, County.

C.O.D. Cash on Delivery.

Cr. Creditor.

curt. Current, the present month.

d. died.

D.G. (Dei gratia). By the grace of God.
Do. Ditto, the same.

D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.
Dr. Debtor.

D.V. (Deo volente), God willing.
E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted.
e.g. (Exempli gratia), For example,
etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth.
Ex. Example.

F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
Fee. (Fecit), He made (or did) it.
fl. Flourished.

Fo. or Fol. Folio,
f.o.b. Free on board.
G.P.O. General Post Office.
H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service.
Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.
Id. (Idem), The same.
i.e. (Id est). That is.

I.H.S. A symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters
of the Greek (I H 2] ; the correct origin was lost sight
of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted
erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Sahator,
the Latin " h " and Greek long " e " being confused.
I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God.
Inf. (Infra), Below.
Inst. Instant, the present month.
I.O.U. I owe you.
i.q. (Idem quod). The same as.
K.T.\. (KO! TO. Xourd), Et caetera, and the rest.
L. or Lib. (Liber), Book.
Lat. Latitude.

I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited.
Lon. or Long. Longitude.
L.S. (Locus sigilh). The place of the seal.
Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.

Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.

(Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.

North Britain (i.e. Scotland).

No date.

(Nemine contrad icente) , No one contradicting.

MS.

N.B.

N.B.

N.D.

nem. con.

No.

N.S.

N.T.

ob.

Obs.

(Numero), Number.

New Style.

New Testament.

(Obiit), Died.

Obsolete.

O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service.
O.S. Old Style.

O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines).
O.T. Old Testament.
P. Page. Pp. Pages.

|» (Per), For; e.g. $ Ib., For one pound.

Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it.
P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.
P.O. Post Office, Postal Order.
P.O.O. Post Office Order.
P.P,C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.
P.R. Prize-ring.

prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month.
P.S. Postscript.
Pt. Part.

p.t. or pro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time.
P.T.O. Please turn over.
Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question.

q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say; as much as to say.
Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated.
Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.

"Per cent." is often signified by%, a form traceable to"ioo.'

q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is sufficient.

q.v. (Quod vide), Which see.

R. or 5. (Recipe), T^ke.

V ( = r. for radix), The sign of the square root.

R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace!). May he rest in peace!

R.S.V.P. (Respondez s'il vous plait), Please reply.

sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.

Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.

S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.

seq.or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequentia), The following.

S.J. Society of Jesus.

s.p. (Sine prole), Without offspring.

S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge

S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.

S.T.D. )

S.T.B. £ Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.

S.T.L. )

Sup. (Supra), Above.

s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).

T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.

U.S. United States.

U.S.A. United States of America.

v. (Versus), Against.

v. or vid. (Vide), See.

viz. (Videlicet), Namely-

Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.

See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai's
Tractatus de Sifjis Veterum ; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati-
narum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838);
Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des A brevia-
tions (3rd ed. 1866); Campelli, Dizionario di Abbreviature (1899).

ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery,
whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the
pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are
written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first men-
tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII.
Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the
time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco
majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minori. The name
was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a
grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower
(major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that
of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching
of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who
ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the
apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made
essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they
obtained in course of time many important privileges. They
were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans-
ferred to the protonotarii apostolici participates . (See CURIA
ROMANA.)

ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated
physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers
of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1 162. An interesting memoir
of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi-
tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary.
From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth
of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study
of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing
to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology
and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After
attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif
applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy
the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and
afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation
from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had
long cherished to converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the
Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle
of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem.
He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus
for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at
Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different
parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a
pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal-
latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an
inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works —
mostly on medicine — which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only,

ABD-AR-RAHMAN

his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears
to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward
Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library,
contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the
author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its
banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of
Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De
Sacy in 1810.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the
Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them
being rulers of great capacity.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch
of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom-
medan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the
East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty
years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge
with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their
enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the
brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself
by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the
common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach
of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate
produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the
hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay-
yad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time
Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled
farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri-
tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from
the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by
reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would
restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his
wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755
he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over
to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family,
descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous
in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country
was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir
Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by
tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts be-
tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the
opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation
of his partisans he landed at Almunecar, to the east of Malaga,
in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to
be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their
venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd-
ar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land.
This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would
probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a
better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish
renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad
cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with
being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation
Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign
was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on
the 1 6th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd-
ar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost
the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was
improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round
the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the
banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar-
rahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab
and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give
themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which
grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong
to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the
personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was
compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels
acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory,
he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and
camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph.
His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies,
repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and

ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a
dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in
Spain for two centuries and a half.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of
the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music
and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly
memorable for having included the story of the " Martyrs of
Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious
history of the middle ages.

ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-96^ was the greatest and the
most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the
general history of his reign see SPAIN, History) . He ascended the
throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a
century. His life was so completely identified with the govern-
ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than
his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies some passages
which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its
best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor,
Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads.
His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by
order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by
humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly.
Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was
exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among
the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans
of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or
secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele-
ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not
averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them
against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the
most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came
the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the
caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the
Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman
subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in-
cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup-
porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the
caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content
with the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to
belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca
and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far
weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph
on the i6th of January 929, and the assumption of the title
gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain
and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom-
medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega
in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see
SPAIN, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of
having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of
the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions
is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is
well to remember that he administered well not by means of
but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his
administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex-
cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for
the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded
and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the
surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra,
built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a
favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have
been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which
no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic
architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordova, was built by his
predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included
six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is
highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it
is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most
authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of
Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of
Gorze, who has left in his Vila an incomplete account of his
embassy (in Pertz, Man. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He
blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said

ABD-EL-AZIZ IV.— ABD-EL-KADER

could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His
confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his
long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the " omnia
fui, el nil expedit " of Septimius Severus.

In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes
of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time,
Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V.
Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions,
who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered
in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing
from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters.
Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at
Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed
workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.

The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histotre
des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.)

ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of
Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen
years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action
of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el-
Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little
fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed
himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency
ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his
own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his
chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan
sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to
act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain,
and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to
do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action
and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted
exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in-
timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were
sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His
attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of
taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not
strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money
which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to
purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd-
el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were
accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of
spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed
to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez,
this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country.
The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke
out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of
things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904
came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for
support and protection against the inroads of France. On the
advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international
conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of
reform, the sultan's desire being to ensuie a condition of affairs
which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in
the control of the country, and would promote its welfare,
which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to
power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras
Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell
during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed
that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will
respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern
tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and
viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following
August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the
usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans
at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France.
In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and
endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers
against his brother. From France he accepted the grand
cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to
negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further
opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared
deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid.

After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re-
store his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched
on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com-
pletely overthrown (August igth) when near that city, and
Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas-
ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother,
and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner
of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled
to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet,
peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.)

ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great
opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near
Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descend-
ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated
throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el-
Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman
of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in
horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth
he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and
Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag-
dad— events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious
enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated
to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out
by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the
knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and
his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa-
tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey.
Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels,
Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He
prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short
time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria.
The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is
given under ALGERIA. To the beginning of 1842 the contest
went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal
Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master.
Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born
leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per-
suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the
doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure
was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles,
Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat
loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the
French. On the 2ist of December 1847, the amir gave himself
up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his
submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then
governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would
be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith
of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were
detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in
November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There
Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was re-
leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis-
turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa,
removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the Moslems
of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses
of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over
3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak
and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the
French government, which granted the amir a pension of £4000,
bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In
1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at
the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose
in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to
France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew
to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical
treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858
under the title of Rappel d I 'intelligent. Avis & I'indifffrent.
He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus
on the 26th of May 1883.

See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807-1883 (Paris [1899]);
Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa vie polilique et militaire (Paris,
1863) ; Col. C. H. Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867).

ABDERA— ABDOMEN

33

ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of
Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district in-
habited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians
as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under
the Romans one of the more important towns in the province
of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern
Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician
inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a
tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the
place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two
tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re-
lating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267.

ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of
the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda-
tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from
Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates
from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated
to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke
(Herod, i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical
with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and
variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined
in importance after the middle of the 4th century. The air of
Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its
citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the
town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven
small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour;
on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of
Polystylon.

Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel);
Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 21 1 ; K. F. Hermann, Ges.
Abh. 90-111, 370 ff.

ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from
ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging
to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives
up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held.
In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning
of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the
word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the
supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty
to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other-
wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain
cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two
Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great
seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally
resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament
whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The
latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the
Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in
spite of James's protest, " that King James II. having endea-
voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking
the original contract between king and people, and, by the
advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated
the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of
this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the
throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish parliament pronounced
a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor-
able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla
the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D.
305. The following is a list of the more important abdications
of later times: —

A.D.

Benedict IX., pope 1048

Stephen II. of Hungary 1131

Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg 1169

Ladislaus III. of Poland 1206

Celestine V., pope . Dec. 13, 1294

John Baliol of Scotland 1296

John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East .... 1355

Richard II. of England Sept. 29, 1399

John XXIII., pope 1415

Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . 1439

Murad II. .Ottoman Sultan 1444 and 1445

Charles V., emperor 1556

Christina of Sweden '654

John Casimir of Poland 1668

James II. of England

Frederick Augustus of Poland ....

Philip V. of Spain

Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia ....
Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey ....
Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)

Stanislaus II. of Poland

Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia ....

Charles IV. of Spain

Joseph Bonaparte of Naples

Gustavus IV. of Sweden

Louis Bonaparte of Holland

Napoleon I., French Emperor

Victor Emanuel of Sardinia

Charles X. of France

Pedro of Brazil J

Miguel of Portgual

William I. of Holland

Louis Philippe, king of the French

Louis Charles of Bavaria

Ferdinand of Austria

Charles Albert of Sardinia

A.D.

1688
1704
1724
1730
1730
1759
1795

June 4, 1802
Mar. 19, 1808
June 6, 1808
Mar. 29, 1809
July 2, 1810

April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815
, Mar. 13, 1821
Aug. 2, 1830
April 7, 1831
May 26, 1834
Oct. 7, 1840
Feb. 24, 1848
Mar. 21, 1848
Dec. 2, 1848
Mar. 23, 1849

I. 2

Leopold II. of Tuscany July 21, 1859

Isabella II. of Spain June 25, 1870

Amadeus I. of Spain Feb. 11,1873

Alexander of Bulgaria Sept. 7, 1886

Milan of Servia Mar. 6, 1889

ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from
a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the
body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana-
tomical details the articles ALIMENTARY CANAL, and ANATOMY,
Superficial and Artistic.)

ABDOMINAL SURGERY. — The diseases affecting this region
are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, and
under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term " ab-
dominal surgery " covers generally the operations which involve
opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of
work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the
surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most
part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that
organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.) ; but here the general
principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed.

Exploratory Laparotomy. — In many cases of serious intra-
abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly
what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his
finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due
care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad-
vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized.
It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist
and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a
table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often
impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without
making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such
circumstances — provided only it is done soon enough — the
successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter.
An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted
to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the
outlook is well-nigh hopeless.

It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced
hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having
advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen,
his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand,
he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not
resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if
only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band,
some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been
satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark
cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself
is helpless in these cases.

Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in
the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela-
tionship which exists between the public and the surgical pro-
fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, " If a
surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the

1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but
abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter.

5

34

ABDOMEN

public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest
it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the " apothe-
osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment of
a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have
found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not
advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at
any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led
to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has
truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate,
and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless
to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs.
Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections
of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent
as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the
effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the
services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay
spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread
that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But
now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are
promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once
sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed
without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is
not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view
of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the
results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have
been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue
to improve.

A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti-
fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from
Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor,
Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in
two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the
bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse-
quently " married " the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely
fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course
of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel
and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other
cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful,
as in the establishment of a permanent communication between
the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway
between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by
an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the
small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be-
tween small and large intestine. The operative procedure goes
by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the
bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma-
nent working communication can be set up between the gall-
bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small
intestine — the last-named operation bears the precise but
very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of
Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts
can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this,
in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest
importance. But there is this against the method — that some-
times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button,
whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its
passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore
prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material,
while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last-
named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of
course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal
method of treatment. ^The cause of death in the case of intestinal
obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the
absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents
of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom,
therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief
of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel,
incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and
returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect
of the absorption of this stagnant fluid — or, at any rate, who
first suggested the proper method of treating it — was Lawson
Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms

after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of
Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel
and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the
gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with
respiration and circulation.

Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal
surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the
sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and
the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower
bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of
this " normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit.
Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into
the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and
quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in
this condition.

Gunshot Wounds of the Abdomen. — If a revolver bullet passes
through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be
traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by
chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may
tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into
the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests
that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity
is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When
it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well
to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being
made for performing that operation on the first appearance of
symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small
perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing
as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal
cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as
possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a
fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound,
whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If
aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly
carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials
cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an
action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the
many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being
made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic
abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the
South African war of 1890-1902 showed that Mauser bullets
could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a
condition that, if treated by mere " expectancy," more than
50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal
septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of
the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions
and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic
operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab-
domen had best not be interfered with.

Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the
abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may
have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded.
In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be
set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out
if the belly^cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might
carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en-
large the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect
and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly-
cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should
be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there
have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the " toilet of
the peritoneum " would be duly made, and a drainage-tube
would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel
either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other
organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture,
and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of
antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations,
these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain
death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present time
a large number of them are saved.

Intussusception. — This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and
children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by,

ABDUCTION— ABD-UL-HAMID II.

35

the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom
to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water
up the rectum under pressure — a speculative method of treat-
ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended
bowel, and often — one might almost say generally — failed to do
what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is
that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal
of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that,
and more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a
rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is
unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to
the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel
could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing
cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex-
tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the
intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every
operation gives them by far the best chance.

Cancer of the Intestine. — With the introduction of aseptic
methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can
reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With
the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased
bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. If the can-
cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is
excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity
of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus
in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far
advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve
the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient
of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found
to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used
formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel
by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in
recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost
entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This
operation of inguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages:
a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab-
dominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after-
wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation,
it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer
find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at
the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are
urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit,
which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced
into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed
to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the
surface-wound. (E. O.*)

ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law
term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person,
limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim.
In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute
the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc-
tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an
heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences
against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one
from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will,
with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c., any woman
of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate,
or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next
of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to
cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any
other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take
away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one,
out of the possession and against the will of her parents or
guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against
her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony.
lie same act makes abduction without even any such intent a

nisdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six-
en is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the

vill of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con-

ent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged
asonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The

Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent

provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura-
tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under
the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the
abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent
that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female
against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that
another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland,
where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly
dealt with by practice.

ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
Mahmud II., was born on the gth of February 1830, and suc-
ceeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal in-
terference in government affairs was not very marked, and
extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the
constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth,
which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other
futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of
"bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875
and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue
was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid
heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes-
sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son
in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the
subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the
khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that
the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring
about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman
throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest
son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867,
being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight
of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits
of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other
foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal,
and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited
Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and
financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of
Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi-
nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the
"Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His
deposition on the 3oth of May 1876 was hailed with joy through-
out Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace
where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence
attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him:
Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of
Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha;
Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born
1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket,
born 1872, died 1899.

ABD-UL-HAMID I. 1(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of
Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long
confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him
pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession
the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual
donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how-
ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the
complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of
Kuchuk Kainarji (2ist July 1774), the most disastrous, especially
in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con-
clude. (See TURKEY.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea
against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the
loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant
to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against
Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being
entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her
triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against
the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four
months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged
sixty-four.

ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of
Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1842,
and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother
Murad V., on the 3ist of August 1876. He accompanied his

ABD-UL-MEJID

uncle Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France
in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless
manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to
be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of
liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects
were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him
with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances
of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal
developments. Default in the public funds and an empty
treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the
war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout
Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian
rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could
expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the
groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at
least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at
all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear
to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms
should be instituted. The international Conference which met
at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled
by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu-
tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite
of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers;
Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and
soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this
day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war
with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty
of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent,
were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main
to British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this time
the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that
he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in
his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of
the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to
employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his
army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his
empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the
encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins
of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a
profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial
embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control
over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby
many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the
Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders,
was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con-
sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where
a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek
frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined
that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into
effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude
towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid
showed less than his usual Astuteness, and the resulting con-
solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still
further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union
in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of
which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was
another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that
Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre-
hension was entertained of the results of the union until it was
seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then
the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved
towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid
running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's
friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered
with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in
1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con-
ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had
succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries,
and in concentrating the whole administration of the country
into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not
thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks
were dissatisfied, and from about 1890 the Armenians began a

violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised
them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893
at Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in
the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out;
the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant
of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of
massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threaten-
ing acts of the victims, and extending over many months and
throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The
reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited
by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its
turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition
sailed to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which
Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of
frontier; then a few months later Crete was taken over "en
depot " by the Four Powers — Germany and Austria not partici-
pating,— and Prince George of Greece was appointed their
mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of
the German emperor and empress.

Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European
Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to over-
whelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against
aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was en-
couraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire —
often an obstacle to government — were curtailed; the new railway
to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to dis-
tant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This
appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the
disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia
and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance
of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman
population by a system of delation and espionage, and by whole-
sale arrests ; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan
withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz.

The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia
(q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the
palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.
The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi
Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Com-
mittee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see TURKEY :
History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on
learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Con-
stantinople (July 23), at once capitulated. On the 24th an
trade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution
of 1875; next day, further irades abolished espionage and the
censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On
the loth of December the sultan opened the Turkish parlia-
ment with a speech from the throne in which he said that the
first parliament had been " temporarily dissolved until the
education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high
level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."

The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from
the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary ele-
ments in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude to-
wards the counter-revolution of the i3th of April, when an
insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the
capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The com-
mittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abd-
ul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 37th of April his brother
Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The
ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica.

ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on
the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II.
on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable
to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his
children, so that his son received no better education than that
given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the
harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the
affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the
very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constanti-
nople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at
Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali;

ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN

37

and the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alex-
andria, where it was handed over by its commander, Ahmed
Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's
advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of
the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms,
and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See MEHEMET ALI.) In
compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid
set at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud
had devoted himself. In November 1839 was proclaimed an
edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhane, consolidating
and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the
close of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February
1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of
the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and
property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice
impartially administered; and that all should have full religious
liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen
opposition from the Mussulman governing classes and the ulema,
or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in
force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more
than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on
account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by
Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were — the reorganization of the
army (1843-1844), the institution of a council of public instruc-
tion (1846), the abolition of an odious arid unfairly imposed
capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and various pro-
visions for the better administration of the public service and
for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of
his times — the disturbances and insurrections in different parts
of his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war suc-
cessfully carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England,
France and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey (1853-1856) —
see TURKEY, and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others
sought refuge in Turkey , after the failure of the Hungarian
rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia
to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is
to his credit, too, that he would hot allow the conspirators
against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character
of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and
easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his ex-
cessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life.
He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his
brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of
Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and
Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his
reign was begun, the reckless system of foreign loans, carried to
excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which
led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey and,
indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz.

ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, 'amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844-
1901), was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of
Dost Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in
war the Barakzai family established their dynasty in the ruler-
ship of Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863,
Dost Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his
third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and

zim Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized.
But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in
the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and
the Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died;
and then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of
Dost Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this
war, which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes,
he English War of the Roses at the end of the isth century,
Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring
nergy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of
hese qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the
son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's
suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to
Cabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere Ali threw
Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in south
Afghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by

winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reappear-
ance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed
in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard.
After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim
Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir Shere Ali
marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle
that ensued at Sheikhabad on loth May he was deserted by a
large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur
Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni,
and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan.
Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy
between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they
again routed Shere Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867;
and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan died, Azim Khan
succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman as his governor
in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shere
Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulting in
their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 1869, forced
them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman pro-
ceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian protection at
Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869.

This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur
Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was
not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the
rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and
fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in
Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the
death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when
the British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governor-
general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him
to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880
a report reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan;
and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications
with him to the effect that the British government were pre-
pared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman
as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some
districts adjacent. After some negotiations, an interview took
place between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the
diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government,
who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with
an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners,
shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. At
the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially
recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and
promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further
aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he followed
British advice in regard to his external relations. The evacua-
tion of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in
1881 the British troops also made over Kandahar to the new
amir; but Ayub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon
that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and
occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the
amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a
force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the
complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly
into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated
on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years
he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppress-
ing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic
authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful
Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887.
In that year Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia;
and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against
him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing.

In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir
was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in
India, the news came of a collision between Russian and Afghan
troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation
of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's
attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political
sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth
up, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment

ABECEDARIANS— ABEKEN

and the forcible seizure of some debateable frontier lands was
an untoward incident; but it was no sufficent reason for calling
upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's
integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would
certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north,
and would compel his British allies to throw an army into
Afghanistan from the south-east. His interest lay in keeping
powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his king-
dom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be sup-
ported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a
rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian govern-
ment made ready for that contingency, the amir's reserved and
circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn
the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced
towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who
met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action,
with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications
of the implacable severity that too often marked his administra-
tion. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of
the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much
pleasure.

From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in
his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was
engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by
revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known
or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly after-
wards (1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance
of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their
immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central
authority at Kabul.

In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the
government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of
territory required by the demarcation of 'the boundary between
north-eastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in
order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The
amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his
tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a
sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial
exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between
the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged,
were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the
important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan
on the east, towards India. In 1895 the amir found himself
unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from
Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah
Khan went in his stead.

Abdur Rahman died on the ist of October 1001, being succeeded
by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by
rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of
local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders
were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His govern-
ment was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed
army; it was administered through officials absolutely sub-
servient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread
system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority
was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held
open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of
justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.
He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the
fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself
of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while
he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like rail-
ways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within
his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the
position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the
Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in
dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure
in contemporary Asiatic politics and will mark his reign as an
epoch in the history of Afghanistan.

The amir received an annual subsidy from the British govern-
ment of i8j lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to import muni-
tions of 'war. In 1896 he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-ud-

Din (Light of the nation and religion); and his zeal for the
cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on Jehad. His
eldest son Habibullah Khan, with his brother Nasrullah Khan,
was born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar
Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by
descent with the Barakzai family.

See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London,
1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B.,
G.C.S.I., edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (avols.,
London, 1900) ; At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895).

(A. C. L.)

ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme
Anabaptists (<?.».), who regarded the teaching of the Holy Spirit
as all that was necessary, and so despised all human learning
and even the power of reading the written word.

A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856), English writer,
was born in north London on the 9th of January 1811. He
belonged to a family claiming descent from the father of St
Thomas Becket. His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett
(1806-1869), became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gil-
bert Abbott a Beckett was educated at Westminster school,
and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841. He edited
Figaro in London, and was one of the original staff of Punch
and a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on
The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series of
light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted in 1846
The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce some
fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of Dickens's
shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon. As poor-law
commissioner he presented a valuable report to the home
secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover
Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan police magistrate.
He died at Boulogne on the 3oth of August 1856 of typhus fever.

His eldest son GILBERT ARTHUR A BECKETT (1837-1891) was
born at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up
to Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855,
graduating in 1860. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave
his attention chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and
Hearts at the Hay market in 1867, which was followed by other
light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and
pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and of
The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of
Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court
Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked
World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline. For
the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of Punch.
His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the death of his
only son, and he died on the isth of October 1891.

A younger son, ARTHUR WILLIAM A BECKETT (1844-1909),
a well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the
staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his
father and his own reminiscences in The A Becketts of Punch
(1903). He died in London on the i4th of January 1909.

See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895).

ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of
the companions of Daniel (Dan. i. 7, &c.). It is probably a
corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, " servant of
Nebo," though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was
Abednergo, for Abednergal, " servant of the god Nergal."
C. H. Toy compares Barnebo, "son of Nebo," of which he
regards Barnabas as a slightly disguised form (Jewish Ency-
clopaedia).

ABEKEN, HEINRICH (1809-1872), German theologian and
Prussian official,- was born at Berlin on the 8th of August 1809.
He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became chaplain
to the Prussian embassy in Rome. In 1841 he visited England,
being commissioned by King Frederick William IV. to make
arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant bishopric of
Jerusalem. In 1848 he received an appointment in the Prussian
ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853 was promoted to be privy
councillor of legation (Geheimer Legationsrath). He was much
employed by Bismarck in the writing of official despatches,
and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often

ABEL

39

accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign
office. He was present with the king during the campaigns of
1866 and 1870-71. In 1851 he published anonymously Babylon
und Jerusalem, a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess
von Hahn-Hahn (q.v.).

See Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit (Berlin,
1898), by his widow. This is valuable by reason of the letters written
from the Prussian headquarters.

ABEL (Hebrew for breath], the second son of Adam, slain by
Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16). The narrative in Genesis
which tells us that " the Lord had respect unto Abel and to his
offering, but unto Cain and to his offering he had not respect,"
is supplemented by the statement of the New Testament, that
" by faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice
than Cain" (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain slew Abel "because his
own works were evil and his brother's righteous" (i John iii.
12). See further under CAIN. The name has been identified
with the Assyrian ablu, "son," but this is far from certain.
It more probably means " herdsman " (cf. the name Jabal),
and a distinction is drawn between the pastoral Abel and the
agriculturist Cain. If Cain is the eponym of the Kenites it is
quite possible that Abel was originally a South Judaean demigod
or hero; on this, see Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. p. 189;
E. Meyer, Israeliten, p. 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to
have lived in North Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De
Haeresibus, Ixxxvi.).

ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BART. (1827-1902),
English chemist, was born in London on the I7th of July 1827.
After studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann
at the Royal College of Chemistry (established in London
in 1845), he became professor of chemistry at the Royal
Military Academy in 1851, and three years later was appointed
chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the
government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted
until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connexion
with the chemistry of explosives. One of the most important
of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of gun-
cotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of
reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to
be prepared with practically no danger and at the same time
yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness.
This work to an important extent prepared the way for the
" smokeless powders " which came into general use towards
the end of the igth century; cordite, the particular form
adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented
jointly by him and Professor James Dewar. Our knowledge
of the explosion of ordinary black powder was also greatly
added to by him, and in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble
he carried out one of the most complete inquiries on record
into its behaviour when fired. The invention of the apparatus,
legalized in 1879, for the determination of the flash-point of
petroleum, was another piece of work which fell to him by virtue
of his official position. His first instrument, the open-test
apparatus, was prescribed by the act of 1868, but, being found
to possess certain defects, it was superseded in 1879 by the
Abel close- test instrument (see PETROLEUM). In electricity Abel
studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applica-
tions of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems
of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of
the Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was
president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877.
He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860, and received
a royal medal in 1887. He took an important part in the work
of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887
became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial
Institute, a position he held till his death, which occurred in
London on the 6th of September 1902. He was knighted in
1891, and created a baronet in 1893.

Among his books were — Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L.
Bloxam) , Modern History of Gunpowder ( 1 866) , Gun-cotton (1866),
On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in Explosives (1875), and

Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes (1884). He also wrote
several important articles in the ninth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica.

ABEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-1787), German musician,
was born in Kothen in 1725, and died on the 2Oth of June
1787 in London. He was a great player on the viola da gamba,
and composed much music of importance in its day for that
instrument. He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at the
Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758) under
A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector of Saxony;
and then, going to England, became (in 1759) chamber-musician
to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert of his own compositions
in London, performing on various instruments, one of which,
the pentachord, was newly invented. In 1762 Johann Christian
Bach, the eleventh son of Sebastian, came to London, and the
friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the
establishment of the famous concerts subsequently known as
the Bach and Abel concerts. For ten years these were organ-
ized by Mrs Cornelys, whose enterprises were then the height
of fashion. In 1775 the concerts became independent of her,
and were continued by Abel unsuccessfully for a year aft^r
Bach's death in 1782. At them the works of Haydn were first
produced in England. After the failure of his concert under-
takings Abel still remained in great request as a player on various
instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby
hastened his death. He was a man of striking presence, of
whom several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough,
exist.

ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathe-
matician, was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802. In
1815 he entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three
years later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his
brilliant solutions of the original problems proposed by B.
Holmboe. About this time, his father, a poor Protestant
minister, died, and the family was left in straitened circum-
stances; but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to
enter Christiania University in 1821. His first notable work
was a proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation
by radicals. This investigation was first published in 1824
and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826) more
elaborately in the first volume of Crelle's Journal. Further
state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in 1825,
and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher (1780-
1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where he
became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then
about to publish his mathematical journal. . This project was
warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the
success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiberg,
and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of func-
tions, elliptic, hyperelliptic and a new class known as Abelians
being particularly studied. In 1826 he moved to Paris, and
during a ten months' stay he met the leading mathematicians
of France ; but he was little appreciated, for his work was
scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him from pro-
claiming his researches. Pecuniary embarrassments, from
which he had never been free, finally compelled him to abandon
his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught for some time
at Christiania. In 1829 Crelle obtained a post for him at Berlin,
but the offer did not reach Norway until after his death near
Arendal on the 6th of April.

The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom
Legendre said " quelle tete celle du jeune NoraegienI", cut short
a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise. Under Abel's
guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be
cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions
so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous
ramifications along which progress could be made. His works,
the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal,
were edited by Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Swedish
government, and a more complete edition by L. Sylow and
S. Lie was published in 1881.

For further details of his mathematical investigations see

ABEL— ABELARD

the articles GROUPS, THEORY OF, and FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX
VARIABLES.

See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sa vie et son
action scientifique (Paris, 1885); Lucas de Peslouan, Niels Henrik
Abel (Paris, 1906).

ABEL (better ABELL), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest
who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII. The
place and date of his birth are unknown. He was educated at
Oxford and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time
before 1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V.
on a mission relating to the proposed divorce. On his return
he was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in
Essex, and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the
unfortunate queen. In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas
(with the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion),
which contained an answer to the numerous tracts supporting
Henry's ecclesiastical claims. After an imprisonment of more
than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the
royal supremacy in the church, and was executed at Smithfield
on the 3oth of July 1 540. There is still to be seen on the wall
of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with an A upon
it and the name Thomas above, which he carved during his
confinement. He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII.

See J. Gillow's Bibl. Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.; Calendar
of State Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-vii. passim.

ABELARD, PETER (1070-1142), scholastic philosopher, was
born at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079. He was
the eldest son of a noble Breton house. The name Abaelardus
(also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other ways)
is said to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted by himself
for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a student. As
a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehension,
and, choosing a learned life instead of the knightly career natural
to a youth of his birth, early became an adept in the art of
dialectic, under which name philosophy, meaning at that time
chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted through Latin channels,
was the great subject of liberal study in the episcopal schools.
Roscellinus, the famous canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by
himself as his teacher; but whether he heard this champion of
extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered about
from school to school for instruction and exercise, or some years
later, after he had already begun to teach for himself, remains
uncertain. His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still
under the age of twenty. There, in the great cathedral school
of Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William
of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of
Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the
master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in
the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till then
dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of opposi-
tion from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only twenty-two,
he proceeded to set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for
more direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, nearer Paris.
The success of his teaching was signal, though for a time he had
to quit the field, the strain proving too great for his physical
strength. On his return, after 1 108, he found William lecturing
no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the
city, and there battle was again joined between them. Forcing
upon the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once
more victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme. His dis-
comfited rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in
Paris, but soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun,
where he had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital,
and set up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking
over Notre-Dame. From his success in dialectic, he next turned
to theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon. His
triumph over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able
to give lectures, without previous training or special study,
which were acknowledged superior to those of the master.
Abelard was now at the height of his fame. He stepped into the
chair at Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the
year 1115.

Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a
time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen sur-
rounded by crowds — it is said thousands — of students, drawn
from all countries by the fame of his teaching, in which acuteness
of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of exposition.
Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and feasted with universal
admiration, he came, as he says, to think himself the only
philosopher standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes
was at hand. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto lived
a very regular life, varied only by the excitement of conflict:
now, at the height of his fame, other passions began to stir
within him. There lived at that time, within the precincts of
Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert,
a young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about
noi. Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, which
extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she
awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and with
intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in Fulbert's
house as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden,
he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over her
for the purpose of seduction, though not without cherishing a
real affection which she returned in unparalleled devotion.
Their relation interfering with his public work, and being,
moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became known
to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, when
at last it could not escape even his vision, they were separated
only to meet in secret. Thereupon Heloise found herself preg-
nant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, where she
gave birth to a son. To appease her furious uncle, Abelard
now proposed a- marriage, under the condition that it should be
kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement
in the church; but of marriage, whether public or secret, Heloise
would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for
her the independence of his life, nor did she finally yield to the
arrangement without the darkest forebodings, only too soon
to be realized. The secret of the marriage was not kept by
Fulbert; and when Heloise, true to her singular purpose, boldly
denied it, life was made so unsupportable to her that she sought
refuge in the convent of Argenteuil. Immediately Fulbert,
believing that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to
be rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others
broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and perpetrated on him
the most brutal mutilation. Thus cast down from his pinnacle
of greatness into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left
to the brilliant master only the life of a monk. The priesthood
and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him. Heloise,
not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the
call of his jealous love, and took the veil.

It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged forty,
sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight. Finding,
however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude, and having
gradually turned again to study, he yielded after a year to urgent
entreaties from without and within, and went forth to reopen
his school at the priory of Maisoncelle (1120). His lectures,
now framed in a devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds
of students, and all his old influence seemed to have returned;
but old enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer
able as before to make head. No sooner had he put in writing
his theological lectures (apparently the Introductio ad Theolo-
giam that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul
of his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.
Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial synod
held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular practices
a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made to throw
his book into the flames and then was shut up in the convent of
St Mddard at Soissons. After the other, it was the bitterest
possible experience that could befall him, nor, in the state of
mental desolation into which it plunged him, could he find any
comfort from being soon again set free. The life in his own
monastery proved no more congenial than formerly. For this
Abelard himself was partly responsible. He took a sort of
malicious pleasure in irritating the monks. Quasi jocando, he

ABELIN

41

cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the Areopagite had been
bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon the statement of the
abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of Athens. When this
historical heresy led to the inevitable persecution, Abelard
wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in which he preferred to the
authority of Bede that of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica and
St Jerome, according to whom Dionysius, bishop of Corinth,
was distinct from Dionysius the Areopagite, bishop of Athens
and founder of the abbey, though, in deference to Bede, he
suggested that the Areopagite might also have been bishop of
Corinth. Life in the monastery was intolerable for such a
troublesome spirit, and Abelard, who had once attempted to
escape the persecution he had called forth by flight to a monastery
at Provins, was finally allowed to withdraw. In a desert place
near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and
reeds, and turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him
with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students
flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him
with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again he
found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new
oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete.

Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard
left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting an
invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys,
on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. It proved a wretched
exchange. The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey
to lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly.
Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate
before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under
peril of violent death. The misery of those years was not,
however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking up
of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as head of
a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and in the
capacity of spiritual director he often was called to revisit the
spot thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had
lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character,
uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her
youth; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all
the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time
apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St
Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia
Calamitatum, and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which
remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly
devotion; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in
which she finally accepted the part of resignation which, now
as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her. He not
long after was seen once more upon the field of his early triumphs
lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 1136 (when he was heard
by John of Salisbury), but it was only for a brief space: no new
triumph, but a last great trial, awaited him in the few years to
come of his chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days,
he had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux,
in whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating
faith, from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt,
and now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance
of others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest
offender. After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard
was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his
strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard,
formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was
prepared to plead his cause. When, however, Bernard, not
without foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubt-
able dialectician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard ap-
pealed to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard,
who had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed
at the council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation
was procured at Rome in the following year. Meanwhile, on
his way thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken
down at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man,
with spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual
force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of
death. Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his sufferings,

to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, he died on
the 2ist of April 1142. First buried at St Marcel, his remains
soon after were carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given
over to the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to
rest beside them (1164). The bones of the pair were shifted
more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously pre-
served even through the vicissitudes of the French Revolution,
and now they lie united in the well-known tomb in the cemetery
of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris.

Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds
of his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he
has been little known in modern times but for his connexion
with Heloise. Indeed, it was not till the igth century, when
Cousin in 1836 issued the collection entitled Outrages inedits
d' Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged
at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, the
ethical treatise Scilo te ipsum, having been published earlier,
namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving extracts
from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage of opposite
opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the Fathers as a basis
for discussion, the main interest in which lies in the fact that
there is no attempt to reconcile the different opinions), includes
the Dialectica, commentaries on logical works of Aristotle,
Porphyry and Boethius, and a fragment, De Generibus et
Speciebus. The last-named work, and also the psychological
treatise De Intellectibus, published apart by Cousin (in Fragment
Philosophiques, vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal
evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have sprung
out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphy-
rium, from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph
Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript.

The general importance of Abelard lies in his having fixed
more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner
of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally rational
expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine. However
his own particular interpretations may have been condemned,
they were conceived in essentially the same spirit as the general
scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in the i3th century
with approval from the heads of the church. Through him
was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy of the philo-
sophical authority of Aristotle, which became firmly established
in the half-century after his death, when first the completed
Organon, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker,
came to be known in the schools: before his time it was rather
upon the authority of Plato that the prevailing Realism sought
to lean. As regards his so-called Conceptualism and his attitude
to the question of Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM. Outside of his
dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity
of philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon
the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral char-
acter, at least the moral value, of human action. His thought
in this direction, wherein he anticipated something of modern
speculation, is the more remarkable because his scholastic
successors accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly
venturing to bring the principles and rules of conduct under
pure philosophical discussion, even after the great ethical
inquiries of Aristotle became fully known to them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Abelard's own works remain the best sources for
his life, especially his Historia Calamitatum, an autobiography, and
the correspondence with Heloise. The literature on Abelard is
extensive, but consists principally of monographs on different
aspects of his philosophy. Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols.,
1845) remains an authority-; it must be distinguished from his drama
Abelard (1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval
life. McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from the sources.
See also the valuable analysis by Nitsch in the article "Abalard"
in Hauck's Realencyklopadie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche, 3rd ed., 1896.
There is a comprehensive bibliography in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des
sources hist, du moyen dge, s. "Abailard." (G. C. R. ; J. T. S.*)

ABELIN, JOHANN PHILIPP, an early 16th-century German
chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there
between the years 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories
over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibaus, Abeleus and Johann
Ludwig Gottfried or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance

ABENCERRAGES— ABEOKUTA

being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus,
entitled Arma Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the
Inventarium Sueciae (1632) — both compilations from existing
records. His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum,
a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the
world down to 1619. He was himself responsible for the first
two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to
twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633-1738). The chief interest
of the work is, however, its illustration by the beautiful copper-
plate engravings of Matthaus Merian (1593-1650). Abelin also
wrote a history of the antipodes, Historia Antipodum (post-
humously pub. Frankf. 1655), and a history of India.

See G. Droysen, Arlanibaeus, Godofredus, Abelinus (Berlin, 1864) ;
and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.

ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have
held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada
in the i5th century. The name appears to have been derived
from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time
of Mahommed VII., who did that sovereign good service in his
struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times de-
prived. Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but
the name is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines
Perez de Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the
feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris,
and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected.
J. P. de Florian's Gonsahe de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le
dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's work.
The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its name
from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family.

ABENDANA, the name of two Jewish theologians, (i)
JACOB (1630-1695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in
London from 1680. Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana
had a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to the
appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian theo-
logians. (2) ISAAC (c. 1650-1710), his brother, taught Hebrew
at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford. He compiled a Jewish
Calendar and wrote Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil
Polity of the Jews (1706).

ABENEZRA (!BN EZRA), or, to give him his full name,
ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN EZRA (1092 or 1093-1167), one of the
most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the
Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo, left his native land of Spain
before 1140 and led until his death a life of restless wandering,
which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome, Lucca,
Mantua.Verona) , Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers) , Northern
France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to the South
of France. At several of the above-named places he remained
for some time and developed a rich literary activity. In his
native land he had already gained the reputation of a distin-
guished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his works,
which were all in the Hebrew language, were written in the
second period of his life. With these works, which cover in the
first instance the field of Hebrew philology and Biblical exegesis,
he fulfilled the great mission of making accessible to the Jews
of Christian Europe the treasures of knowledge enshrined in
the works written in Arabic which he had brought with him
from Spain. His grammatical writings, among which Moznayim
("the Scales," written in 1140) and Zahot ("Correctness,"
written in 1141) are the most valuable, were the first expositions
of Hebrew grammar in the Hebrew language, in which the
system of Hayyuj and his school prevailed. He also translated
into Hebrew the two writings of Hayyuj in which the founda-
tions of the system were laid down Of greater original value
than the grammatical works of Ibn Ezra are his commentaries
on most of the books of the Bible, of which, however, a part
has been lost. His reputation as an intelligent and acute ex-
pounder of the Bible was founded on his commentary on the
Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is evidenced by
the numerous commentaries which were written upon it. In
the editions of this commentary (ed. princ. Naples 1488) the
commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a second,
more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the first and

shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until 1840.
The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical com-
mentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the
following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms,
Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra
and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses
Kimhi. Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as
he had done on Exodus, but this was never finished. There are
second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther
and Daniel. The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra con-
sists in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of
the text, the so-called " Pesohat," on solid grammatical prin-
ciples. It is in this that, although he takes a great part of his
exegetical material from his predecessors, the originality of his
mind is everywhere apparent, an originality which displays
itself also in the witty and lively language of his commentaries.
To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza in his Tractatus
Theologico Politicus makes use, Ibn Ezra belongs to the earliest
pioneers of the criticism of the Pentateuch. His commentaries,
and especially some of the longer excursuses, contain numerous
contributions to the philosophy of religion. One writing in
particular, which belongs to this province (Yosod Mera), on the
division and the reasons for the Biblical commandments, he
wrote in 1158 for a London friend, Joseph b. Jacob. In his
philosophical thought neo-pla tonic ideas prevail; and astrology
also had a place in his view of the world. He also wrote various
works on mathematical and astronomical subjects. Ibn Ezra
died on the 28th of January 1167, the place of his death being
unknown.

Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned :
M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra (London, 1877) ;
W. Bacher, Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker (Strasburg, 1882);
M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in the Zeitschrift fur Mathe-
matik und Physik, Band xxv., Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions-
philosophic Abraham Ibn Ezra'sin vols. xlii. and xliii. of the Monat-
schrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums; his Diwan
was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886) ; a collection of his poems,
Reime und Gedichte, with translation and commentary, were pub-
lished by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the Jewish theological
Seminary at Breslau (1885-1894). (W. BA.)

ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m. S.W. of Regens-
burg, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 2202. It has a
small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of
rheumatism and gout. The town is the Castra Abusina of the
Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.
Here, on the 2oth of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal
victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and
General Hiller.

ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba
division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. It is
situated in 7° 8' N., 3° 25' E., on the Ogun river, 64 m. 'N.
of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water. Population, approxi-
mately 60,000. Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country,
the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. It
is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud
walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal
of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early
years of the 2oth century. Law courts, government offices,
prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made,
and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed. The streets
are generally narrow and the houses built of mud. There are
numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in
native products and articles of European manufacture. Palm-
oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter are the chief articles
of trade. An official newspaper is published in the Yoruba and
English languages. Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba
branch of the Church Missionary Society, and British and
American missionaries have met with some success in their
civilizing work. In their schools about 2000 children are edu-
cated. The completion in 1899 of a railway from Lagos helped
not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the in-
fluence of the white man.

Abeokuta (a word meaning "under the rocks"), dating

ABERAVON— ABERCROMBY

43

from 1825, owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the slave-
hunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the
village populations scattered over the open country to take
refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy.
Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many
distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs,
religious rites and even the very names of their original villages.
Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground suc-
cessfully against the powerful armies often sent against the
place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the
people of Ibadan from the north-east.

The district of Egba, of which Abedkuta is the capital, has an
estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000.
It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the Southern
Nigeria protectorate. It contains luxuriant forests of palm-
trees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people. Cotton
is indigenous and is grown for export. The Egbas are enthusi-
astic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of
cultivation. They are very tenacious of their independence,
but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British
protectorate, which, while putting a stop to inter-tribal warfare,
slave-raiding and human sacrifices, and exercising control over
the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal
autonomy. The administration is in the hands of a council of
chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent,
judicial functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief
— chosen from among the members of the two recognized reign-
ing families — is called the alake, a word meaning "Lord of
Ake," Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta,
after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The alake exercises
little authority apart from his council, the form of government
being largely democratic. Revenue is chiefly derived from
tolls or import duties. A visit of the alake to England in 1904
evoked considerable public interest. The chief was a man of
great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an

ardent agriculturist.

See the publications of the Church Missionary Society dealing
with the Yoruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The Yoruba-speaking
Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on Abeokuta by Sir Wm.
Macgregor, sometime governor of Lagos, in the African Society's
Journal, No. xii. (London, July 1904).

ABERAVON, a contributory parliamentary and municipal
borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the
Avon, near its mouth in Swansea Bay, n m. E.S.E. of Swansea
and 170 m. from London by rail. Pop. (1901) 7553. It has a
station on the Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on
the main South Wales line of the Great Western, whose station,
however, is at Port Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern
side of the Avon. The valley of the Avon, which is only some
three miles long, has been from about 1840 a place of much
metallurgical activity. There are tinplate and engineering works
within the borough. At Cwmavon, if m. to the north-east,
are large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired
two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper
Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Tinto Copper
Company. There are also iron, steel and tinplate works both
at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted only
of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port.

The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted
from Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship.
On the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son
of the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold
this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river
built here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in a
field near the churchyard. His descendants (who from the
i3th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene)
established, under the protection of the castle, a chartered town,
which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward Le De-
spenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange
of lands. In modern times these charters were not acted upon,
the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in 1861
it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act.
Since 1832 it has belonged to the Swansea parliamentary dis-

trict of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig, Loughor, Neath and
Swansea to return one member; but in 1885 the older portion
of Swansea was given a separate member.

ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Newport
by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,607. There are
collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district; the
town, which- lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley,
being situated on the south-eastern flank of the great mining
region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire.

ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON,isx EARL OF (c. 1575-1618),
was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of
James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of
Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made
sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in
Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of Abercorn,
and on the icth of July 1606 was rewarded for his services in
the matter of the union by being made earl of Abercorn, and
Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick. He married
Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left five sons,
of whom the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded him as 2nd
earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March 1618. The
title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton family,
became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, the
2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist
politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company.

ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician,
was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen,
where he was born on the loth of October 1780. He was edu-
cated at the university of Edinburgh, and after graduating as
M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he
soon attained a leading position. From 1816 he published
various papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,
which formed the basis of his Pathological and Practical Re-
searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his
Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and
other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also
found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he pub-
lished his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man
and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by
a sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works,
though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide
popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the i4th of November
1844.

ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician
who was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable
date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis reprinted
at Paris in 1740. During his lifetime his Tula ac ejficax luis
venereae saepe absque mercuric ac semper absque salivatione
mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was translated into French,
Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus
Varialione (London, 1685), and Ars explorandi medicas facultates
plantarum ex solo sapore (London, 1685-1688). His Opuscula
were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a
place and memorial in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae
Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice
rather by his remarkable controversial books in theology and
philosophy than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as
a Jesuit, he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved
Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But the most noticeable
of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685),
which contains some of the most characteristic and most
definitely-put metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy
of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum
(1687), and by A Moral Treatise of the Power of Interest (1690),
dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines,
by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James
Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but ac-
cording to Haller he was alive early in the i8th century.

ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (i656-c. 1716), Scottish physician
and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby
of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis Aber-

44

ABERCROMBY— ABERDARE

cromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He
was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic
family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered
the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D.
in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years
abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of
Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to
him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (<?.».). On his return to
Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh,
where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with
characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was appointed
physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution deprived
him of the post. Living during the agitations for the union
of England and Scotland, he took part in the war of pamphlets
inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on both sides
of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less redoubtable
a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the Act of Security
compared with those of the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707),
and A Vindication of the Same against Mr De Foe (ibid.). A
minor literary work of Abercromby's was a translation of
Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre d'Ecosse (1556) which
appeared in 1707. But the work with which his name is perma-
nently associated is his Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation,
issued in two large folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the
title-page and preface to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of
being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface
alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian.
Even though, read in the light of later researches, much of the
first volume must necessarily be relegated to the region of the
mythical, none the less was the historian a laborious and accom-
plished reader and investigator of all available authorities, as
well manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those
who aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the
time, from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to
Alexander Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Aber-
cromby's death is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to
1715, 1716, 1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left
a widow in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abercromby s,
commonly attributed to him, do not appear to have been pub-
lished.

See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson,
Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Diet., s.v.; George
Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe.

ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant-
general, was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody,
Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated
at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to
Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding to the
Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he expressed a
strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet's
commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in
the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his regiment in the
Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus afforded him of
studying the methods of the great Frederick moulded his military
character and formed his tactical ideas. He rose through the
intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the
regiment (1773) and brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781 he
became colonel of the King's Irish infantry. When that regi-
ment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half-pay. That
up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active service
was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy of the govern-
ment, and especially to his sympathies with the American
colonists in their struggles for independence; and his retirement
is no doubt to be ascribed to similar feelings. On leaving the
army he for a time took up political life as member of Parlia-
ment for Clackmannanshire. This, however, proved uncongenial,
and, retiring in favour of his brother, he settled at Edinburgh
and devoted himself to the education of his children. But on
France declaring war against England in 1793, he hastened to
resume his professional duties; and, being esteemed one of the
ablest and most intrepid officers in the whole British forces, he
was appointed to the command of a brigade under the duke of

York, for service in Holland. He commanded the advanced
guard in the action at Le Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen.
The duty fell to him of protecting the British army in its dis-
astrous retreat out of Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795. In
1795 he received the honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in
acknowledgment of his services. The same year he was ap-
pointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of
the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796 Grenada was
suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army
under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession of the
settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South America,
and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad. He
returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for his important
services, was appointed colonel of the regiment of Scots Greys,
entrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort-George
and Fort- Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general.
He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command of the forces in Ire-
land. There he laboured to maintain the discipline of the army,
to suppress the rising rebellion, and to protect the people from
military oppression, with a care worthy alike of a great general
and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was
appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country
by the French was confidently anticipated by the English govern-
ment. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an
army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he
anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing
the supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military
to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for
the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order.
Finding that he received no adequate support from the head of
the Irish government, and that all his efforts were opposed and
thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he
resigned the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply
lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily
followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated,
and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured
to prevent. After holding for a short period the office of com-
mander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir Ralph, when the enterprise
against Holland was resolved upon in 1799, was again called to
command under the duke of York. The campaign of 1799
ended in disaster, but friend and foe alike confessed that the most
decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the
talents of this distinguished officer. His country applauded the
choice when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the
French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the West
Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was
proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits and with
the requisite supplies, in spite of very great difficulties, to the
destined scene of action. The debarkation of the troops at
Aboukir, in the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked
among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English
army. A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March 21,
1801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it was
Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was
struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died
seven days after the battle. His old friend and commander the
duke of York paid a just tribute to the great soldier's memory
in general orders: " His steady observance of discipline, his
ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops,
the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his
military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the
heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire,
like him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote of
the House of Commons, a monument was erected in his honour
in St Paul's cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Aber-
cromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of £20x30
a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title.

A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his third
son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 1835-1839,
and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 1861. For a
shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see Wilkinson, Twelve
British Soldiers (London, 1899).

ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, IST BARON (1815-

ABERDARE— ABERDEEN

45

1895), English statesman, was born at Duffryn, Aberdare,
Glamorganshire, on the i6th of April 1815, the son of John
Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Bruce's original
family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he
assumed the name of Bruce, his mother, through whom he in-
herited the Duffryn estate, having been the daughter of William
Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Bruce
was educated at Swansea grammar school, and in 1837 was
called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practise, the
discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare
Valley estates brought the family great wealth. From 1847 to
1852 he was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and
Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he
entered parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil.
In 1862 he became under-secretary for the home department,
and in 1869, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being
re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by
W. E. Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for
a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the
Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the
licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in
public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale
of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at
Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council,
and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron
Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following
year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he sub-
sequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic
questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 to 1892
he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881
he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. In
1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which lasted the
rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National
African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which
in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger
Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government,
its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria.
West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord
Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts
that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university of Wales
at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a G.C.B.,
presided over several Royal Commissions at different times.
He died in London on the 25th of February 1895. His second
wife was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of
the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited.

ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales,
situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and
Cynon, the latter being a tributary of the Taff. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 43,365. It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24
from Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has a station
on the Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western
railway, and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant
stations which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Taff Vale
line (opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan
canal has also a branch (made in 1811) running from Abercynon
to Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the igth century,
a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly
in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore,
and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1486 in
1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. Iron-
works were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and
1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman
in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked since about
1875, and the only metal industries remaining in the town are
an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate works at Gadlys
(established in 1868). Previous to 1836, most of the coal worked
in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but
in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun,
pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which at
least since 1875 has been the chief support of the town, soon
reached huge dimensions. There are also several brickworks
and breweries. During the latter half of the igth century,

considerable public improvements were effected in the town,
making it, despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place
of residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate theo-
logical college (opened in connexion with the Church of England
in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). There is
a public park of fifty acres with two small lakes. Aberdare,
with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Pagan's (Trecynon) and
Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, has some twelve
Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in
Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey)
and over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the
majority of the chapels are in Welsh. The whole parish falls
within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydvil. The
urban district includes what were once the separate villages of
Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwyd-
coed and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains
of a circular British encampment on the mountain between
Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 m. to the N.W. of
Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at
which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the
allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and lestyn ab
Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan.

ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, IST EARL or (1637-1720),
lord chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, ist baronet
of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in
1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated M.A.,
and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658.
Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At
the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was
annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder
brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in
1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal
reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish
parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his
first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two
legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor
for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo.
He was a leading member of the duke of York's administration,
was created a lord of session in June and in November 1681
president of the court. The same year he is reported as moving
in the council for the torture of witnesses.1 In 1682 he was
made lord chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the I3th
of November, earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord
Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage,
being appointed also sheriff principal of Aberdeenshire and
Midlothian. Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him
" a proud and covetous man," and declares " the new chancellor
exceeded all that had gone before him." 2 He executed the laws
enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish
churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny pre-
scribed by the English government; and in consequence of an
intrigue of the duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained
the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was
dismissed in 1684. After his fall he was subjected to various
petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of
discovering some act of maladministration on which to found
a charge against him, but the investigations only served to
strengthen his credit. He took an active part in parliament
in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of
William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance,
and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on
the nth of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in 1707,
while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the
act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to
support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from
attending parliament when the treaty was settled. He died on
the 20th of April 1720, after having amassed a large fortune.
He is described by John Mackay as " very knowing in the laws
and constitution of his country and is believed to be the solidest
statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure."

1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297.
1 Hist, of his own Times, i. 523.

46

ABERDEEN

His person was said to be deformed, and his " want of mine or
deportment " was alleged as a disqualification for the office of
lord chancellor. He married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of
George Lockhart of Torbrecks, by whom he had six children,
his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of
Aberdeen.

See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding
Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of the College of Justice,
by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G. Crawfurd's Lives of
the Officers of State (1726), p. 226; Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by
SirG. Mackenzie (1821), p. i.j.8; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall)
Journals (Scottish Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's
Memoirs (1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist, of Scotland, iii. 369, 376.

(P. C. Y.) '

ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF
(1784-1860), English statesman, was the eldest son of George
Gordon, Lord Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William
Baird of Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George,
3rd earl of Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January
1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as
his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to reside
with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At the age of
fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name his own
curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt and Dundas
for this office he spent much of his time at their houses, thus
meeting many of the leading politicians of the day. He was
educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where
he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time, however,
he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in
1801, and had travelled over a large part of the continent of
Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte and other
persons of distinction. He also spent some time in Greece, and
on his return to England founded the Athenian Society, member-
ship of which was confined to those who had travelled in that
country. Moreover, he wrote an article in the Edinburgh Review
of July 1805 criticizing Sir William Gill's Topography of Troy,
and these circumstances led Lord Byron to refer to him in
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers as " the travell'd thane,
Athenian Aberdeen." Having attained his majority in 1805,
he married on the 28th of July Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton,
daughter of John James, ist marquess of Abercorn. In De-
cember 1806 he was elected a representative peer for Scotland,
and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords, but for some
years he took only a slight part in public business. However,
by his birth, his abilities and his connexions alike he was marked
out for a high position, and after the death of his wife in February
1812 he was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz
between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813 ; and
accompanying the emperor Francis I. through the subsequent
campaign against France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig.
He was one of the British representatives at the congress of
Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was present
during the negotiations which led to the treaty of Paris in the
following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the
United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and
made a member of the privy council. On the isth of July 1815
he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John Douglas, and
widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus became doubly
connected with the family of the marquess of Abercorn. During
the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part
in public affairs, although he succeeded in passing the Entail
(Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in touch, however, with foreign
politics, and having refused to join the ministry of George
Canning in 1827, became a member of the cabinet of the duke of
Wellington as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in January
1828. In the following June he was transferred to the office of
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and having acquitted himself
with credit with regard to the war between Russia and Turkey,
and to affairs in Greece, Portugal and France, he resigned with
Wellington in November 1830, and shared his leader's attitude
towards the Reform Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen
was interested in the ecclesiastical controversy which culminated

in the disruption of 1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle
the vexed question of patronage; but disliked by a majority
in the general assembly of the Scotch church, and unsupported
by the government, it failed to become law, and some opprobrium
was cast upon its author. In 1843 he brought forward a similar
measure " to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers
to benefices." This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called,
passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties.

During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834
and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for the
colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again under Peel,
on this occasion as foreign secretary; the five years during
which he held this position were the most fruitful and successful
of his public life. He owed his success to the confidence placed
in him by Queen Victoria, to his wide knowledge of European
poh'tics, to his intimate friendship with Guizot, and not least to
his own conciliatory disposition. Largely owing to his efforts,
causes of quarrel between Great Britain and France in Tahiti,
over, the marriage of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other direc-
tions, were removed. More important still were his services
in settling the question of the boundary between the United
States and British North America at a time when a single in-
judicious word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845
he supported Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to
suspend the duty on foreign corn,' and left office with that
minister in July 1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became
the recognized leader of the Peelites' although since his resigna-
tion his share in public business had been confined to a few
speeches on foreign affairs. His dislike of the Ecclesiastical
Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure
in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord
John Russell, or from forming an administration himself in
this year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of
the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and
Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general on ques-
tions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained Lord
Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to Aberdeen,
was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. The strong
and masterful character of these and other colleagues made the
task of the prime minister one of unusual difficulty, a fact which
was recognized by contemporaries. Charles Greville in his
Memoirs says, " In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate
men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely
to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any
other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler
and more important than their premier"; and Sir James
Graham wrote, " It is a powerful team, but it will require good
driving." The first year of office passed off successfully, and it
was owing to the steady support of the prime minister that
Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the cabinet.
This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute between
France and Turkey over the guardianship of the holy places at
Jerusalem, which, after the original cause of quarrel had been
forgotten, developed into the Crimean war. The tortuous
negotiations which preceded the struggle need not be discussed
here, but in defence of Aberdeen it may be said that he hoped
and strove for peace to the last. Rightly or wrongly, however,
he held that Russell was indispensable to the cabinet, and that
a resignation would precipitate war. His outlook, usually so
clear, was blurred by these considerations, and he lacked the
strength to force the suggestions which he made in the autumn
of 1853 upon his imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported
by Russell and weU served by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,
British ambassador at Constantinople, favoured a more aggres-
sive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and
unwilling to let Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame.
When the war began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but
the stories of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war
deprived the ministry of public favour. Russell resigned; and
on the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for
the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the con-
duct of the war, was carried in the House of Commons by a

ABERDEEN

47

large majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence
Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed
upon him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for
Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon re-
mained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and was
consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the
I4th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at
Stanmore. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters,
all of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who
died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His
eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th earl; his second
son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his
third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton- Gordon; and
his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various high
offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893.
Among the public offices held by the earl were those of lord-
lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of Anti-
quaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society.

Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory
and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life
was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the
loftiness of his character. His manner was reserved, and as a
speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public life
he was remarkable for his generosity to his political opponents,
and for his sense of justice and honesty. He did not, however,
possess the qualities which impress the populace, and he lacked
the strength which is one of the essential gifts of a statesman.
His character is perhaps best described by a writer who says
" his strength was not equal to his goodness." His foreign
policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention, and in
pursuing it he was accused of favouring the despotisms of
Europe. Aberdeen was a model landlord. By draining the land,
by planting millions of trees and by erecting numerous build-
ings, he greatly improved the condition of his Aberdeenshire
estates, and studied continually the welfare of his dependants.
A bust of him by Matthew Noble is in Westminster Abbey, and
his portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He wrote
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture
(London, 1822), and the Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen
has been printed privately under the direction of his son, Lord
Stanmore.

The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, was
drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother John Campbell
Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1847), a prominent Liberal
politician, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1886, governor-
general of Canada 1893-1898, and again the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his
ministry at the close of 1905.

See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893);
C. C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888);
Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), and Life
of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W. Kinglake, Invasion of
the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); Sir T. Martin, Life of tht Prince
Consort (London, 1875-1880) ; J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London,
1903). (A. W. H.*)

ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, capital
of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of Scotland.
It is the fourth Scottish town in population, industry and wealth,
and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of
the Don and Dee, 1303 m. N. E. of Edinburgh by the North
British railway. Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the
city suburbs to the southern banks of the Don, has a separate
charter, privileges and history, the distinction between it and
New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist; and for parlia-
mentary, municipal and other purposes, the two towns now form
practically one community. Aberdeen's popular name of the

Granite City " is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town
is built of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation
of the " Silver City by the Sea," it should be seen after a heavy
rainfall when its stately structures and countless houses gleam
pure and white under the brilliant sunshine. The area of the
city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of Old Aberdeen and
Woodside, and the district of Torry (for parliamentary purposes

in the constituency of Kincardineshire) to the south of the Dee,
having been incorporated in 1891. The city comprises eleven
wards and eighteen ecclesiastical parishes, and is under the
jurisdiction of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer and
dean of guild. The corporation owns the water (derived from
the Dee at a spot 21 m. W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplies,
electric lighting and tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned
two members to Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Cale-
donian, Great North of Scotland and North British railways
(occupying a commodious joint railway station), and there is
regular communication by sea with London and the chief ports
on the eastern coast of Great Britain and the northern shores
of the Continent. The mean temperature of the city for the year
is 45-8° F., for summer 56° F., and for winter 37-3° F. The
average yearly rainfall is 30-57 inches. The city is one of the
healthiest in Scotland.

Streets and Buildings. — Roughly, the extended city runs north
and south. From the new bridge of Don to the " auld brig " of
Dee there is tramway communication via King Street, Union
Street and Holburn Road — a distance of over five miles. Union
Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares in the British
Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. for nearly a mile, is
70 ft. wide, and contains the principal shops and most of
the modern public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street
crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great
North of Scotland railway) by a fine granite arch of 132 ft.
span, portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, fifty feet
below the level of Union Street. Amongst the more conspicuous
secular buildings in the street may be mentioned the Town and
County Bank, the Music Hall, with sitting accommodation for
2000 persons, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (origin-
ating in various years between 1398 and 1527, and having charit-
able funds for poor members, widows and orphans), containing
some portraits by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved
oak chairs, dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with
quaint inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one
of the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the
Palace Hotel; the office of the Northern Assurance Company,
and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a con-
tinuation eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal
and County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices in
Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 1867-1878.
They are of four stories and contain the great hall with an open
timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House;
the Town Hall, with excellent portraits of Prince Albert (Prince
Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, the various lord provosts
and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the en-
trance corridor stands a suit of black armour believed to have
been worn by Provost Sir Robert Davidson, who fell in the battle
of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 1411. From the south-western
corner a grand tower rises to a height of 210 ft., commanding a
fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the
municipal buildings is the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek
design, with a portico of Corinthian columns, the capitals of
which are exquisitely carved. On the opposite side of the street
is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of
Castle Street stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective
castellated mansion, the most imposing " barracks " possessed
anywhere by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross,
a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in diameter
and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682 by John
Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was removed
hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better style. On the
entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are panels contain-
ing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James I. to James VII.
From the centre rises a shaft, 123 ft. high, with a Corinthian
capital on which is the royal unicorn rampant. On an eminence
east of Castle Street are the military barracks. In Market Street
are the Mechanics' Institution, founded in 1824, with a good
library; the Post and Telegraph offices; and the Market, where
provisions of all kinds and general wares are sold. The Fish
Market, on the Albert Basin, is a busy scene in the early morning.

48

ABERDEEN

The Art Gallery and Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian
Renaissance style of red and brown granite, contains an excellent
collection of pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contem-
porary artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional
interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public
library, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000
volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of dra-
matic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety enter-
tainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting
Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one
of the most splendid examples of modern architecture, in Great
Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native
of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to the
design of a noble building with the originality of genius.

Churches. — Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well
equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but few
of special interest. The East and West churches of St Nicholas,
their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic facade,
1475 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous building, 220 ft.
in length, including the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of
the Irvines of Drum) and the Collison Aisle, which divide them
and which formed the transept of the 12th-century church of St
Nicholas. The West Church was built in 1775, in the Italian
style, the East originally in 1834 in the Gothic. In 1874 a fire
destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its
fine peal of nine bells, one of which, Laurence or " Lowrie,"
was 4 ft. in diameter at the mouth, 3! ft. high and very thick.
The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected
over the intervening aisles at the cost of the municipality, a
new peal of 36 bells, cast in Holland, being installed to com-
memorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic
Cathedral in Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in
1859. The see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in
Banffshire by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there
over the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric
to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of St
Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun.
Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone (1484-1511),
the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed
him in 1518, was enabled to complete the structure by adding
the two western spires and the southern transept. The church
suffered severely at the Reformation, but is still used as the parish
church. It now consists of the nave and side aisles. It is chiefly
built of outlayer granite, and, though the plainest cathedral in
Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it
unique distinction. On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave
are the heraldic shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who
shared in its erection, and the great west window contains
modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The
cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the
links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn
Roads, and Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie
Park.

Education. — Aberdeen University consists of King's College
in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, and
Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by George
Keith, sth earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 1860.
Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine and science
at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800 yearly. The
buildings of both colleges are the glories of Aberdeen. King's
forms a quadrangle with interior court, two sides of which have
been rebuilt, and a library wing has been added. The Crown
Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 150x3. The
former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. high, consisting
of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both sculptured, and
resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips
rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. The choir
of the chapel still contains the original oak canopied stalls,
miserere seats and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant
style, and of unique beauty of design and execution. Their
preservation was due to the enlightened energy of the principal
at the time of the Reformation, who armed his folk to save the

building from the barons of the Mearns after they had robbed
St Machar's of its bells and lead. Marischal College is a stately
modern building, having been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly
extended several years later at a cost of £100,000. The additions
to the buildings opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been
already mentioned. The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named
from the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who provided the
splendid graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895
signalized the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary
of the foundation of the university. The University Library
comprises nearly 100,000 books. A Botanic Garden was pre-
sented to the university in 1899. Aberdeen and Glasgow Uni-
versities combine to return one member to Parliament. The
United Free Church Divinity Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor
Gothic style, dates from 1850. The Grammar School, founded in
1263, was removed in 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill
to a large new building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene
Street. Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in
1729 by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816
by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted (as
Gordon's Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the
sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was re-
organized in 1 88 1 as a day and night school for secondary and
technical education, and has since been unusually successful.
Besides a High School for Girls and numerous board schools,
there are many private higher-class schools. Under the Endow-
ments Act 1882 an educational trust was constituted which
possesses a capital of £155,000. At Blairs, in Kincardineshire,
five miles S. W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College
for the training of young men intended for the priesthood.

Charities. — The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established
in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and largely
extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee;
the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan Asylum,
in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, in Huntly
Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital for Sick Chil-
dren; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; the City
Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb Institu-
tion; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East and West
Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted to
specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of the charit-
able institutions. There are, besides, industrial schools for boys
and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a Female School
of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth House and
Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's Conva-
lescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the Convent
of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School.

Parks and Open Spaces. — Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift'of
Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an
excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park (13
acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are situated
in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart Park (n
acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 1893. The
capacious links bordering the sea between the mouths of the two
rivers are largely resorted to for open-air recreation; there is
here a rifle range where a " wapinschaw," or shooting tourna-
ment, is held annually. Part is laid out as an i8-hole golf course;
a section is reserved for cricket and football; a portion has been
railed off for a race-course, and a bathing-station has been
erected. Union Terrace Gardens are a popular rendezvous in
the heart of the city.

Statues. — In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue
in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A.
(1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns and
Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert. In front of
Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, A.R.S.A.,
of General Gordon (1888). At the east end of Union Street is
the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the
royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite
statue of the sth duke of Gordon (d. 1836). Here may also be
mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead granite, 70 ft. high, erected
in the square of Marischal College to the memory of Sir James

ABERDEEN— ABERDEENSHIRE

49

M'Grigor (1778-1831), the military surgeon and director-general
of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord
rector of the College.

Bridges. — The Dee is crossed by four bridges, — the old bridge,
the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, and Vic-
toria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till 1832 the
only access to the city from the south, consists of seven semi-
circular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and was built early
in the i6th century by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It
was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from
14! to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has five granite arches, each
75 ft. in span, and was built in 1827-1832. A little to the west is
the Auld Brig o' Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning
the deep black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I.,
and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan.

Harbour. — A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel
bar at its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but
under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The
north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly
by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North
Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few feet
to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at neap. A
wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, was completed
in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit
to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By
the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour was diverted
from the south at a cost of £80,000, and go acres of new ground
(in addition to 25 acres formerly made up) were provided on the
north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock),
quays and warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long,
was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection
against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point
of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the harbour
mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns.

Industry. — Owing to the variety and importance of its chief
industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in
Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near
Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed
paving " setts," kerb and building stones, and monumental
and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported
from the district to all parts of the world. This, though once
the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the deep-sea
fisheries, which derived a great impetus from beam-trawling,
introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing in 1889, and threaten
to rival if not to eclipse those of Grimsby. Fish trains are
despatched to London daily. Most of the leading industries date
from the i8th century, amongst them woollens (1703), linen
(1749) and cotton (1779). These give employment to several
thousands of operatives. The paper-making industry is one of
the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first
made in Aberdeen in 1694. Flax-spinning and jute and comb-
making factories are also very flourishing, and there are suc-
cessful foundries and engineering works. There are large
distilleries and breweries, and chemical works employing many
hands. In the days of wooden ships ship-building was a flourish-
ing industry, the town being noted for its fast clippers, many of
which established records in the " tea races." The introduction
of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance
of the city from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of
iron vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted
meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in
strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city.

History. — Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the
1 2th century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to
which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights
granted by David I. The city received other royal charters
iter. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in
1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New
Vberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland. They

egin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to the
present day. For many centuries the city was subject to
attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified,

but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse
was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the
English. During the struggles between the Royalists and
Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides.
In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at
Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland resided for a
short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender.
The motto on the city arms is " Bon Accord," which formed the
watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding Robert Bruce in
his battles with the English.

Population. — In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801
it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623;
(1901) 153,503.

AUTHORITIES. — The charters of the burgh; extracts from the
council register down to 1625, and selections from the letters,
guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. of the Spalding
Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, Spalding
Club; Walter Thorn, The History of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson,
Historical Account and Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William
Kennedy, The Annals of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Description of the
Chanonry, Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725
(1830) ; Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated Architecture
of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of Old Castellated Houses of Aberdeen
(1838); James Bryce, Lives of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841);
J. Gordon, Description of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club,
1842); Joseph Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839);
W. Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 1893);
C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, Provosts and Lord
Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897) ; P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c.,
illustrating the History of the Royal Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
1890) ; Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New Spalding
Club, 1889, 1898-1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of the Church of St
Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); G. Cadenhead, Sketch of
the Territorial History of the Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876);
W. Cadenhead, Guide to the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897);
A. Smith, History and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
1882).

ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county,
South Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890)
3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905)
5841; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Mil-
waukee and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and
St Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is
the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the state,
a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks and a
number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the Northern
Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, and has a
Carnegie library; the principal buildings are the court house
and the government buildings. Artesian wells furnish good
water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms,
chemicals and flour are manufactured. The municipality owns
and operates the water- works. Aberdeen was settled in 1880,
and was chartered as a city in 1883.

ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland,
bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar
and Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line
of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying
1,261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m. The county is generally hilly,
and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, the
Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the north-east.
The shire is popularly divided into five districts. Of these the
first is Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, which nearly
covers the southern half of the county and contains the city of
Aberdeen. It is mountainous, especially Braemar (q.v.), which
contains the greatest mass of elevated land in the British Isles.
The soil on the Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second
district, Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a
sandy coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled
tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land.
Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, com-
prising the north-east of the county, is next in size to Mar, parts
of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, low, flat,
undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6 m. S. of Peter-
head, are the Bullers of Buchan — a basin in which the sea, enter-
ing by a natural arch, boils up violently in stormy weather.
Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of Scotland. The fourth

ABERDEENSHIRE

district, Garioch, in the centre of the shire, is a beautiful, undu-
lating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called the granary of
Aberdeen. Strathbogie, the fifth district, occupying a consider-
able area south of the Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors
and mosses. The mountains are the most striking of the physical
features of the county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent
mass, the second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach
(4248), Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon
(3843), "dark" Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known
song by Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch
(29S3)> are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther
north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border,
Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which
from its central position is a landmark visible from many different
parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's
song, " O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland (1529).
The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, 82 m. ; the
Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m.,
and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire.
The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel
occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish
crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of
the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft. above the sea, 25 m. long
and \ to \ m. broad, lies some 8| m. S.W. of Ballater, and has
Altnagiuthasach, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end.
Loch Strathbeg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from
the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate
springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater.
Geology. — The greater part of the county is composed of
crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the
Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the Dee
and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most
characteristic are (i) the black schists and phyllites, with calc-
flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or
Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are
folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-east
and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a
considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the
highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the
component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys
above Braemar. Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and
northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head
and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly
of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt
of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along
the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and
the Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The
metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials,
some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the
strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the
sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen
Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite
in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse-
quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on
the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they
stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and
north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and
at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these
later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in
the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn.
The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter-
head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age
of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of
Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the
schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous
intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli-
manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing
rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top
of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate
hornfels occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of
Braemar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase,
garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has

been obtained from an exposure of limestone and. associated
beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that
river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting
unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have
been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie,
and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The
strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which,
at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands
of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic action. Small
outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently
been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The
glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast
between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence.
The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the
Dee and the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the
Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a
certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel
with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of
Aberdeen. At a later date the local glaciers laid down materials
on top of the red clay. The committee appointed by the British
Association (Report for 1897, P- 333) proved that the Greensand,
which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat,
in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably
on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were
derived are not now found in place in that part of Scotland, but
Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that
of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aptien stage
of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift
between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch
of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between
Logic Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr)
occurs beneath the peat.

Flora and Fauna. — The tops of the highest mountains have
an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft.
above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses,
&c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at
1300 ft. above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch,
grow well, and Kraemar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass
any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak
found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing.
The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at
1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits
are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Braemar, the deer
forest being the most extensive in Scotland.

Climate and Agriculture. — The climate, except in the moun-
tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity
of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature
at Braemar is 43-6° F., and at Aberdeen 45-8°. The mean
yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 in. The summer
climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most
bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft.
above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North
Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but
tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern
tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part
of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such
unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much
improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines
are in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend
entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those
in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop,
wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has
largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed-
ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for
the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported
on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly
heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done
all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in
large numbers.

Fisheries. — A large fishing population in villages along the
coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the next
most important industry to agriculture, its development having

ABERDEENSHIRE

been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam trawlers.
The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half
and a third consists of herrings, amounts to £1,000,000. Had-
docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans).
The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of
Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in-
cludes also three Kincardine'shire ports. The herring season
for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to
September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats
from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon-
fishings — rod, net and stake-net — on the Dee, Don, Ythan and
Ugie. The average annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeen-
shire is about 400 tons.

Other Industries. — Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or
near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts
there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work,
brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, casting
and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Deeside
and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel-
staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments,
most of them on the Don near Aberdeen.

The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite,
which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else-
where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded £40 to
£50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks
are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly
coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile
manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar,
alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite1 (rough-
dressed and polished), flax, woollen and .cotton goods, paper,
combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle.

Communications. — From the south Aberdeen city is approached
by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the
North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways,
and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland
railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith
and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening
up the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater
by Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at
Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam) ,
from Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and
also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with
London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands,
Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized
roads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft.
above sea-level.

Population and Government. — In 1891 the population num-
bered 284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603
were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were
8 persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic
and English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901,
153,503), Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136),
Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The
Supreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from
the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three
counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute
resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly,
Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen
and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament
— one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen-
shire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members.
Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group
of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff,
Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board juris-
diction, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are
higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at
Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other
schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The
County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum,
partly granted by the education department and partly con-
tributed by local authorities from the "residue" grant, and

ipport, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures

in agriculture, fishery and other technical subjects, in addition
to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of
Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been
thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils
have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to
the university.

The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny,
active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon-
strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from
the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather
angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in
diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for o or «,/for wh, d for
t/i, &c. So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of
almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used.

History. — The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen
and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom
Ptolemy called Taixali, the territory being named Taixalon.
Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber-
deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in
the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient
camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station
on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have
also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but
evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces
of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal.
Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics
of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, or Kinnord,
S m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of
New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at
Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra
near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and
other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical"
circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples
of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts
to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century,
and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old
Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they
showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban
church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the
Pictish king Nectan in the 8th century undid most of the
progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi-
cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the
throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor-
finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth
was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill
marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of
England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous
Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in the country Flemings
who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming,
and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted
more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors
crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex-
ander I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally
called Aberdon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re-
ceived its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which date
its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin,
Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a
free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi-
leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the
bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1 1 50. In the
1 2th and i3th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families
arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the Leslies, Freskins
(ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets,
Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases
their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their
retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take
advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the
wars of the Scots independence, and made common cause with
the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of
the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in
the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296
Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the

ABERDOUR— ABERFOYLE

more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised
the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle.
In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle
of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who
shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots
and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De-
spite the seizure of Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306,
Bruce's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John
Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred
years after Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent
anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English
in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and
Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis-
possessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself with some
of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to
abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen-
shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated
at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 1411. In the
1 5th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir
Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and
Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 an^ earl of Huntly
in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long
period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the
first half of the i6th century, when their domains, already vast,
were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the
earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the
Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp-
vere, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the
Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation
of King's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed
a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the
clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious
structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and
decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was
acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place
in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered
damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on
behalf of the Catholics, to the influence of Lord James Stuart,
afterwards the Regent Murray, but was defeated and killed at
Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was
apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable
than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for
generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi-
astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was
ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to
that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following
year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed
to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the
affair called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood
of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper
hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of
Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no
choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however,
soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under
Cord. Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine.
He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd
of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford.
Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the
Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from
Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in
little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the
head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re-
mained till 1659, and next year the Restoration was effusively
hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the
Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in
the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere
else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the
Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the
clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable,
hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be
recognized as the national form of Church government. Her
death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor,

was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacobitism and
episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical,
though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte-
nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt
in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a fortnight later James
was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at
Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 1716 he
was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined
many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred
thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic,
though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord
Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward
at Inverurie (23rd of December 1745). The duke of Cumberland
relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April
the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people
devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and . commerce,
which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally
remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of
the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most
prosperous in Scotland.

See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 1900);
Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited
by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) ; Sir A. Leith-Hay, Castles
of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the
Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by
R. Anderson), (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside .(Aber-
deen, 1895).

ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly
situated qn the shore of the Firth of Fortfi, 175 m. N.W. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Leith
by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing.
There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed church, which
contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni-
bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the
scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl
of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, f m.
from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name
implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The
primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a
hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1123
by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a
low square tower, church, cloisters, refectory and small chapter-
house. The island of Columba was occasionally plundered by
English and other rovers, but in the i6th century it became the
property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl
of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the
ist earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (1611).

ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a
seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian
railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful
scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary,
commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and
Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry
to Berth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub-
merged " bells of Aberdovey " (since Seithennin " the drunkard "
caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh
song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort.

ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland,
34i m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop.
of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of
Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of
the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed
a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older
road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be-
come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine.
Loch Ard, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea.
It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and i m.
broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle),
and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two
m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 290 ft. above the sea, if m. long, and
about 5 m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard,
which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries on
Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle.

ABERGAVENNY— ABERNETHY

53

ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in
the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England,
14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London
and North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7795. It is situated
at the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the
river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is
very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the
remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the
scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin-
ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the i2th cen-
tury. The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen-
dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the
I3th to the 1 7th century. There is a free grammar school, which
till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries,
ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour-
hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber-
gavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is governed by a mayor,
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres.

This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the road
along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among the hill tribes.
There is practically no trace of this fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny)
grew up under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose
title dated from William I. Owing to its situation, the town was
frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the I2th and I3th
centuries, and Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1175 the castle
was seized by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Aber-
gavenny, founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently
endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits of the
castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this en-
dowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school,
the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War
prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Aber-
gavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams
and other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a
charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A
charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears
never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to
the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath
of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and
the town subsequently declined in prosperity. The act of 27
Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town,
should return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other
ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the
payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny
on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being
in 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a
charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 1211). The
right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto
held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the
production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst
the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair.

The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from
Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl
of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt.
He married the heiress of Richard, earl of Worcester, whose father
had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum-
moned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward
Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His
direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Neville, but a
cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony in
1604. From him it has descended continuously, the title being
increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic),
5th earl (b. 1826), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the
Conservative party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See
NEVILLE.)

ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo-
Indian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th
of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and
Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart-
ment in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi
College in 1873, .tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal
of the Rajkumar College at Indcre in 1877. He is best known
for his book Twenty-one Days in India (1878-1879)^ satire upon
Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave
promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at
the age of thirty-three.

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine,
was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father
was Nonconformist minister, on the igth of October 1680. In
his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and on
concluding his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his

intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready entrance
into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received
licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty-one.
In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important
congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years,
mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there
on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a
debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an
evangelist. In 1712 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan) , and the
loss desolated his life for many years. In 1717 he was invited to
the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane-
ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The
synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he
declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was
regarded then as ecclesiastical high-treason; and a controversy
of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber-
nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the
sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro-
versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con-
flict, the " Subscribers " and the " Non-subscribers." Out-and-
out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question
that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle
(1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke,
the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church
were thrown out. Much of what he contended for, and which the
" Subscribers " opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the
lapse of time. In 1726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost
wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were
cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian
Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited
to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on
the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in
relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire
question of tests and disabilities. His stand was " against all
laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions
and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability
from serving their country." He was nearly a century in ad-
vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a
Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and
ability." His Tracts — afterwards collected — did fresh service,
generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love
freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740.
See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762); Diary in MS.,
6 vols. 410; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234.

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson
of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the
3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Edu-
cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed
in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar-
tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical
lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London
Hospital, and was early employed to assist as "demonstrator";
he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On
Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's,
Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-s,urgeon, succeeded him,
and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this
capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew
Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the
hospital built a regular theatre (1790-1791), and Abernethy thus
became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo-
mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital
for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was
elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap-
pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons
(1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is
associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the
external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu-
tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809) — known as
" My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred
his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that
name — was one of the earliest popular works on medical science.

54

ABERRATION

He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of
disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated
by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex-
ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely
attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated
his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he
exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial
in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically,
and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced
so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry.
The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his
great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his
manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse
with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes
even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was
courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly
just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on
the 20th of April 1831.

A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A bio-
graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared
in 1853.

ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander),
a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense :
as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental
derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development
or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications:
(i) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems.
These subjects receive treatment below.

I. ABERRATION OF LIGHT

This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent
motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually
orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the
star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis-
placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to
the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the
observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about
the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations.
Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be
falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular
tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary,
rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides;
if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined
at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may
traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus-
tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage
be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain
enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the
best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position
in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk-
ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the
vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure,
pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman,
when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance
ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity
of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of
velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of
these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut,
let AB (fig. i) represent the velocity of the rain, and
AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the
tube. The diagonal AD of the parallelogram, of
which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent,
both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the
rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the
rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an
angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed
the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy
is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when
the stick points along the resultant AD.

The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James
Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of

FIG. i.

astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no doubt;
and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity
that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated
in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances
as to whether the stars possessed appreciable parallaxes. The
Copernican theory of the solar system — that the earth revolved
annually about the sun — had received confirmation by the ob-
servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical
investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas
Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a
parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar
parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive
additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have
determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioli
concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers,
and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680
Jean Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result of
ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited
variations in its position amounting to 40" annually; some
astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these
attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that
which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure-
ments made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quad-
rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star
was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674,
published his observations of y Draconis, a star of the second
magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of
London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free
from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction,
and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July
than in October.

When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this
sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently
prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes
had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of
definitely answering this question that these astronomers
erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew.
They determined to reinvestigate the motion of y Draconis; the
telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele-
brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney-
stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the
eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical,
was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and
a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 1725,
and observations on y Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth,
and 1 2th of December. There was apparently no shifting of
the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly
point. On the I7th of December, however, Bradley observed
that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown
by observations on the 2oth. These results were unexpected,
and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina-
tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were
not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued,
and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until
March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than
its December position. After March it began to pass north-
wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June
it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De-
cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly
position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle
between the March and September positions, being 40".

This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case,
the maximum range should be between the June and December
positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley
and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of
fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while y Draconis was
stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements
were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth
varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two
distinct ways; distinguished as " nutation of the axis " and
" variation of latitude. " Nutation, the only form of oscilla-
tion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's

ABERRATION

55

axis is fixed with respect to the earth, i.e. the north and south
poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis
is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation
of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis
within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole
Varies.

Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent
motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar
distance as 7 Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion
after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars
satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of
7 Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Moly-
neux's telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension
nearly equal to that of 7 Draconis, but in the opposite sense,
was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen
to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a
consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its
declination varied only one half as much as in the case of 7 Dra-
conis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite
solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to an
irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving
abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investi-
gated; here, again, negative results were obtained.

Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars
previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina-
tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to
the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized
the necessity for more observations before any generalization
could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory,
Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his
uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations
of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the ipth of
August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kew,
its range extending over 6j° on each side of the zenith, thus
covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the
British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and,
of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His
conclusions may be thus summarized: (i) only stars near the
solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions
when the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its
maximum positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock
morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate,
and found the greatest change in declination to be proportional
to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of all stars
at about the same time was in the same direction.

A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as
to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory
was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in
simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple
with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation.
Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the
shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course;
and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant
that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he
realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined
by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The
application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so
long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published
his theory of the aberration of light — a corner-stone of the
edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the
s observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be
perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary
at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if,
however, he traverses the distance BA in the same
time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will
appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob-
server is not conscious of his own translatory motion
FIG. 2. w;th the earth in its orbit, the star appears to have
a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion
of the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun,
ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star.
When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star

is displaced to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to
the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star
appears at b; and so on
throughout an orbital re-
volution of the earth. Every
star, therefore, describes an
apparent orbit, which, if the
line joining the sun and the
star be perpendicular to
the plane ABCD, will be ex-
actly similar to that of the
earth, i.e. almost a circle.
As the star decreases in lati-
tude, this circle will be
viewed more and more ob-
liquely, becoming a flatter
and flatter ellipse until, with A j
zero latitude, it degenerates
into a straight line (fig. 4).

The major axis of any
such aberrational ellipse is
always parallel to AC, i.e. the
ecliptic, and since it is equal
to the ratio of the velocity
of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant.
This constant length subtends an angle of about 40" at the
earth; the " constant of aberration " is half this angle. The
generally accepted value is 20-445", due to Struve; the last two
figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed
is that the value lies between 20-43" an(i 20-48". The minor axis,
on the other hand, is not constant, but, as w'e have already
seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of
the major axis into the sine of the latitude.

Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor-
rected his observations for aberration, but he found
that there still remained a residuum which was evi-
dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual
cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of
the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery
that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see
ASTRONOMY). Bradley recognized the fact that the
experimental determination of the aberration constant
gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the
earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known,
the velocity of light is determined. In recent years
much attention has been given to the nature of the
propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the ea.rth, the
argument generally being centred about the relative effect of
the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is
discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT.

REFERENCES. — A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in
S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hutton,
Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (J795); a particularly
clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical
Discovery (1904). The subject receives treatment in all astronomical
works.

II. ABERRATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS

Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a
series of them, may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays
from the points of an object after transmission through the
system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a
system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical
systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the
instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles
REFLEXION, REFRACTION, and CAUSTIC for the general char-
acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers
in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be
consulted) ; in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties
and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of
view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker.

Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr.
, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of

Lat. a"

FIG. 4.

ABERRATION

the light generally applied (e.g. white light), which is dispersed
by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. fiovos, one) aberrations
produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro-
matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any
coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or
light of single wave length.

(a) Monochromatic Aberration.

The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem:
Rays of light proceeding from any " object point " unite in an
"image point"; and therefore an "object space" is repro-
duced in an " image space." The introduction of simple auxiliary
terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Got-
tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits
the determination of the image of any object for any system
(see LENS). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long
as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet-
rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal
objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not
realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are,
in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper-
ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations
of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math.,
1858, and Ernst Abbe1) showed that the properties of these
reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the
images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces-
sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro-
duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes
a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner
in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved,
however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions,
since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion
and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies
a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no con-
structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All
that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane
in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis-
factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is im-
probable that these will ever be entirely corrected.

This, and related general questions, have been treated — besides
the above-mentioned authors — by M . Thiesen (Berlin . A kad. Sitzber. ,
1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig.
Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton!
"characteristic function" (Irish Acad. Trans., "Theory of Systems
of Rays," 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise
of Czapski-Eppenstem, pp. 155-161.

A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given,
(i) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re-
stricted sense). If S (fig. 5) be any optical system, rays pro-
ceeding from an axis point O under an angle u\ will unite in the
axis point O'i ; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2.
If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through
a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'i so long as the angle
«2 is greater than u\ (" under correction ") ; and conversely
with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The
caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than) ;
in the second < (less than). If the angle «i be very small, O'i
is the Gaussian image; and O'i O'2 is termed the " longitudinal
aberration," and O'iR the " lateral aberration " of the pencils
with aperture «2. If the pencil with the angle w2 be that of the
maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a
plane perpendicular to the axis at O'i there is a circular " disk
of confusion" of radius O'iR, and in a parallel plane at O's
another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the
" disk of least confusion."

The largesc opening of the pencils, which take part in the
reproduction of O, i.e. the angle «, is generally determined by
the margin of one of the lenses or by a. hole in a thin plate placed
between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole
is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term
" aperture stop " for both the hole and the limiting margin of the

'The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally
published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by
S. Czapski in 1893. See below, AUTHORITIES.

lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the
aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the dia-
phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil"; the "exit
pupil " is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed
behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass
through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and
exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since
the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle
u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni-
tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and
diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind
the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (" front
stop ") ; if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop ").

If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by
the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter-
sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their
" perpendicular height of incidence," i.e. their distance from
the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding
considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance
pupil, is its maximum value.

(2) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles
to the axis. — If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it
does not follow
that points in a
portion of a plane
perpendicular at
O to the axis
will be also con- O
current, even if
the part of the
plane be very
small. With
a considerable
aperture, the
neighbouring

FIG. 5.

point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com-
parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided
if, according to Abbe, the " sine condition," sin w'i/sin «i = sin
w'2/sin u-i, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the
object point O be infinitely distant, MI and M2 are to be replaced
by h\ and hi, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the " sine
condition " then becomes sin MVAi = sin «'2//i2. A system ful-
filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called
" aplanatic " (Greek a-, privative, ir\a.vr), a wandering). This
word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac-
tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a
superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to
denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration
of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly
increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture.

(3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis)
with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. — A point O (fig. 6) at a
finite distance from the
axis (or with an infinitely {
distant object, a point
which subtends a finite
angle at the system) is,
in general, even then not
sharply reproduced, if
the pencil of rays issuing
from it and traversing

FIG. 6.

the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture
stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from
the object point through the now infinitely small entrance
pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil
does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles;
therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ori-y^a, a point).
Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the
axis of the pencil " or " principal ray," we can say: the rays
of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines,
which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray;
of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and

ABERRATION

57

the axis of the system, i.e. in the " first principal section " or
" meridional section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in
the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive,
therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as,
for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point;
on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are
separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed),
and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion.
The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases,
in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with
the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two " astig-
matic image surfaces " correspond to one object plane; and these
are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines
of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in
which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana-
stigmatic or stigmatic.

Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigraation;
the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas
Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and
the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand.
Arch.f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat.
Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch.f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185).
A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilder-
zeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904).

(4) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma.
— By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral
points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in
this case they are much more complicated. The course of the
rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the
principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there
appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not sym-
metrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a
comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis.
From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form
of the meridional pencil — formerly the only one considered — is
coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been
treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.) , and more recently
by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941).

(5) Curvature of the field of the image. — If the above errors
be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp
image obtained with a wide aperture — there remains the necessity
to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the
image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography.
In most cases the surface is concave towards the system.

(6) Distortion of the image. — If now the image be sufficiently
sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point
meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen
that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object.
This error consists in the different parts of the object being re-
produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner
parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (" barrel-
shaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion")
(see fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called " ortho-

scopic " (6p96s, right,
o-KOTTflv, to look) .
This aberration is
quite distinct from
that of the sharpness
of reproduction ; in
unsharp reproduction,
the question of dis-
tortion arises if only
parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in
an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object
point, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded
as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv-
ing the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing
through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if
a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when
the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs.
This ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused
with the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes
through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction,

Object

Barrel shaped

Cushion shaped

Distorted image

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From
this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the
principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature
of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ =a'
tan w'/a tan w=i/N, where N is the " scale " or magnification
of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w' I
a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a' /a be sufficiently
constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the
" condition of Airy," i.e. tan ui' '/ tan a>=a constant. This
simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. i) is fulfilled
in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their
diaphragm (briefly named " symmetrical or holosymmetrical
objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized,
components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their
size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical
objectives); in these systems tan in' I tan wi=i. The constancy
of a' la necessary for this re-
lation to hold was pointed out
by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ.
Photog., 1861), and Thomas
Sutton (Photographic Notes,
1862); it has been treated by
O. Lummer and by M. von
Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk.,
1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4).
It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced
in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical
aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling
neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio
a! tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object.
This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical
objectives reproducing with the scale i, and by hemisymmetrical,
if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of
the two components.

Analytic Treatment of Aberrations. — The preceding review of
the several errors of reproduction belongs to the " Abbe theory
of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ-
ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction
of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi-
nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the
mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re-
production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all
probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is
only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be " in-
finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite
smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to
finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations
is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories
which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of
indefinite series.

A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be de-
fined by the co-ordinates (£, 17) of this point O in an object plane I,
at right angles
to the axis, and
two other co-
ordinates (x, y),
the point in
which the ray
intersects the
entrance pupil,

i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may
be defined by the points (£',17'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and
II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be
collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre-
sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates
^',tl',x',y' are functions of £,i),x,y; and if it be assumed that the
field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then £, ij, x, y
are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expand-
ing £', jj', x', y' in ascending powers of £, rj, x, y, series are ob-
tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers.
It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the
origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis

ABERRATION

and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs
of £,77, x, y, the values £', if, x, y must likewise change their sign,
but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series
are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables.

The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding
from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this
will not be the case, for £', t\ vary if £, t\ be constant, but x, y
variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are
drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by
rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an
extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality,
the Gauss image point O'o, with co-ordinates £'0) ij'o, of the
point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed.
Writing A£' = £' — £'0 and ATJ' = TJ'— TJ'O, then A£' and AT;' are
the aberrations belonging to £, 77 and x, y, and are functions of
these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only
odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account
of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of
light, depending in size on the lowest powers of £, r/, x, y which
the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These
degrees, named by J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger
dioptrischer Untersuchungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber.,
Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) " the numerical orders of the image,"
are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for-
mation of an image of the wzth order is that in the series for A£'
and AT;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . .
(w-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory
being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image
of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd
degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations;
in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the
vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order.

The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants
of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices
and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr.
Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait
objective, unexcelled even at the present day, from similar cal-
culations, which have never been published (see M. von Rohr,
Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899,
p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Miinchen.
Akad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous
paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (Miinchen. Akad.
Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395) ; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Bei-
trdge zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-^). A. Konigand M. von Rohr
(see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp.
3' 7-323) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the
Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe
method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically
(pp. 212-316).

The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char-
acteristic function " of the system and its differential coefficients,
instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not
immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the
number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton
(British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of
the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by
Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874-1875; see also the
treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin.
Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys.Ber.,
1895, 21 , p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild
(Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. l), who thus discovered the
aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly
the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand
(vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory
of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.

The aberrations of the third order are: (i) aberration of the
axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the
Aberra- ax's *s verv small, less than of the third order — the
tioas of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall
the third together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature
of the field; (5) distortion.

(i) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with
in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec-
tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher
orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness
and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the
radii r: r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value
of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the

power of the lens remaining constant) . The total aberration of
two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the
individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the
lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with
«=i-S, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the
third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical
importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of
which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc-
tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a
positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however,
may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained.
It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect
by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and
likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin
lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro-
duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from
aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant,
is known as " Herschel's condition." All these rules are valid,
inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not
to be taken into account.

(2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is
also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as
" Fraunhofer's Condition." (4) After eliminating the aberration
on the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness
of the field in the third order is expressed by the " Petzval
equation," 2i/r(n'-w)= o, where r is the radius of a refracting
surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring
media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.

Practical Elimination of Aberrations. — The existence of an
optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on
another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical
systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly
suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument.
The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object
upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber-
rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by
means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however,
the analytical difficulties are too great. Solutions, however, have
been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's
Die BUderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad.
Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2and3). At the present time constructors
almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a
system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test,
by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays,
whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples
are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik,
Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances
are continually altered until the errors of the image become
sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro-
duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all,
of those named above. The analytical approximation theory
is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not
generally suffice.

In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation
from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture,
there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture «* (with
infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*)
the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to
one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller
than the largest aperture U or II to be used in the system).
The Tays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not
have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio;
these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en-
deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for
the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w:
astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated
for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature of
field and distortion " attend smaller values of w. The practical
optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of
aperture u* (the height of incidence h*), or the angle of field of
view w*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios
are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture,

ABERRATION

59

in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur-
faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as
functions of the angles of the field of view.

The final form of a practical system consequently rests on
compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution
of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following
may be regarded as typical: — (i) Largest aperture; necessary
corrections are — for the axis point, and sine condition; errors
of the field of view are almost disregarded; example — high-
power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; neces-
sary corrections are — for astigmatism, curvature of field and
distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex-
amples— photographic widest angle objectives and oculars.
Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photo-
graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with
regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to
the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not
very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should,
however, possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the
simplest manner. They are the best for analytical computation.

(b) Chromatic or Colour A berration.

In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude
and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of
the glass employed (see LENS, and above, " Monochromatic
Aberration ") . Since the index of refraction varies with the colour
or wave length of the light (see DISPERSION), it follows that a
system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different
colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ-
ent aberrations; i.e. there are " chromatic differences " of
the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono-
chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white
light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti-
mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing
screen of a camera, &c.), they cause a confusion, named chro-
matic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a
dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or
narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma-
tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic.
A system is said to be " chromatically under-corrected " when it
shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens,
otherwise it is said to be " over-corrected."

If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected
— in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every
reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes,
and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths,
as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro-
duction. These constants are determined by the data of the
system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses) ;
therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse-
quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given
in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen
Instruments (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different
wave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of.
In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one
constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e.
this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible,
with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal
plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants
of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for
all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the
system is said to be in " stable achromatism."

In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine
the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of
intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by
a sum in which each component contains the amount due to
each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, -op. cit. p. 170;
A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bttderzeugung, p. 340).
In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another
colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con-
fusion caused by two " zones " in spherical aberration. For
infinitely distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of

confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent
of the focal length (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration of the
Axis Point ") ; and since this disk becomes the less harmful with
an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal
length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor-
tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the
" relative aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in
vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)

Examples. — (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant
of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the
distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index
for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or
reciprocals of the focal lengths, be <£and <j>-{-d(j>, then (i) d<j>/4>
= dn/(n- i) = i/v; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis-
persive power of the glass.

(b) Two thin lenses in contact: let <fr and <j>2 be the powers
corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n\ and n^ and
radii r'\, r"\, and r*t, r"z respectively; let $ denote the total
power, and d<t>, dn\, dn^ the changes of <f>, «i, and HI with the
colour. Then the following relations hold: —

(2) 4> = 4>1+<fc= (ni - iXi/Vi- i/r'\) + (n,- i)(i/r'2- i/r',) =
(ni-i)ki+(nz-i)k2; and

(3) dcj> = kidni + kzdni. For achromatism d<t> — o, hence,
from (3),

(4) ki/kz= -dnz/dni, or <t>i/(f>i= -Vi/** Therefore <j>i and 4>j
must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be com-
posed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the
powers of the two must be different (in order that <j> be not zero
(equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different
(according to 4).

Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different
dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he
constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory
and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con-
ception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by
Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond
in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes.
(See TELESCOPE.)

Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named
" crown glass "; that with greater dispersive power, " flint
glass." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens
((j> positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collec-
tive lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass
must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the
other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an
achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted.
This is, at the present day, the ordinary type,
e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values
of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2)
and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos-
tulated: one is always the elimination of the
aberration on the axis; the second either the
"Herschel" or " Fraunhofer condition," the
latter being the best (vide supra, " Monochromatic
Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often
more useful to avoid the second condition by
making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal
radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog.,
1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin
lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the
axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive
index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of
astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens
has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval
equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nackr., 1856, p. 289). Should the
cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must
be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs
the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, crown
glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater
refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier
kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with
the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but
some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and 0. Schott were crown

FIG. 10.

6o

ABERRATION

glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from
such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index,
are called the "new achromats," and were employed by P.
Rudolph in the first " anastigmats " (photographic objectives).

Instead of making d<j> vanish, a certain value can be assigned
to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any
desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one
present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be
cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour,
then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece;
by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or
achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its
chromatic effect (d<t>/<t>) be greater than that of the same lens,
this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em-
ployed, it is termed " hyper-chromatic."

For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition
for achromatism is D = (u 1/1+ 02/2) ("i+flz); if t>i = »2 (*•£•
if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to
D = ^ (/i+/2), known as the "condition for oculars."

If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length,
be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other
colours, if. two different glasses are employed. For example,
the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact
is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn 2 /dn i varies
within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J.
Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines
in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper-
sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet
(the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore,
for two colours, a and b, /„ =/& =/, then for a third colour, c, the
focal length is different, viz. if c lie between a and 6, then fc </,
and wee versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that
towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass pre-
ponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These
chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two
colours, are called the "secondary spectrum," and depend
upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the
primary chromatic errors do.

In fig. n, taken from M. von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte
des pholographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths,
and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer
lines used are —

A' C D Green Hg. F G' Violet Hg.

767-7 656-3 589-3 546-1

800

700

Cr.Hg.

500

F

10 20 30 +4O

£WT7

486-2 434-1 405-1 MM,
and the focal lengths are
made equal for the lines C
and F. In the neighbourhood
of 550 nfj. the tangent to the
curve is parallel to the axis
of wave-lengths; and the
focal length varies least over
a fairly large range of colour,
therefore in this neighbour-
hood the colour union is at
its best. Moreover, this region
of the spectrum is thai which
appears brightest to the
human eye, and consequently
this curve of the secondary
spectrum, obtained by making
/C=/F, is, according to the
experiments of Sir G. G.
Stokes (Proc. Roy.Soc., 1878),
the most suitable for visual

108. Optical correction /c =/„ = matlsm )• In a similar man-
100 mm. The ordinates give the ner, for systems used in photo-
wave-lengths in w>. The ab- graphy, the vertex of the
scissae give /X -/c in o-oi mm., colour curve must be placed
commencing at felt- • .• ... r .

(From M.v. Rohr, <,p. a,.) in the position of the man-

mum sensibility of the plates;

this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the

F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially
adopted in objectives for astronomical photography ("pure
actinic achromatism"). For ordinary photography, however,
there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen
and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate
are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference
is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the
objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordi-
nary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic
image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place;
and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as
the " actinic correction " or " freedom from chemical focus ").

Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths
for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. /<.=/&=/«=/, then the relative
partial dispersion (n e-n &) (na-n &) must be equal for the two
kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation
(4) for the two pairs of colours ac and be. Until recently no
glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption;
but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and
F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses
between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which re-
duced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was
only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe
and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dis-
persion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two
lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three
lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses.
In uniting three colours an " achromatism of a higher order "
is derived; there is yet a residual "tertiary spectrum," but it
can always be neglected.

The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochro-
matic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different
for different colours; and should they be compensated for one
colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing.
The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration
of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image,
after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appro-
priate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected
for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account
of the greater dispersion in the negative components — the flint
glasses, — over-correction will arise for the shorter wave-
lengths (this being the error of the negative components), and
under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown
glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated
by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F.
Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more
important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum
of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be
eliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it
must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which
are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical
representation of this error is given in M- von Rohr, Theorie
und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs).

The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in
the place of a sharply reproduced point — the constant of the
sine relation — must also be fulfilled with large apertures for
several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope
objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the
sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to
his definition, were " aplanatic for several colours "; such sys-
tems he termed " apochromatic." While, however, the magnifi-
cation of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for
red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnifica-
tion. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite
sense, by the oculars, which are used with these objectives
(" compensating oculars "), so that it is eliminated in the image
of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and
photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also
apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality
of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic
differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical
importances.

ABERSYCHAN— ABGAR

61

AUTHORITIES. — The standard treatise in English is H. D. Taylor,
A System of Applied Optics (1906); reference may also be made to
R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895); and
L. A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (1900). The ideas
of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, Theorie der optischen
Instrumente nach Abbe, published separately at Breslau in 1893,
and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik in 1894; a
second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at
Leipzig in 1903 with the title, Grwidzuge der Theorie der optischen
Instrumente nach Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's
Handbuch der Physik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl
Zeiss at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, DieBilderzeugung in optischen
Inslrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik (Berlin, 1904),
contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with
aberrations. (O. E.)

ABERSYCHAN, an urban district in the northern parlia-
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, ii m. N. by W.
of Newport, on the Great Western, London and North- Western,
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 17,768. It lies in the
narrow upper valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of
the great coal and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and
Monmouthshire, and its large industrial population is occupied
in the mines and ironworks. The neighbourhood is wild and
mountainous.

ABERTILLERY, an urban district in the western parlia-
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m. N.W. of
Newport, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 10,846;
(1901) 21,945. It h'es m the mountainous mining district of
Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw
Each, and the large industrial population is mainly employed
in the numerous coal-mines, ironworks and tinplate works.
Farther up the valley are the mining townships of NANTYGLO
and BLAINA, forming an urban district with a population (1901)
of 13,489.

ABERYSTWYTH, a municipal borough, market-town and
seaport of Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the
rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay.
Pop. (1901) 8013. It is the terminal station of the Cambrian
railway, and also of the Manchester and Milford line. It is the
most popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and
possesses a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from Consti-
tution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth
of the harbour. The town is of modern appearance, and con-
tains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable is
the imposing but fantastic structure of the University College
of Wales near the Castle Hill. Much of the finest scenery in
mid- Wales lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth.

The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the
time of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1109 erected a fortress on
the present Castle Hill. Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle
in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years
1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of Owen Glen-
dower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of Monmouth, and
shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of
Ville de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the place being Llan-
badarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it
from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland. It is thus
styled in a charter granted by Henry VIII., but by Elizabeth's
time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all docu-
ments. In 1647 the parliamentarian troops razed the castle to
the ground, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though
portions of three towers still exist. Aberystwyth was a contri-
butory parliamentary borough until 1885, when its representation
was merged in that of the county. In modern times Aberyst-
wyth has become a Welsh educational centre, owing to the
erection here of one of the three colleges of the university of
Wales (1872), and of a hostel for women in connexion with it.
In 1905 it was decided to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh
National Library.

ABETTOR (from " to abet," O. Fr. abeter, a and beter, to bait,
urge dogs upon any one ; this word is probably of Scandi-
navian origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying
one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an
offence. An abettor differs from an accessory (q.v.) in that he
must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors

(with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence
of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable
to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A
person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the
commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a
principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in
aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt
to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.

ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping"), a state of expectancy
in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them
is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or
determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance
can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested
or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted
to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B, the latter being
alive; the remainder is then said to be in abeyance, for until
the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the
freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said
to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.
The most common use of the term is in the case of peerage
dignities. If a peerage which passes to heirs-general, like the
ancient baronies by writ, is held by a man whose heir-at-law
is neither a male, nor a woman who is an only child, it goes into
abeyance on his death between two or more sisters or their
heirs, and is held by no one till the abeyance is terminated; if
eventually only one person represents the claims of all the
sisters, he or she can claim the termination of the abeyance as
a matter of right. The crown can also call the peerage out of
abeyance at any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of
the sisters or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance. The
question whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man
and his " heirs " go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been
raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 1312,
discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1906. It is
common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are
dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance. (j. H. R.)

ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or toparchs,
apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in Osrhoene
and had their capital at Edessa about the time of the Christian
era. According to an old tradition, one of these princes, perhaps
Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, " the black "), being afflicted
with leprosy, sent a letter to Jesus, acknowledging his divinity,
craving his help and offering him an asylum in his own residence,
but Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however,
that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples. These
letters are given by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. i. 13), who declares
that the Syriac document from which he translates them had
been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of Abgar.
Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus,
was sent (in 34O=A.D. 29). In another form of the story, de-
rived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further that Jesus sent
his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed in Edessa (Hist.
Armen., ed. W. Whiston, ii. 29-32). Yet another version is
found in the Syriac Doctrina Addaei (Addaeus = Thaddaeus),
edited by G. Phillips (1876). Here it is said that the reply of
Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event
took place in 343 (A.D. 32). Greek forms of the legend are
found in the Ada Thaddaei (C. Tischendorf, Acta apostolorum
apocr. 261 ff.).

These stories have given rise to much discussion. The testi-
mony of Augustine and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote
nothing. The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by
Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is true,
this view has not been shared universally by the Roman church
(Tillemont, Memoires, i. 3, pp. 990 ff.). Amongst Evangelicals
the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally admitted.
Lipsius (Die Edessenische Abgar sage, 1880) has pointed out
anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story is quite
unhistorical. The first king of Edessa of whom we have any
trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (A.D. 176-
213). It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire to
trace the christianizing of his kingdom to an apostolic source.

62

ABHIDHAMMA— ABILA

Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was worked up
in the Doctrina Addaei in the second half of the 4th century;
and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — R. Schmidt in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie;
Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersuchl (1880);
Matthes, Die Edessenische Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht
(1882); Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse el la legends d'A.
(1888) ; A. Harnack, Geschichte d. altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 2 (1893) ;
L. Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles
see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, sect. New Testament " (c).

ABHIDHAMMA, the name of one of the three Pitakas, or
baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures (see
BUDDHISM) are divided. It consists of seven works: i. Dhamma
Sanganl (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga (exposition).
3. Katha Vatthu (bases of opinion). 4. Puggala Pannatti (on
individuals). 5. Dhatu Katha (on relations of moral disposi-
tions). 6. Yamaka (the pairs, that is, of ethical states). 7.'
Palthana (evolution of ethical states). These have now been
published by the Pali Text Society. The first has been trans-
lated into English, and an abstract of the third has been pub-
lished. The approximate date of these works is probably from
about 400 B.C. to about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and
the third the latest of the seven. Before the publication of
the texts, when they were known only by hearsay, the term
A bhidhamma was usually rendered "Metaphysics." This is now
seen to be quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and
Abhidhamma has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by-
law to law. It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries
from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular treat-
ises. There is no metaphysics in it at all, only psychological
ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind. And there is no
originality in it; only endless permutations and combinations
of doctrines already known and accepted. As in the course of
centuries the doctrine itself, in certain schools, varied, it was felt
necessary to rewrite these secondary works. This was first done,
so far as is at present known, by the Sarvastivadins (Realists),
who in the century before and after Christ produced a fresh
set of seven Abhidhamma books. These are lost in India, but
still exist in Chinese translations. The translations have been
analysed in a masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article
mentioned below. They deal only with psychological ethics.
In the course of further centuries these books in turn were
superseded by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of
the Maha-yana (great vehicle) there was eventually developed
a system of metaphysics. But the word Abhidhamma then fell
out of use in that school, though it is still used in the schools
that continue to follow the original seven books.

See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900),
a translation of the Dhamma Sangant, with valuable introduction;
"Schools of Buddhist Belief," by T. W. Rhys Davids, in Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1892, contains an abstract of the Katlia
Vatthu; "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins," by
Prof. Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1905.

(T. W. R. D.)

ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who
expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed
petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble parliament. Feel-
ing against Roman Catholics, and especially against James,
duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had
been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of
James, duke of Monmouth, was very great. To prevent this
bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in
July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its suc-
cessor without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with
petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was
opposed by Sir George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who
presented addresses expressing "abhorrence" of the "Peti-
tioners," and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who
supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over
England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Ab-
horrers which reached the king from all parts of the country
formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said
that the terms Whig and. Tory were first applied to English poli-
tical parties in consequence of this dispute.

ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebydthar, "the [divine] father is pre-
eminent"), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, priest at
Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre,
he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (i Sam.
xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especi-
ally at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29,
35, xx. 25). In i Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found
acting together as priests under Solomon. In i Kings i. 7, 19,
25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and
in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and
banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 "Abiathar, the son
of Ahimelech" should be read, with the Syriac, for "Ahimelech,
the son of Abiathar." For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26.

ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-1886),
German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the
nth of December 1806, and educated at the university in that
city. His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other
minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroles, of the
mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of
volcanoes. In 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy
in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention to
the geology and mineralogy of Russia. Residing for some time
at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus. Ultimately
he retired to Vienna, where he died on the ist of July 1886. The
mineral Abichite was named after him.

PUBLICATIONS. — Vues Mustratives de quelques phenom^nes geolo-
giques, prises sur le Vesuve et I'Etna, pendant les annees 1833 et
1834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der
vulcanischen Bildungen (Brunswick, 1841); Geologische Forschungen
in den Kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887).

ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps "father is joy"), or ABIGAL
(2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite,
on whose death she became the wife of David (i Sam. xxv.).
By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of
2 Sam. iii. 3 as Chileab, in the Septuagint as Daluyah, and in
i Chron. iii. i as Daniel. The name Abigail was also borne by
a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 25; i Chron. ii. 16 f.). From the
former (self-styled "handmaid" i Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived
the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail,
the "waiting gentlewoman," in Beaumont and Fletcher's
Scornful Lady).

ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, "Yah is father"), a
name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old
Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following.

(1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron.
xii. i6-xiii.), reigned about two years (918-915 B.C.). The ac-
counts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are very con-
flicting (compare i Kings xv. 2 and 2 Chron. xi. 20 with 2 Chron.
xiii.2). The Chronicler tells us that he has drawn his facts from
the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet Iddo. This is perhaps
sufficient to explain the character of the narrative. (2) The
second son of Samuel (i Sam. viii. 2; i Chron. vi. 28 [13]). He
and his brother Joel judged at Beersheba. Their misconduct
was made by the elders of Israel a pretext for demanding a king
(i Sam. viii. 4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he
died young (i Kings xiv. i ff., 17). (4) Head of the eighth order
of priests (i Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zacharias, the
father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5).

The alternative form Abijam is probably a mistake, though
it is upheld by M. Jastrow.

ABILA, (i) a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the tetrarchy
of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible to define.
It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from

(2) below. Abila was an important town on the imperial high-
way from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek). The site is indi-
cated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c., and inscriptions on
the banks of the river Barada at Suk Wadi Barada, a village
called by early Arab geographers Abil-es-Suk, between Baalbek
and Damascus. Though the names Abel and Abila differ in
derivation and in meaning, their similarity has given rise to the
tradition that this was the place of Abel's burial. According to
Josephus, Abilene was a separate Iturean kingdom till A.D. 37,
when it was granted by Caligula to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius

ABILDGAARD— ABINGER

granted it to Agrippa II. (See also LYSANIAS.) (2) A city in
Perea, now Abil-ez-Zeit.

ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM (1744-1809), called
" the Father of Danish Painting," was born at Copenhagen, the
son of Soren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute.
He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin,
and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As
a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being
very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is
rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known out of Copen-
hagen, where he won an immense fame in his own generation.
He was the founder of the Danish school of painting, and the
master of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg.

ABIMELECH (Hebrew for "father of [or is] the king ")• (i)
A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in the Bible,
had relations. The patriarch, during his sojourn there, alleged
that his wife Rebekah was his sister, but the king doubting this
remonstrated with him and pointed out how easily adultery
might have been unintentionally committed (Gen. xxvi.).
Abimelech is called " king of the Philistines," but the title is
clearly an anachronism. A very similar story is told of Abraham
and Sarah (ch. xx.), but here Abimelech takes Sarah to wife,
although he is warned by a divine vision before the crime is
actually committed. The incident is fuller and shows a great
advance in ideas of morality. Of a more primitive character,
however, is another parallel story of Abraham at the court of
Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken
into the royal household, and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead
to the discovery of the truth. Further incidents in Isaac's life
at Gerar are narrated in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of
Abraham), notably a covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba
(whence the name is explained "well of the oath"); (see
ABRAHAM). By a pure error, or perhaps through a confusion
in the traditions, Achish the Philistine (of Gath, i Sam. xxi.,
xxvii.), to whom David fled, is called Abimelech in the super-
scription to Psalm xxxiv.

(2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (q.v.), by his Shechemite
concubine (Judges viii. 31, ix.). On the death of Gideon,
Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his father
had earned, and through the influence of his mother's clan won
over the citizens of Shechem. Furnished with money from the
treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a band of followers
and slew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of his brethren at Ophrah, his
father's home. This is one of the earliest recorded instances of
a practice common enough on the accession of Oriental despots.
Abimelech thus became king, and extended his authority over
central Palestine. But his success was short-lived, and the sub-
sequent discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites was
regarded as a just reward for his atrocious massacre. Jotham,
the only one who is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on
Mount Gerizim and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen
towards the legitimate sons of the man who had saved them
from Midian. " Jotham's fable " of the trees who desired a king
may be foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and
cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to rule
over others, only the bramble is self-confident. The " fable "
appears to be antagonistic to ideas of monarchy. The origin
of the conflicts which subsequently arose is not clear. Gaal, a
new-comer, took the opportun'ty at the time of the vintage,
when there was a festival in ihs temple, to head a revolt and
seized Shechem. Abimelech, warned by his deputy Zebul, left
his residence at Arumah and approached the city. In a fine bit
of realism we are told how Gaal observed the approaching foe
and was told by Zebul, " You see the shadow of the hills as men,"
and as they drew nearer Zebul's ironical remark became a taunt,
" Where is now thy mouth ? is not this the people thou didst
despise? go now and fight them!" This revolt, which Abime-
lech successfully quelled, appears to be only an isolated episode.
Another account tells of marauding bands of Shechemites
which disturbed the district. The king disposed his men (the
whole chapter is specially interesting for the full details it gives
of the nature of ancient military operations), and after totally

destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebez, which had also
revolted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on
the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by
a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's
hand, he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body,
but his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded
(2 Sam. xi. 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the
first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is
mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, and
of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants of
its deliverer. (See, further, JEWS, JUDGES.) (S. A. C.)

ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6 m. S.
of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway
from Radley. Pop. (1901) 6480. It lies in the fiat valley of
the Thames, on the west (right) bank, where the small river
Ock flows in from the Vale of White Horse. The church of
St Helen stands near the river, and its fine Early English tower
with Perpendicular spire is the principal object in the pleasant
views of the town from the river. The body of the church, which
has five aisles, is principally Perpendicular. The smaller church
of St Nicholas is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of
the fabric are older. Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a
beautiful Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called
the prior's house, mainly Early English, and the guest house,
with other fragments. The picturesque narrow-arched bridge
over the Thames near St Helen's church dates originally from
1416. There may be mentioned further the old buildings of the
grammar school, founded in 1563, and of the charity called
Christ's Hospital (1583); while the town-hall in the market-
place, dating from 1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones. The
grammar school now occupies modern buildings, and ranks
among the lesser public schools of England, having scholarships
at Pembroke College, Oxford. St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m.
from Abingdon, is one of the principal modern public schools.
It was opened in 1847. The buildings lie close to the Thames,
and the school is famous for rowing, sending an eight to the
regatta at 'Henley each year. Abingdon has manufactures of
clothing and carpets and a large agricultural trade. The borough
is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area,
730 acres.

Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which
was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have been
founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of Centwin. Abun-
dant charters from early Saxon monarchs are extant confirming
various laws and privileges to the abbey, and the earliest of these,
from King Ceadwalla, was granted before A.D. 688. In the reign of
Alfred the abbey was destroyed by the Danes, but it was restored
by Edred, and an imposing list of possessions in the Domesday
survey evidences recovered prosperity. William the Conqueror
in 1084 celebrated Easter at Abingdon, and left his son, afterwards
Henry I., to be educated at the abbey. After the dissolution in
1538 the town sank into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of
its pitiable condition, Queen Mary granted a charter establishing
it as a free borough corporate with a common council consisting
of a mayor, two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen second-
ary burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and a
justice of the peace. The council was empowered to elect one
burgess to parliament, and this right continued until the Redistri-
bution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were
also appointed, and the town boundaries described in great detail.
Later charters from Elizabeth, James \., James II., George II. and
George III. made no considerable change. James II. changed the
style of the corporation to that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and
twelve burgesses. The abbot seems to have held a market from
very early times, and charters for the holding of markets and fairs
were granted by various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II.
In the I3th and I4th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agri-
cultural centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weav-
ing and clothing manufacture. The latter industry declined before
the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived.

The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to the Gild
of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI. founded
the hospital under its present name.

See Victoria County History, Berkshire', Joseph Stevenson,
Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, A.D. 201-1189 (Rolls Series,
2 vols., London, 1858).

ABINGER, JAMES SCARLETT, IST BARON (1760-1844),

64

ABINGTON— ABIOGENESIS

English judge, was born on the i3th of December 1769 in
Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In
the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his
education, and went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his
B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was
called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the
Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connexions,
by steady application he gradually obtained a large practice,
ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and
the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time
till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the
bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income
reached the high-water mark of £18,500, a large sum for that
period. He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament
in 1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constitu-
ency with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected
for the borough of Malton. He became attorney-general, and
was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and
though he resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power
in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of
Wellington in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused
his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the Tories
he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 for Norwich,
for which borough he sat until the dissolution of parliament. He
was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1834, and
presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending
the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of April he was suddenly seized
with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury on the 7th of
April 1844. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger
in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in
1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were
not equally in place on the bench; he was partial, dictatorial
and vain; and complaint was made of his domineering attitude
towards juries. But his acuteness of mind and clearness of ex-
pression remained to the end. Lord Abinger was twice married
(the second time only six months before his death), and by his
first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title
passing to his eldest son Robert (1794-1861). His second son,
General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), leader of the
heavy cavalry charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate
article; and his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron
Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady
Stratheden and Campbell) (d. 1860). Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett
(d. 1831), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of
Jamaica.

See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of James, ist Lord Abinger (1877);
Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).

ABINCTON, FRANCES (1737-1815), English actress, was the
daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at first, a
flower girl and a street singer. She then became servant to a
French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress and a knowledge of
French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first
appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket in 1755 as
Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. In 1756, on the recom-
mendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury
Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard
and Kitty Clive. In 1759, after an unhappy marriage with her
music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in
the bills as Mrs Abington. Her first success was in Ireland as
Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing
invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There
she remained for eighteen years, being the original of more than
thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). Her
Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia were no less liked
than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue.
It was in the last character in Love for Love that Reynolds
painted his best portrait of her. In 1782 she left Drury Lane for
Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790
until 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1799. Her am-
bition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished
position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of
fashion copied her frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely

adopted and known as the " Abington cap." She died on the
4th of March 1815.

ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older
terms " spontaneous generation," Generatio aequiwca, Generatio
primaria, and of more recent terms such as archegenesis and
archebiosis, for the theory according to which fully formed living
organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. Aristotle
explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed
fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that plant-
lice arise from the dew which falls on plants, that fleas are
developed from putrid matter, and so forth. T. J. Parker
(Elementary Biology) cites a passage from Alexander Ross, who,
commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt as to " whether mice
may be bred by putrefaction," gives a clear statement of the
common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries
ago. Ross wrote: " So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt
whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles
and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers,
shell-fish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied
matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which
it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question
reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go
to Egypt, and there he will find the fields swarming with mice,
begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the in-
habitants."

The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of abio-
genesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in 1668, proved
that no maggots were " bred " in meat on which flies were pre-
vented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the i7th
century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case
of all the higher and readily visible organisms, abiogenesis did
not occur, but that omne vivum e vivo, every living thing came
from a pre-existing living thing.

The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation further.
In 1683 A. van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, and it was
soon found that however carefully organic matter might be
protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles,
putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the
appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low organisms. As
knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent
possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting
hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by
generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic
fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms
continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic
matter. It was due chiefly to L. Pasteur that the occurrence
of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much
as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter
were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination
from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter re-
mained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the
difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme deh'cacy of the
manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time
to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e
vivo to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few
belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the tempera-
ture of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient
mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of
bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only
prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as
an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of
bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme pre-
cautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material.
It may now be stated definitely that all known living organisms
arise only from pre-existing living organisms.

So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved.
It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only to
known existing organisms. All these are composed of a definite
substance, known as protoplasm (q.v.), and the modern refutation
of abiogenesis applies only to the organic forms in which proto-
plasm now exists. It may be that in the progress of science it
may yet become possible to construct living protoplasm from

ABIPONES — ABLUTION

non-living material. The refutation of abiogenesis has no further
bearing on this possibility than to make it probable that if
protoplasm ultimately be formed in the laboratory, it will be by
a series of stages, the earlier steps being the formation of some
substance, or substances, now unknown, which are not proto-
plasm. Such intermediate stages may have existed in the past,
and the modern refutation of abiogenesis has no application to
the possibility of these having been formed from inorganic
matter at some past time. Perhaps the words archebiosis, or
archegenesis, should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm
in the remote past has been developed from not-living matter
by a series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley,
who took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary
abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial archebiosis.
(See BIOGENESIS and LIFE.) (P. C. M.)

ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran
stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe
and St lago. They originally occupied the Chaco district of
Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards.
According to Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, who,
towards the end of the i8th century, lived among them for a
period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5000.
They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and
aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from
the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this con-
stituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the
women were covered with black figures of various designs made
with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and
blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men
were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear.
No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were
made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour
of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were
excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the
year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in
shelters built in the trees. They seldom married before the age
of thirty, and were singularly chaste. " With the Abipones,"
says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the
parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the
girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents
and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of
marriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and thus
eludes the bridegroom." Infanticide was systematic, never
more than two children being reared in one family, a custom
doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young
were suckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to
be extinct as a tribe.

Martin Dobrizhoffer's Latin Historia deAbiponibus (Vienna, 1784)
was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, at the suggestion of
Southey, in 1822, under the title of An Account of the Abipones
(3 vols.).

ABITIBBI, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada. The lake, in
49° N., 80° W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands. It is
shallow, and the shores in its vicinity are covered with small
timber. It was formerly employed by the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. The
construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway through this
district has made it of some importance. Its outlet is Abitibbi
river, a rapid stream, which after a course of 200 m. joins the
Moose river, flowing into James Bay.

ABJURATION (from Lat. abjurare, to forswear), a solemn

repudiation or renunciation on oath. At common law, it signified

the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to leave the realm

for ever; this was abolished in the reign of James I. The Oath

1 of Abjuration, in English history, was a solemn disclaimer, taken

1 by members of parliament, clergy and laymen against the

i right of the Stuarts to the crown, imposed by laws of William III.,

George I. and George III.; but its place has since been taken

by the oath of allegiance.

ABKHASIA, or ABHASIA, a tract of Russian Caucasia, govern-
ment of Kutais. The Caucasus mountains on the N. and N.E.
divide it from Circassia; on the S.E. it is,bounded by Mingrelia;
i-3

and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the country is
generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and walnut,
there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the climate is
mild. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, grapes, figs,
pomegranates and wine. Cattle and horses are bred. Honey
is produced; and excellent arms are made. This country was
subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced
Christianity. Native dynasties ruled from 735 to the isth
century, when the region was conquered by the Turks and
became Mahommedan. The Russians acquired possession of it
piecemeal between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not
firmly established until after 1864. Area, 2800 sq. m. The
principal town is Sukhum-kaleh. Pop. 43,000, of whom two-
thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess or
Circassian race. The total number of Abkhasians in the two
governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1897; large
numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878.

ABLATION (from Lat. ablatus, carried away), the process of
removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the
wearing away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative
removal.

ABLATITIOUS (from Lat. ablatus, taken away), reducing or
withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes between
the moon and the earth to lessen the strength of gravitation is
called " ablatitious," just as it is called " addititious " when it
increases that strength.

ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. casus, from ablalum, taken
away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense
of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in
which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without a
preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the place
or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done. The case is
also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and traces
remain in other languages. The " Ablative Absolute," a gram-
matical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in the ablative
case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying word agreeing
with it, not depending on any other part of the sentence, to
express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact.

ABLUTION (Lat. ablulio, from abluere, " to wash off "), a
washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that ceremonial
or ritualistic purity which must not be confused with the
physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and things obtained
by the use of soap and water.1 Indeed the two states may con-
tradict each other, as in the case of the 4th-century Christian
pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that she had not washed
tier face for eighteen years for fear of removing therefrom the
holy chrism of baptism. The purport, then, of ablutions is to
remove, not dust and dirt, but the — to us imaginary — stains
contracted by contact with the dead, with childbirth, with
menstruous women, with murder whether wilful or involuntary,
with almost any form of bloodshed, with persons of inferior
caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. leather or excrement, with
leprosy, madness and any form of disease. Among all races
in a certain grade of development such associations are vaguely
felt to be dangerous and to impair vitality. In a later stage the
taint is regarded as alive, as a demon or evil spirit alighting on
and passing into the things and persons exposed to contamina-
tion. In general, water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the
materials used in ablutions. Of these water is the commonest,
and its efficacy is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a
magical or sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual
blessing or consecration. Some concrete examples will best
illustrate the nature of such ablutions. In the Atharva-Veda,
vii. 1 16, we have this allopathic remedy for fever. The patient's
skin burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to
the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread,
and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls

1 In its technical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is the ritual
washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers after the celebration
of Holy Communion in the Catholic Church. The wine and water
used for this purpose are themselves sometimes called "the
ablution."

66

ABNAKI— ABO

on the frog. Let the medicine man or magician pray that the
fever may pass into the frog, and the frog be forthwith re-
leased, and the cure will be effected. In the old Athenian
Anthesteria the blood of victims was poured over the unclean.
A bath of bulls' blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the
mysteries of Attis. The water must in ritual washings run off
in order to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease;
and accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or
running water. Nor was it enough that the person baptized
should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it over
his head, so that it run down his person. Similarly the Brahman
takes care, after ablution of a person, to wipe the cathartic water
off from head to feet downwards, that the malign influence may
pass out through the feet. The same care is shown in ritual
ablutions in the Bukovina and elsewhere.

Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual cleans-
ings, says lamblichus in his book on mysteries (v. 23), as being
specially full of the divine nature. Nevertheless in all religions,
and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, the cathartic
virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction into it by means
of suitable prayers and incantations of a divine or magical power.
Ablutions both of persons and things are usually cathartic,
that is, intended to purge away evil influences (nadaipeiv, to
make KaBapos, pure). But, as Robertson Smith observes, "holi-
ness is contagious, just as uncleanness is "; and common things
and persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous
and useless for daily life through the mere infection of holiness.
Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo for one
whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew sin-offering fell
on a garment it had to be ritually washed off. It was as neces-
sary in the Hebrew religion for the priest to wash his hands
after handling the sacred volume as before. Christians might not
enter a church to say their prayers without first washing their
hands. So Chrysostom says: "Although our hands may be
already pure, yet unless we have washed them thoroughly, we
do not spread them upwards in prayer." Tertullian (c. 200)
had long before condemned this as a heathen custom; none the
less, it was insisted on in later ages, and is a survival of the pagan
lustrations or TrtpippavTripia. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest
sprinkled Julian and Valentinian with water according to the
heathen custom as they entered his temple. The same custom
prevails among Mahommedans. Porphyry (de Abst. ii. 44)
relates that one who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine
anger must bathe and wash his clothes in running water before
returning to his city and home, and similar scruples in regard
to holy objects and persons have been observed among the
natives of Polynesia, New Zealand and ancient Egypt. The
rites, met within all lands, pf pouring out water or bathing in
order to produce rain from heaven, differ in their significance
from ablutions with water and belong to the realm of sympa-
thetic magic.

There are certain forms of purification which one does not
know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings. Thus
Demosthenes in his speech " On the crown " accused Aeschines
of having " purified the initiated and wiped them clean with
(not from) mud and pitch." Smearing with gypsum (rLravos,
titanos) had a similar purifying effect, and it has been suggested *
that the Titans were no more than old-world votaries who had
so disguised themselves. Perhaps the use of ashes in mourning
had the same origin. In the rite of death-bed penance given in
the old Mozarabic Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured
over the sick man.

AUTHORITIES. — W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Jul. Well-
hausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,
iii. 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897); John Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum
rilualibus (Tubingae, 1732) ; Art. "Clean and Unclean " in Hastings'
Bible Dictionary and in Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. iv. ; J. G. Frazer,
Adonis, Attis, Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities
of the Christian Church, bk. viii. ; Hermann Oldenberg, Die Religion
des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (F. C. C.)

ABNAKI (" the whitening sky at daybreak," i.e. Easterners),
a confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock,
1 By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion, p. 493.

called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial
writers. It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridge-
wock, Malecite and other tribes. It formerly occupied what is
now Maine and southern New Brunswick. All the tribes were
loyal to the French during the early years of the i8th century,
but after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew
to St Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement
with the British authorities. The Abnaki now number some
1600.

For details see Handbook of American Indians, edited by F. W.
Hodge (Washington, 1907).

ABNER (Hebrew for "father of [or is a] light"), in the Bible,
first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (i Sam.
xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's
history (i Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 5), and is not mentioned in the
account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power
was crushed. Seizing the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set
him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan.
David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was mean-
while reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried
on between the two parties. The only engagement between the
rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch
as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve
chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem
to have perished (2 Sam. ii. I2).1 In the general engagement
which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was
closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have
been " light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would not desist
from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay
him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between
the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, 'as next of kin to
Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger
of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on,
the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length
Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrat-
ing with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines,
an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied pre-
tensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam. xvi. 21 sqq.; i Kings ii. 21
sqq.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and im-
mediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him
on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him.
This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast.
Almost immediately after, however. Joab, who had been sent
away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the
gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination
was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient
justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the
time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show
that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not ven-
ture to punish its perpetrators (2 Sam. iii. 31-39; cp. i Kings ii.
31 seq.). (See DAVID.)

ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on
the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of
Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; (1904) 42,639.
It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is
in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa,
Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of
importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden.
When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted
the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the
Diet of Borga in 1809, Abo became the capital of the new state,
and so remained till 1819 when the seat of government was
transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the
whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable
library being entirely destroyed. Before this calamity Abo
contained i no houses and 13,000 inhabitants; and its university
had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of up-
wards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an

1 The object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name
Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib.
col. 2006; Batten in Zeit.f. alt-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.).

ABO-BJORNEBORG— ABORTION

67

observatory and a chemical laboratory. The university has
since been removed to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesias-
tical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop
and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored
after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry,
the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who intro-
duced Christianity into the country in the i2th century. Abo
is the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland.
It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of
navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade ;
sail-cloth, cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are
extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and
a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably
developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy.
Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of
greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Born-
holm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from
700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons.

ABO-BJORNEBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of
Finland and including the Aland islands. It has a total area of
24,171 square kilometres and a population (1900) of 447,098,
of whom 379,622 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 446,900
were of the Lutheran religion. The province occupies a promi-
nent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, sugar
refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c. Its
chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), Raumo
(5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1171), Nadendal (917).

ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to
bide) , generally, a dwelling. In English law this term has a more
restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate the
place of a man's residence or business, whether that be either
temporary or permanent. The law may regard for certain
purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on busi-
ness, though he may reside elsewhere ; so that the term has
come to have a looser significance than residence, which has been
defined as " where a man lives with his family and sleeps at
night" (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 772). In serving a
notice of action, a solicitor's place of business may be given as
his abode (Roberts v. Williams, 1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more
recent decisions it has been similarly held that where a notice
was required to be served under the Public Health Act 1875,
either personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's
" place of abode, " a place of business was sufficient.

ABOMASUM (caillette), the fourth or rennet stomach of
Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally deposited
in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the
second or third stomach, although less than the first. The base
of the abomasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular
conical form. It is that part of the digestive apparatus which
is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as the
food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being
macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs.

ABOMEY, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West
Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name.
It is 70 m. N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has a popula-
tion of about 15,000. Abomey is built on a rolling plain, 800 ft.
above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to the N.W., where it
is bounded by a long depression. The town was surrounded by a
mud wall, pierced by six gates, and was further protected by a
ditch 5 ft. deep, filled with a dense growth of prickly acacia,
the usual defence of West African strongholds. Within the
walls, which had a circumference of six miles, were villages
separated by fields, several royal palaces, a market-place and
a large square containing the barracks. In November 1892,
Behanzin, the king of Dahomey, being defeated by the French,
set fire to Abomey and fled northward. Under French adminis-
tration the town has been rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway
communication with the coast, and given an ample water supply
by the sinking of artesian wells.

ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and ominare, to fore-
bode), anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with
aversion; a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines

or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect deri-
vation was ab homine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the
adjective " abominable " in the first Shakespeare folio is always
" abhominable." Colloquially " abomination " and " abomin-
able " are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense.

ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier
of India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors.
It lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern
Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishmi
Hills and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe
extending to the Dibong river. The term Abor is an Assamese
word, signifying "barbarous" or "independent," and is applied
in a general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; but
in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above tract.
The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, Daphlas
and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan stock.
They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided in
their political relations. In former times they committed fre-
quent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the object
of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British govern-
ment. In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition.
Some military police sepoys were murdered in British territory,
and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor
country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder
and all other villages that opposed the expedition. A second
expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having
been treacherously murdered; and a force of too British troops
traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes,
while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900.

See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872.

ABORIGINES, a mythical people of central Italy, connected
in legendary history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander. They
were supposed to have descended from their mountain home
near Reate (an ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they
expelled the Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini
under a King Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most gener-
ally accepted etymology of the name (ab origine), according to
which they were the original inhabitants ( = Gk. avroxQoves) of the
country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities
(e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic immigrants,
not as a native Italian people. Other explanations suggested
are arborigines, "tree-born," and aberrigines, "nomads." His-
torical and ethnographical discussions have led to no result;
the most that can be said is that, if not a general term, " abori-
gines " may be the name of an Italian stock, about whom the
ancients knew no more than ourselves.

In modern times the term "Aborigines" has been extended in
signification, and is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a
country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or
new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is
known.

The Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in
England as the result of a royal commission appointed at the
instance of Sir T. Powell Buxton to inquire into the treatment
of the indigenous populations of the various British colonies.
The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice with which
the natives had been often treated. Since its foundation the
society has done much to make English colonization a synonym
for humane and generous treatment of savage races.

ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish),
in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the
contents of the pregnant uterus. It is a common terminology
to call premature labour of an accidental type a "miscarriage,"
in order to distinguish "abortion" as a deliberately induced
act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as
a criminal proceeding (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE) ; otherwise
the term "abortion" would ordinarily be used when occurring
before the eighth month of gestation, and " premature labour "
subsequently. As an accident of pregnancy, it is far from un-
common, although its relative frequency, as compared with
that of completed gestation, has been very differently estimated
by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in the earlier than

68

ABORTION

in the later months of pregnancy, and it would also appear to
occur more readily at the periods corresponding to those of the
menstrual discharge. It may be induced by numerous causes,
both of a local and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis,
accidental injuries and the diseases and displacements to which
the uterus is liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various
morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death
of the foetus, are among the direct local causes. The general
causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to
exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of
utero-gestation. The tendency to recurrence in persons who
have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever be
borne in mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead
to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordinary
labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in the former
hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of the leading
symptoms. The treatment embraces the means to be used by
rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when
it merely threatens; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable,
to accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal of
the entire contents of the uterus.

Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a far
less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a simpler way of
getting rid of inconvenient progeny. But it is common among
the American Indians, as well as in China, Cambodia and India,
although throughout Asia it is generally contrary both to law
and religion. How far it was considered a crime among the
civilized nations of antiquity has long been debated. Those
who maintain the impunity of the practice rely for their authority
upon certain passages in the classical authors, which, while
bitterly lamenting the frequency of this enormity, yet never
allude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. For ex-
ample, in one of Plato's dialogues (Theaet.), Socrates is made to
speak of artificial abortion as a practice, not only common but
allowable; and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic
(lib. v.). Aristotle (Polit. lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion
that no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the
mother being above forty or the father above fifty-five years of
age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by
Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be considered
homicide, because a child in utero was not an animal, and had no
separate existence. Among the Romans, Ovid (Amor. lib. ii.),
Juvenal (Sat. vi. 594) and Seneca (Consol. ad Hel. 16) mention
the frequency of the offence, but maintain silence as to any
laws for punishing it. On the other hand, it is argued that the
authority of Galen and Cicero (pro Cluentio) place it beyond a
doubt that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity,
the offence in question was sometimes punished by death;
that the authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and
that the speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters
of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state
of the laws. Moreover, Stobaeus (Serm. 73) has preserved a
passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly
states that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on
females who caused themselves to abort. After the spread of
Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became
equally criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian
hordes which afterwards overran the empire also treated the
offence as a crime punishable with death. This severe penalty
remained in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle
Ages. With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments
so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion
as to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not
yet born. But the exact period of transition is not dearly
marked.

In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion
only as an ecclesiastical offence. Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676)
tells us that if anything is done to "a woman quick or great
with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within
her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law of
England, because it is not yet in rerum natura." But the
common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a mis-

demeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an
infant, though unsuccessful. Blackstone (1723-1780), to be
sure, a hundred years later, says that, " if a woman is quick
with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her womb,
or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and
she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was,
by the ancient law, homicide or manslaughter." Whatever
may have been the exact view taken by the common law, the
offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making the
attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or not
being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable with
fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any term
not exceeding fourteen years. Should the woman have proved
to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with death.
The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 1828. The
English law on the subject is now governed by the Offences
against the Person Act 1861, which makes the attempting to
cause miscarriage by administering poison or other noxious
thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally a felony,
whether the woman be, or be not, with child. No distinction is
now made as to whether the foetus is or is not alive, legislation
appearing to make the offence statutory with the object of
prohibiting any risk to the life of the mother. If a woman ad-
ministers to herself any poison or other noxious thing, or unlaw-
fully uses any instrument or other means to procure her own
miscarriage, she is guilty of felony. The punishment for the
offence is penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or
imprisonment for not more than two years. If a child is born
alive, but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means
employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the general
law as to accessories applies to the offence.

In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now
punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment.
Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the
abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several codes
(notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize the
life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more severe if
abortion has been caused in the later stages of pregnancy, or if
the woman is married. According to the weight of authority in
the United States abortion was not regarded as a punishable
offence at common law, if the abortion was produced with the
consent of the mother prior to the time when she became quick
with child; but the Supreme Courts of Pennsylvania and North
Carolina held it a crime at common law, which might be com-
mitted as soon as gestation had begun (Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St.
630; State v. Slagle, 83 N.C. 630). The attempt is a punishable
offence in several states, but not in Ohio. Nor was it ever murder
at common law to take the life of the child at any period of
gestation, even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78
Ky. 204). If the death of the woman results it is murder at
common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 263). It is now
a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the woman
must be actually pregnant. In most states not only is the person
who causes the abortion punishable, but also any one who sup-
plies any drug or instrument for the purpose. The woman,
however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in Ohio,
State v. M'Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty of any crime
unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, § 295) and Cali-
fornia (Penal Code, § 275) and Connecticut (Gen. Stats. 1902,
§ 1156). She may be a witness, and her testimony does not
need corroboration. The attempt is also a crime in New York
(1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566).

AUTHORITIES. — Plpucguet, Commentarius Medicus in processus
criminates super homicidio el infanticidio, &c. (1736); Burke Ryan,
Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention and History (1862);
G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws referring to Child-Murder and
Criminal Abortion (1864); Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion,
its Nature, Evidence and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne,
Infanticide, its Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857) ; T. R. Beck,
Medical Jurisprudence (1842); A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice
of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell, Crimes and
Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's Pleading and Evidence
in Criminal Cases (1900) ; Roscoe's Evidence in Criminal Casts (1898);

ABOUKIR— ABRAHAM

69

Treub, van Oppenraag and Vlaming, The Right to Life of the Unborn
Child (New York, 1903) ; L. Hochheimer, Crimes and Criminal
Procedure (New York, 1897); A. A. Tardieu, &ude medico-legal sur
I'avortement (Paris, 1904) ; F. Berolzheimer, System der Rechls- und
Wisscnschaftsphilosophie (Munich, 1904).

ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt,
145 m. N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used as
a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village are many
remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and Roman.
About 2 m. S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to mark the
site of Canopus. A little farther east the Canopic branch of
the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean.

Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the Nile
is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the ist of August 1798
Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often referred to as the
battle of Aboukir. The latter title is applied more properly
to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and
the Turks fought on the 2$th of July 1799. Near Aboukir, on
the 8th of March 1801, the British army commanded by Sir R.
Abercromby landed from its transports in the face of a strenuous
opposition from a French force entrenched on the beach. (See
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.)

ABOUT, EDMOND FRANQOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885),
French novelist, publicist and journalist, was born on the I4th
of February 1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine. The boy's school
career was brilliant. In 1848 he entered the Ecole Normale,
taking the second place in the annual competition for admis-
sion, Taine being first. Among his college contemporaries were
Taine, Francisque, Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred
Prevost-Paradol. Of them all About was, according to Sarcey,
the most highly vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and " undisci-
plined." At the end of his college career he joined the French
school in Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had
never been his intention to follow the professorial career, for
which the Ecole Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he
returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and
journalism. A book on Greece, La Grece contemporaine (1855),
which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate
success. In Tolla (1855) About was charged with drawing too
freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittoria Savelli (Paris, 1841).
This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he was the
object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready enough to
retaliate. The Lettres d'un ban jeune homme, written to the
Figaro under the signature of Valentin de Quevilly, provoked
more animosities. During the next few years, with indefatigable
energy, and generally with full public recognition, he wrote
novels, stories, a play — which failed, — a book-pamphlet on the
Roman question, many pamphlets on other subjects of the day,
newspaper articles innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders
to the attacks of his enemies, and popular manuals of political
economy, L'A B C du travailleur (1868), Le pr ogres (1864).
About's attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend.
He believed in its improvability, greeted the liberal ministry of
Emile Ollivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and wel-
comed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a
terrible morrow. For his own personal part he lost the loved
home near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858
out of the fruits of his earlier literary successes. With the fall
of the empire he became a republican, and, always an inveterate
anti-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into the battle against
the conservative reaction which made head during the first
years of the republic. From 1872 onwards for some five or six
years his paper, the XIX ' Siecle, of which he was the heart and
soul, became a power in the land. But the republicans never
quite forgave the tardiness of his conversion, and no place
rewarded his later zeal. On the 23rd January 1884 he was
elected a member of the French Academy, but died on the i6th
of January 1885, before taking his seat. His journalism — of
; which specimens in his earlier and later manners will be found
in the two series of Lettres d'un ban jeune homme d, sa cousine
Madeleine (1861 and 1863), and the posthumous collection, Le
dix-neuvieme sitcle (1892) — was of its nature ephemeral. So
. were the pamphlets, great and small. His political economy

was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch-
making. His dramas are negligible. His more serious novels,
Madelon (1863), L'infdme (1867), the three that form the
trilogy of the Vieille Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un brave
homme (1880) — a kind of counterblast to the view of the French
workman presented in Zola's Assommoir — contain striking and
amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are often suggestive
of the stage, while description, dissertation, explanation too
frequently take the place of life. His best work after all is to
be found in the books that are almost wholly farcical, Le nez
d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des montagnes (1856); L'homme d
I'oreille cassee (1862); Trente el quarante (1858); Le cas de
M. Guerin (1862). Here his most genuine wit, his spright-
liness, his vivacity, the fancy that was in him, have free play.
" You will never be more than a little Voltaire," said one
of his masters when he was a lad at school. It was a true
prophecy. (F. T. M.)

ABRABANEL, ISAAC, called also ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL
(1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and
commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which
claimed descent from the royal house of David. Like many of
the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political ability.
He held a high place in the favour of King Alphonso V., who
entrusted him with the management of important state affairs.
On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors and favourites
were harshly treated by his successor John, and Abrabanel was
compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years (1484-
1492) the post of a minister of state under Ferdinand and
Isabella. When the 'Jews were banished from Spain in 1492,
no exception was made in Abrabanel's favour. He afterwards
resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, and in 1 503 removed to
Venice, where he held office as a minister of state till his death
in 1508. His repute as a commentator on the Scriptures is still
high; in the I7th and i8th centuries he was much read by
Christians such as Buxtorf. Abrabanel often quotes Christian
authorities, though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic
passages. He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis
it was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden
times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of state-
craft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings.

ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas (<?.».), used
as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides
in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and
misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones which were worn as
amulets. Subsequently its use spread beyond the Gnostics,
and in modern times it is applied contemptuously (e.g. by the
early opponents of the evolution theory) to a conception or
hypothesis which purports to be a simple solution of apparently
insoluble phenomena. The Gnostic physician Serenus Sam-
monicus gave precise instructions as to its mystical use in avert-
ing or curing agues and fevers generally. The paper on which
the word was written had to be folded in the form of a cross,
suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as to rest on the
pit of the stomach, worn in this way for nine days, and then,
before sunrise, cast behind the wearer into a stream running to
the east. The letters were usually arranged as a triangle in one
of the following ways: —

ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA
ABRACADABR BRACADABR

ABRACADAB RACADAB

ABRACADA ACADA

ABRACAD CAD

ABRACA A

ABRAC
ABRA
ABR
AB
A

ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high "), the
ancestor of the Israelites, the first of the great Biblical patri-
archs. His life as narrated in the book of Genesis reflects the
traditions of different ages. It is the latest writer (P) who men-

7o

ABRAHAM

tions Abram (the original form of the name), Nahor and Haran,
sons of Terah, at the close of a genealogy of the sons of Shem,
which includes among its members Eber the eponym of the
Hebrews. Terah is said to have come from Ur of the Chaldees,
usually identified with Mukayyar in south Babylonia. He
migrated to Haran1 in Mesopotamia, apparently the classical
Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor. Thence, after a short stay,
Abram with his wife Sarai, and Lot the son of IJaran, and all
their followers, departed for Canaan. The oldest tradition does
not know of this twofold move, and seems to locate Abram's
birthplace and the homes of his kindred at Haran (Gen. xxiv.
4, 7, xxvii. 43). At the divine command, and encouraged by the
promise that Yahweh would make of him, although hitherto
childless, a great nation, he journeyed down to Shechem, and at
the sacred tree (cf. xxxv. 4, Josh. xxiv. 26, Judg. ix. 6) received
a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed.
Having built an altar to commemorate the theophany, he
removed to a spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another
altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen.
xii. 1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between
his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to
Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the
first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the
Jordan, whilst Abram, after receiving another promise from
Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron and built
an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction
of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abram appears prominently in a fine
passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom,
and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein
the city shall be preserved (xviii. 16-33).

A peculiar passage, more valuable for the light it throws
upon primitive ideas than for its contribution to the history
of Abram, narrates the patriarch's visit to Egypt. Driven by
a famine to take refuge in Egypt (cf. xxvi. i, xli. 57, xlii. i),
he feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs
of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged
that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the Pharaoh,
who took her into the royal harem and enriched Abram with
herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and
his house with great plagues" suspicion was aroused, and the
Pharaoh rebuked the patriarch for his deceit and sent him away
under an escort (xii. lo-xiii. i). This story of Abram and his
increased wealth (xiii. 2) receives no comment at the hands of
the narrator, and in its present position would make Sarai over
sixty years of age (xii. 4, xvii. i, 17). A similar experience is
said to have happened to Abraham and Sarah at Gerar with the
Philistine king Abimelech (xx. E), but the tone of the narrative
is noticeably more advanced, and the presents which the patri-
arch receives are compensation for the king's offence. Here,
however, Sarah has reached her ninetieth year (xvii. 17). (The
dates are due to the post-exilic framework in which the stories
are inserted.) Still another episode of the same nature is re-
corded of Isaac and Rebekah at Gerar, also with Abimelech.
Ethically it is the loftiest, and Isaac obtains his wealth simply
through his successful farming. Arising out of the incident is
an account of a covenant between Abimelech and Isaac (xxvi.
16-33, J)> a duplicate of which is placed in the time of Abraham
(xxi. 22-34, J and E). Beersheba, which figures in both, is cele-
brated by the planting of a sacred tree and (like Bethel) by the
invocation of the name of Yahweh. This district is the scene
of the birth of Ishmael and Isaac. As Sarai was barren (cf.
xi. 3o)2 the promise that his seed should possess the land seemed
incapable of fulfilment. According to one rather obscure narra-
tive, Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his
household, apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus3 (xv. 2,

1 The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son
of Terah.

2 Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories of Rebekah,
Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah (Gen. xxv. 21, xxix. 31 ;
Judg. xiii. 2; i Sam. i. 5).

* Abram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the
traditions of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq.
i. 7. 2).

the text is corrupt). He is now promised as heir one of his own
flesh, and a remarkable and solemn passage records how the
promise was ratified by a covenant. The description is particu-
larly noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey,
which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial cove-
nant. The interpretation of the evil omen is explained by an
allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt and their
return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast v. 13, after four
hundred years; the chapter is extremely intricate and 'has the
appearance of being of secondary origin). The main narrative
now relates how Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to
Abram her Egyptian handmaid Hagar, who, when she found she
was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that
Sara;, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story
of Hannah, i Sam. i. 6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to
flee (xvi. 1-14, J; on the details see ISHMAEL). Another tradi-
tion places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac. It
was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according to the
latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with a renewed
promise that his posterity should inhabit the land. To mark the
solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's name was changed to
Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah.4 A covenant was
concluded with him for all time, and as a sign thereof the rite of
circumcision was instituted (xvii. P). The promise of a son to
Sarah made Abraham "laugh", a punning allusion to the name
Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other forms. Thus, it is
Sarah herself who "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears
to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, J), or who^ when the child is
born cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth
will laugh at me" (xxi. 6, E). Finally, there is yet another
story which attributes the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's
jealousy at the sight of Ishmael's "mocking" (rather dancing
or playing, the intensive form of the verb "to laugh") on the
feast day when Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.). But this last
story is clearly out of place, since a child who was then fourteen
years old (cf . xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak
babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries).

Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in
the land of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by
an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram
which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he
received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant
prosperity (xxii. E). Thence he returned to Beersheba. The
story is one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that
human sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic.
vi. 7 seq.). The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac
alone. To his "only son" (cp. xxii. 2, 12) Abraham gave all
he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands
outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less intimately
related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 6). The measures
taken by the patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circum-
stantially described. His head-servant was sent to his master's i
country and kindred to find a suitable bride, and the necessary
preparation for the story is contained in the description of ,
Nahor's family (xxii. 20-24). The picturesque account of the
meeting with Rebekah throws interesting light on oriental
custom. Marriage with one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxvii. 46, J
xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), and especially with a cousin, is recom-
mended now even as in the past. For its charm the story is '
comparable with the account of Jacob's experiences in the same
land (xxix.). For the completion of the history of Abraham
the compiler of Genesis has used P's narrative. Sarah is said
to have died at a good old age, and was buried in the cave of
Machpelah near Hebron, which the patriarch had purchased,
with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.) ; and here
he himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place
of pilgrimage and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque.1

4 Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning
"(my) father is exalted"; the meaning of Abraham is obscure
and the explanation Gen. xvii. 5 is mere word-play. It is possible
that raham was originally only a dialectical form of ram.

6 See Sir Charles Warren's description, Hasting's Diet. Bible,
vol. iii. pp. 200 seq. The so-called Babylonian colouring of Gen.

ABRAHAM

71

The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of Old
Testament theology than for the history of Israel. He became
to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and stood at
their head as the founder of the nation, the one to whom Yahweh
had manifested his love by frequent promises and covenants.
From the time when he was bidden to leave his country to enter
the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to encourage him
to trust in the future when his posterity should possess the land,
and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could turn for consolation
to the promises of the past which enshrined in Abraham its
hopes for the future. Not only is Abraham the founder of
religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, stands out most
prominently as the recipient of the promises (xii. 2 seq. 7, xiii.
14-17, xv., xvii., xviii. 17-19, xxii. 17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these
the apostle Paul associates with the coming of Christ, and,
adopting a characteristic and artificial style of interpretation
prevalent in his time, endeavours to force a Messianic interpre-
tation out of them.1

For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the
same value as other stories of traditional ancestors. The narra-
tives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an idealized
sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., see below),
about whose person a number of stories have gathered. As the
father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately the common an-
cestor of the Israelites and their nomadic fierce neighbours, men
roving unrestrainedly like the wild ass, troubled by and troubling
every one (xvi. 12). As the father of Midian, Sheba and other
Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), it is evident that some degree of
kinship was felt by the Hebrews with the dwellers of the more
distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the
mothers (Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending
scale as regards purity of blood. This great ancestral figure
came, it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence
to Canaan. Late tradition supposed that the migration was
to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.; cf.
Josh. xxiv. 2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from
death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in Is.
xxix. 22). The route along the banks of the Euphrates from
south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that
the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, but the prominence
given in the older narratives to the view that Haran was the
home gives this the preference. It was thence that Jacob, the
father of the tribes of Israel, came and the route to Shechem
and Bethel is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration
is doubtful, and, from what is known of the situation in Palestine
in the isth century B.C., is extremely improbable. Further,
there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by
Joshua (q.v.) , partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf .
also Josh. viii. 9 with Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3), whence it would appear
that too much importance must not be laid upon any ethnological
interpretation which fails to account for the three versions.
That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not
unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is
difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from
the east of the Jordan; the presence of Aramaean blood among
the Israelites (see JACOB) ; the origin of the sanctity of venerable
sites, — these and other consideratons may readily be found to
account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the
lives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctu-
ating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abra-
ham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common
stock of popular lore.2 More original is the parting of Lot and
Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests
between Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.),
and if this explains part of the story, the physical configura-
tion of the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the
xxiii. has been much exaggerated ; see S. R. Driver, Genesis, ad loc. ;
S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses, p. 208.

1 See H. St. J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to Contemporary
Jewish Thought, p. 69 seq. (1900).

sOn the other hand, the coincidences in xx. xxi. are due to E,
who is also the author of xxii. Apart from these the narratives of
Abraham are from J and P.

destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities (see SODOM AND
GOMORRAH).

Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently.
He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (q.v.), as the
head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since
Ur and IJaran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identi-
fied with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evi-
dence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham
was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram-
Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been
combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not
explain the change from Sarai to Sarah.3 But it is important
to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and
that the interesting discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on
Babylonian contracts of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the
Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as
the fact that there were " Amorites " in Babylonia at the same
period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of
their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham
with kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.). No longer a
peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers,4
he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have
ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been
strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.

"It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite an
isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the only passage
which presents Abraham in the character of a warrior, and connects
him with historical names and political movements, and there are
no clear marks by which it can be assigned to any one of the docu-
ments of which Genesis is made up. Thus, while one school of
interpreters finds in the chapter the earliest fragment of the political
history of western Asia, some even holding with Ewald that the
narrative is probably based on old Canaanite records, other critics,
as Noldeke, regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively
late in origin. On the latter view, which finds its main support
in the intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible
to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest additions
to the Pentateuch (Wellhausen and many others)." 6

On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in
remote days may have been current, considerable interest is
attached to the names. Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar
(i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with Kham-
murabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (c. 2000
B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the
Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found considerable favour.
Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the
king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can
only be regarded as possible. Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been
connected with Eriaku of Larsa — the reading has been ques-
tioned— a contemporary with Khammurabi. Chedorlaomer,
king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine Elamite name.
Finally, the name of Tid'al, king of Goiim, may be identical
with a certain Tudhulu the son of Gazza, a warrior, but appar-
ently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription,
and Goiim may stand for Gutim, the Guti being a people who
lived to the east of Kurdistan. Nevertheless, there is as yet no
monumental evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story,
and at the most it can only be said that the author (of what-
ever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy, source,
and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian
overlords has given expression to a possible situation.6 The
improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative remain

'According to Breasted (Amer. Journ. of Sent. Lit., 1904, p. 36),
the "field of Abram " occurs among the places mentioned in the
list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) in the loth century.
See also his History of Egypt, p. 530.

4 The number is precisely that of the total numerical value of the
consonants of the name "Eliezer " (Gen. xv. 2); an astral signi-
fication has also been found.

6 W. R. Smith, Ency. Brit, (gth ed., 1883), art. " Melchizedek."

" That the names may be those of historical personages is no proof
of historical accuracy: "We cannot therefore conclude that the
whole account is accurate history, any more than we can argue
that Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geier stein is throughout a correct
account of actual events because we know that Charles the Bold and
Margaret of Anjou were real people " (W. H. Bennett, Century
Bible: Genesis, p. 186).

ABRAHAM— ABRUZZI

untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be historical.
If, as most critics agree, it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the
book of Judith), it is possible that a writer, preferably one who
lived in the post-exilic age and was acquainted with Babylonian
history, desired to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibit-
ing his military success against the monarchs of the Tigris and
Euphrates, the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his
lofty character as displayed in his interview with Melchizedek.

See further, Pinches, Old Test, in Light of Hist. Records, pp. 208-
236; Driver, Genesis, p. xlix., and notes on ch. xiv. ; Addis, Docu-
ments of the Hexateuch, ii. pp. 208-213; Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, i. pp. 157-159, 168; Bezold, Bab.-Assyr.
Keilinschriften, pp. 24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A. Jeremias, Altes Test, im
Lichte d. Allen Orients**', pp. 343 seq.; also the literature to the
art. GENESIS. Many fanciful legends about Abraham founded on
Biblical accounts prspun out of the fancy are to be found in Joseph us,
and in post-Biblical and Mahommedan literature; for these, re-
ference may be made to Beer, .Leben Abrahams (1859); Griin-
baum, Neue Beitrage z. semit. Sagenkunde, pp. 89 seq. (1893) ; the
apocryphal "Testament of Abraham " (M. R. James in Texts
and Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran,
passim (1905). (S. A. C.)

ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1709), Austrian divine,
was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 1644.
His real name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 he joined the order
of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name by which he
is known. In this order he rose step by step until he became
prior provincialis and definitor of his province. Having early
gained a great reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed
court preacher at Vienna in 1669. The people flocked to hear
him, attracted by the force and homeliness of his language,
the grotesqueness of his humour, and the impartial severity
with which he lashed the follies of all classes of society and of
the court in particular. In general he spoke as a man of the
people, the predominating quality of his style being an over-
flowing and often coarse wit. There are, however, many pass-
ages in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and
uses more dignified language. He died at Vienna on the ist of
December 1709. In his published writings he displayed much
the same qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable
specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled Judas der
Erzschelm (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695).

His works have been several times reproduced in whole or in part,
though with many spurious interpolations. The best edition is
that published in 21 vols. at Passau and Lindau (1835-1854). See
Th. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta 'Clara (Vienna, 1867);
Blanckenburg, Studien iiber die Sprache Abrahams a S. C. (Halle,
1897); Sexto, Abraham a S. C. (Sigmaringen, 1896); Schnell,
Pater A. a S. C. (Munich, 1895) ; H. Mareta, Ober Judas d. Erzschelm
(Vienna, 1875).

ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer
and philosopher of Toledo. His historical work was the Book of
Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down to the year 1161.
This was a defence of the traditional record, and also contains
valuable information for the medieval period. It was translated
into Latin by Genebrad (1519). His philosophy was expounded
in an Arabic work better known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah
Ramah (Sublime Faith). This was translated into German by
Weil (1882) . Ibn Baud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to
adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly
neo-Platonists. Maimonides owed a good deal to him.

ABRAHAMITES, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the i8th
century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised
Abraham. Believing in one God, they contented themselves
with the Decalogue and the Paternoster. Declining to be classed
either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict
of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph II. in 1781,
and deported to various parts of the country, the men being
drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics,
and those who retained their " Abrahamite " views were not
able to hand them on to the next generation.

ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested
England in Tudor times. The phrase is certainly as old as 1 561,
and was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients
discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. The genuine
Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge,

soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane privi-
lege was grossly abused, and thus gave rise to the slang phrase
" to sham Abraham."

ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of
Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura;
on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the
Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantes
line. Pop. (1900) 7255. Abrantes, which occupies the crest of
a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a fortified
town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and grain. As it
commands the highway down the Tagus valley to Lisbon, it
has usually been regarded as an important military position.
Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 300 B.C., it
received the name Aurantes from the Romans; perhaps owing
to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the Tagus. Roman
mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and other antiquities
have been discovered in the neighbourhood. Abrantes was cap-
tured on the 24th of November 1807 by the French under
General Junot, who for this achievement was created duke of
Abrantes. By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 1808)
the town was restored to the British and Portuguese.

ABRASION (from Lat. ah, off, and radere, to scrape), the
process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving
ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of
such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin. In
machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented
as much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting
and lubrication. Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive
use of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery
and carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their
work.

ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-salze, salts to be
removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of salts, including
halite, carnallite, kieserite, &c., found in association with rock-
salt at Stassfurt in Prussia.

ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX, a word engraved on certain antique
stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used
as amulets or charms. The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached
importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into use.
The letters of <i/3pa£as,in the Greek notation,make up the number
365, and the Basilidians gave the name to the 365 orders of
spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from
the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy
365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it;
and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of
the spirits who formed the earth and its inhabitants, and to
whom was committed the administration of its affairs. Abraxas
stones are of very little value. In addition to the word Abraxas
and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures
engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a
fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the
body and tail of a serpent.

ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law;
rogare, literally " to ask," to propose a law), the annulling
or repealing of a law by legislative action. Abrogation,
which is the total annulling of a law, is to be distinguished
from the term derogation, which is used where a law is only
partially abrogated. Abrogation may be either express or
implied. It is express either when the new law pronounces the
annulment in general terms, as when in a concluding section it
announces that all laws contrary to the provisions of the new
one are repealed, or when in particular terms it announces
specifically the preceding laws which it repeals. It is implied
when the new law contains provisions which are positively
contrary to the former laws without expressly abrogating
those laws, or when the condition of things for which the law
had provided has changed and consequently the need for the
law no longer exists. The abrogation of any statute revives
the provisions of the common law which had been abrogated
by .that statute. See STATUTE; REPEAL.

ABRUZZI E MOLISE, a group of provinces (compartimento) of
Southern Italy, bounded N. by the province of Ascoli, N.W. an<

"

ABSALOM— ABSALON

73

W. by Perugia, S.W. by Rome and Caserta, S. by Benevento,
E. by Foggia and N.E. by the Adriatic Sea. It comprises the
provinces of Teramo (population in 1901, 307,444), Aquila
(396,629), Chieti (370,907) and Campobasso (366,571), which,
under the kingdom of Naples, respectively bore the names
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulteriore II., Abruzzo Citeriore
(the reference being to their distance from the capital) and
Molise. The total area is 6567 sq. m. and the population (1901)
1,441,551. The district is mainly mountainous in the interior,
including as it does the central portion of the whole system of
the Apennines and their culminating point, the Gran Sasso
d'ltalia. Towards the sea the elevation is less considerable,
the hills consisting mainly of somewhat unstable clay and sand,
but the zone of level ground along the coast is quite inconsider-
able. The coast line itself, though over 100 miles in length,
has not a single harbour of importance. The climate varies
considerably with the altitude, the highest peaks being covered
with snow for the greater part of the year, while the valleys
running N.E. towards the sea are fertile and well watered by
several small rivers, the chief of which are the Tronto, Vomano,
Pescara, Sangro, Trigno and Biferno. These are fed by less
important streams, such as the Aterno and Gizio, which water
the valleys between the main chains of the Apennines. They
are liable to be suddenly swollen by rains, and floods and land-
slips often cause considerable damage. This danger has been
increased, as elsewhere in Italy, by indiscriminate timber-felling
on the higher mountains without provision for re-afforestation,
though considerable oak, beech, elm and pine forests still exist
and are the home of wolves, wild boars and even bears. They
also afford feeding-ground for large herds of swine, and the hams
and sausages of the Abruzzi enjoy a high reputation. The
rearing of cattle and sheep was at one time the chief occupation
of the inhabitants, and many of them still drive their flocks
down to the Campagna di Roma for the winter months and
back again in the summer, but more attention is now devoted
to cultivation. This flourishes especially in the valleys and in
the now drained bed of the Lago Fucino. The industries are
various, but none of them is of great importance. Arms and
cutlery are produced at Campobasso and Agnone. At the
exhibition of Abruzzese art, held at Chieti in 1905, fine specimens
of goldsmiths' work of the i5th and i6th centuries, of majolica
of the 1 7th and i8th centuries, and of tapestries and laces
were brought together; and the reproduction of some of these
is still carried on, the small town of Castelli being the centre of
the manufacture. The river Pescara and its tributary the
Tirino form an important source of power for generating elec-
tricity. The chief towns are (i) Teramo, Atri, Campli, Penne,
Castellammare Adriatico; (2) Aquila, Avezzano, Celano, Taglia-
cozzo, Sulmona; (3) Chieti, Lanciano, Ortona, Vasto; (4)
Campobasso, Agnone, Isernia. Owing to the nature of the
country, communications are not easy. Railways are (i) the
coast railway (a part of the Bologna-Gallipoli line), with branches
from Giulianova to Teramo and from Termoli to Campobasso;
(2) a line diverging S.E. from this at Pescara and running via
Sulmona (whence there are branches via Aquila and Rieti to
Terni, and via Carpinone to (a) Isernia and Caianello, on the line
from Rome to Naples, and (b) Campobasso and Benevento),
and Avezzano (whence there is a branch to Roccasecca) to
Rome.

The name Abruzzi is conjectured to be a medieval corruption
of Praetuttii. The district was, in Lombard times, part of the
duchy of Spoleto, and, under the Normans, a part of that of
Apulia; it was first formed into a single province in 1240 by
Frederick II., who placed the Justiciarius Aprutii at Solmona
and founded the city of Aquila. After the Hohenstauffen lost
their Italian dominions, the Abruzzi became a province of the
Angevin kingdom of Naples, to which it was of great strategic
importance. The division into three parts was not made until
the 1 7th century. The Molise, on the other hand, formed part
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and was placed under the
Justiciarius of Terra di Lavoro by Frederick II.: after various
, changes it became part of the Capitanata, and was only formed

into an independent province in 1811. The people are remark-
ably conservative in beliefs, superstitions and traditions.

See V. Bindi, Monumenti storici ed artistici degU Abruzzi (Naples,
1889); A. de Nino, Usi e costumi Abruzzesi (Florence, 1879-1883).

ABSALOM (Hebrew for " father of [or is] peace "), in the
Bible, the third son of David, king of Israel. He was deemed
the handsomest man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having
been violated by David's eldest son Amnon, Absalom, after
waiting two years, caused his servants to murder Amnon at a
feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 Sam- xiii.).
After this deed he fled to Talmai, " king " of Geshur (see Josh,
xii. 5 or xiii. 2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until
five years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour
(see JOAB). Four years after this he raised a revolt at Hebron,
the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son
of David, and the present position of the narratives (xv.-xx.)—
after the birth of Solomon and before the struggle between
Solomon and Adonijah — may represent the view that the
suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne
excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah
flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the Cherethites
and Pelethites and some recent recruits from Gath, found it
expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem,
and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies.
Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned
Ahithophel. The pursuit was continued and David took refuge
beyond the Jordan. A battle was fought in the " wood of
Ephraim " (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan)
and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself was
caught in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly
charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was
informed. What a common soldier refused to do even for a
thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he
struggled in the branches, and as though this were not enough,
his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him. The king's
overwhelming grief is well known. A great heap of stones was
erected where he fell, whilst another monument near Jerusalem
(not the modern " Absalom's Tomb," which is of later origin)
he himself had erected in his lifetime to perpetuate his name
(2 Sam. xviii. 17 seq.). But the latter notice does not seem to
agree with xiv. 27 (cf. i Kings xv. 2). On the narratives in
2 Sam. xiii.-xix., see further DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.

ABSALON (c. 1128-1201), Danish archbishop and statesman,
was born about 1128, the son of Asscr Rig of Fjenneslev, at
whose castle he and his brother Esbjorn were brought up along
with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar I. The
Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They
founded the monastery of Soro as a civilizing centre, and after
giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home,
which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial
exercise, they sent him to the university of Paris. Absalon first
appears in Saxo's Chronicle as a fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the
banquet given, in 1157, by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and
Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped as-
sassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occa-
sion, but at length escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed
them, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Grathe Heath.
The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish
throne saw Absalon elected bishop of Roskilde. Henceforth
Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter
of that imperial policy which, for three' generations, was to give
Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly, it was Absalon's
intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who
inhabited that portion of the Baltic littoral which we now call
Pomerania, and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that
at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark
lay wasted and depopulated. The very existence of Denmark
demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked
pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the
best part of his life. The first expedition against the Wends,
conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160, but it was not

74

ABSCESS— ABSENCE

till 1168 that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in Rtigen,
containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was surrendered,
the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian
religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by
sea to Garz, in south Rtigen, the political capital of the Wends,
and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected
fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered
unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships.
Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve " house-
carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of
Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding
among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding
to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol
to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole popula-
tion of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations
of twelve churches in the isle of Rtigen. The destruction of
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon
considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to
keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed
another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on
the isle of Wollin. Absalon's last military exploit was the
annihilation, off Strela (Stralsund), on Whit-Sunday 1184, of a
Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromir
of Riigen. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life
had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of
fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, after-
wards Valdemar II., and to confine himself to the administration
of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere
Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy
was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary
to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I. rendered fealty to
the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at D61e in 1162; and when,
on the accession of Canute V. in 1182, an imperial ambassador
arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king,
Absalon resolutely withstood him. " Return to the emperor,"
cried he, " and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise
show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of
Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services,
building churches and monasteries, introducing the religious
orders, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote
civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first
Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. In 1178 he became archbishop
of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunica-
tion from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium.
Absalon died on the 2ist of March 1201, at the family monastery
of Sor6, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed.

Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque
figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman,
statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be
no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well
fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the
army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like
the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole
concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the " shedding of
blood " by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon
never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were
of the nature of crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy
notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly
winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single
enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by
him into friends.

See Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books x.-
xvi. ; Steinstrup, Danmark's Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den cddre
Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.)

ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate), in pathology, a
collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result of
bacterial inflammation. Without the presence of septic organ-
isms abscess does not occur. At any rate, every acute abscess
contains septic germs, and these may have reached the inflamed
area by direct infection, or may have been carried thither by
the blood-stream. Previous to the formation of abscess some-
thing has occurred to lower the vitality of the affected tissue —

some gross injury, perchance, or it may be that the power of
resistance against bacillary invasion was lowered by reason of
constitutional weakness. As the result, then, of lowered vitality,
a certain area becomes congested and effusion takes place into
the tissues. This effusion coagulates and a hard, brawny mass
is formed which softens towards the centre. If nothing is done
the softened area increases in size, the skin over it becomes
thinned, loses its vitality (mortifies) and a small " slough " is
formed. When the slough gives way the pus escapes and,
tension being relieved, pain ceases. A local necrosis or death of
tissue takes place at that part of the inflammatory swelling
farthest from the healthy circulation. When the attack of
septic inflammation is very acute, death of the tissue occurs en
masse, as in the core of a boil or carbuncle. Sometimes, however,
no such mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes
when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus. In the
latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular form. After
the escape of the core or slough along with a certain amount of
pus, a space, the abscess-cavity, is left, the walls of which are
lined with new vascular tissue which has itself escaped destruc-
tion. This lowly organized material is called granulation tissue,
and exactly resembles the growth which covers the floor of an
ulcer. These granulations eventually fill the contracting cavity
and obliterate it by forming interstitial scar-tissue. This is
called healing by second intention. Pus may accumulate in a
normal cavity, such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic
or abdominal cavity. In all these situations, if the diagnosis
is clear, the principle of treatment is evacuation and drainage.
When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable to scrape away
the lining of unhealthy granulations and to wash out the cavity
with an antiseptic lotion. If the after-drainage of the cavity is
thorough the formation of pus ceases and the watery discharge
from the abscess wall subsides. As the cavity contracts the
discharge becomes less, until at last the drainage tube can be
removed and the external wound allowed to heal. The large
collections of pus which form in connexion with disease of the
spinal column in the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are
now treated by free evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with
careful antiseptic measures. The opening should be in as de-
pendent a position as possible in order that the drainage may be
thorough. If tension recurs after opening has been made, as
by the blocking of the tube, or by its imperfect position, or by
its being too short, there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus,
and without delay the whole procedure must be gone through
again. (E. O.*)

ABSCISSA (from the Lat. abscissus, cut off), in the Cartesian
system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point from the axis
of y measured parallel to the horizontal axis y

(axis of x). Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa s/--.-,,P

of P. The word appears for the first time in f /

a Latin work written by Stefano degli Angeli / /

(1623-1697), a professor of mathematics in °/ R "
Rome. (See GEOMETRY, § Analytical.) '

ABSCISSION (from Lat. abscindere), a tearing away, or cut-
ting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of
a vowel before another, and in surgery especially for abscission
of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball
situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in
botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion.

ABSCOND (Lat. abscondere, to hide, put away), to depart in
a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the
courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction. A
person may " abscond " either for the purpose of avoiding arrest
for a crime (see ARREST), or for a fraudulent purpose, such as
the defrauding of his creditors (see BANKRUPTCY).

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia), the fact of being "away," either
in body or mind; " absence of mind " being a condition in
which the mind is withdrawn from what is passing. The special
occasion roll-call at Eton College is called " Absence," which the
boys attend in their tall hats. A soldier must get permission or
" leave of absence " before he can be away from his regimen
Seven years' absence with no sign of life either by letter o

t.

ABSENTEEISM— ABSOLUTE

75

message is held presumptive evidence of death in the law
courts.

ABSENTEEISM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors
who absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend
their incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it in-
cludes all those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a
country or locality but derive their income from some source
within it. Absenteeism is a question which has been much de-
bated, and from both the economic and moral point of view
there is little doubt that it has a prejudicial effect. To it has
been attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition
of the rural districts of France before the Revolution, when
it was unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless
compelled to do so by a sentence involving their " exile " from
Paris. It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and many
attempts were made to combat it. As early as 1 7 2 7 a tax of four
shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons holding offices
and employments in Ireland and residing in England. This tax
was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 1769. In 1774
the tax was reduced to two shillings in the pound, but was
dropped after some years. It was revived by the Independent
Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in a sub-
stantial amount to the revenue, yielding in 1790 as much as
£63,089.

AUTHORITIES. — For a discussion of absenteeism from the economic
point of view see N. W. Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, Political
Economy; J. S. Mill, Political Economy; ]. R. McCulloch, Treatises
and Essays on Money, &c., article "Absenteeism "; A. T. Hadley,
Economics; on absenteeism in Ireland see A. Young, Tour in
Ireland (1780); T. Prior, List of Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield,
Account of Ireland (1812); W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the iSth
Century (1892) ; A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and
Financial Relations between England and Ireland (1903); Parlia-
mentary Papers, Ireland, 1830, vii., ditto, 1845, xix.-xxii. ; in France,
A. de Monchretien, Traicte de I'akonomie politique (1615); A. de
Tocqueville, L'Ancien Regime (1857); H. Taine, Les Origines de la
France contemporaine, I'ancien Regime (1876).

ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic
flavouring matter of which is derived from various .species of
wormwood ( A rtemisia absinthium) . Among the other substances
generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, sweet
flag, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and hyssop. A
colourless" alcoholate " (see LIQUEURS) is first prepared, and to
this the well-known green colour of the beverage is imparted by
maceration with green leaves of wormwood, hyssop and mint.
Inferior varieties are made by means of essences, the distillation
process being omitted. There are two varieties of absinthe, the
French and the Swiss, the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic
strength than the former. The best absinthe contains 70 to 80%
of alcohol. It is said to improve very materially by storage.
There is a popular belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently
adulterated with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart
the green colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case.
There is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking
leads to effects which are specifically worse than those assoc-
iated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol.

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free), a term having
the general signification of independent, self-existent, uncondi-
tioned. Thus we speak of " absolute " as opposed to " limited "
• or " constitutional " monarchy, or, in common parlance, of an
" absolute failure," i.e. unrelieved by any satisfactory circum-
stances. In philosophy the word has several technical uses,
(i) In Logic, it has been applied to non-connotative terms which
do not imply attributes (see CONNOTATION), but more commonly,
in opposition to Relative, to terms which do not imply the exist-
ence of some other (correlative) term; e.g. " father " implies
" son," " tutor " " pupil," and therefore each of these terms is
relative. In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, though
convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, cannot be
strictly maintained. The tefm " man," for example, which, as
compared with " father," " son," " tutor," seems to be absolute,
is obviously relative in other connexions; in various contexts
it implies its various possible opposites, e.g. " woman," " boy,"
" master," " brute." In other words, every term which is

susceptible of definition is ipso facto relative, for definition is
precisely the segregation of the thing defined from all other
things which it is not, i.e. implies a relation. Every term which
has a meaning is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory.

(2) The term is used in the phrase " absolute knowledge " to
imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, since
all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known object,
absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see RELATIVITY).
So also Herbert Spencer spoke of "absolute ethics," as opposed
to systems of conduct based on particular local or temporary
laws and conventions (see ETHICS).

(3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase
" the Absolute " (see METAPHYSICS). It is sufficient here to
indicate the problems involved in their most elementary form.
The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect as in that of
natural science is one of generalization, i.e. the co-ordination of
particular facts under general statements, or in other words, the
explanation of one fact by another, and that other by a third,
and so on. In this way the particular facts or existences are
left behind in the search for higher, more inclusive conceptions;
as twigs are traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk,
so, it is held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed
in a unity which is all-inclusive and self-existent, and has no
" beyond." By a metaphor this process has been described as
the &5bs avu (as of tracing a river to its source). Other phrases
from different points of view have been used to describe the
idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion with the
origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all being), Unity,
Truth (i.e. the sum and culmination of all knowledge), Causa
Causans, &c. The idea in different senses appears both in ideal-
istic and realistic systems of thought.

The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly as
follows, (i) The Absolute does not exist, and is not even in any
real sense thinkable. This view is held by the empiricists, who
hold that nothing is knowable save phenomena. The Absolute
could not be conceived, for all knowledge is susceptible of defini-
tion and, therefore, relative. The Absolute includes the idea of
necessity, which the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute
exists for thought only. In this theory the absolute is the un-
known x which the human mind is logically compelled to postu-
late a priori as the only coherent explanation and justification
of its thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable,
because it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as
it were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot go.
Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all demonstra-
tion would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal exercise,
because the existence of separate things implies some one thing
which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute both exists
and is conceivable. It is argued that we do in fact conceive it
in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, Truth. The concep-
tion is so clear that its inexplicability (admitted) is of no account.
Further, since the unity of our thought implies the absolute,
and since the existence of things is known only to thought, it
appears absurd that the absolute itself should be regarded as
non-existent. The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate
basis and matter of existence. All things are merely manifesta-
tions of it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it.
(5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a dif-
ferent way. For them nothing exists save thought; the only
existence that can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, of
the Absolute, is that it is thought. Thought creates God, things,
the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that we can conceive
the Absolute, though our conception is only partial, just as our
conception of all things is limited by the imperfect powers of
human intellect. Thus the Absolute exists for us only in our
thought of it (4 above). But thought itself comes from the
Absolute which, being itself the pure thought of thoughts,
separates from itself individual minds. It is, therefore, perfectly
natural that human thought, being essentially homogeneous
with the Absolute, should be able by the consideration of the
universe to arrive at some imperfect conception of the source
from which all is derived.

ABSOLUTION— ABSORPTION OF LIGHT

The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties
in terminology. The fundamental problem is whether a thing
which is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and
if it is not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or
thought. It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything
which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including
subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the
limits of the knower. Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute.

ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from absolve, loosen, acquit),
a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the act of
setting free or acquitting. In a criminal process it signifies the
acquittal of an accused person on the ground that the evidence
has either disproved or failed to prove the charge brought against
him. In this sense it is now little used, except in Scottish law
in the forms assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the
word is essentially different from the civil. It refers not to an
accusation, but to sin actually committed (after baptism) ; and
it denotes the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin,
or from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from
both. The authority of the church or minister to pronounce
absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt, xviii. 18; James v. 16,
&c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made before
the congregation, the absolution was deferred till the penance
was completed; and there is no record of the use of any special
formula. Men were also encouraged, e.g. by Chrysostom, to
confess their secret sins secretly to God. In course of time
changes grew up. (i) From the 3rd century onwards, secret
(auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was practised.
For various reasons it became more and more common, until
the fourth Lateran council (1215) ordered all Christians of the
Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at least. In
the Greek church also private confession has become obligatory.
(2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled by imposition
of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: gradually
the office was left to be discharged by priests, and the outward
action more and more disused. (3) It became the custom to give
the absolution to penitents immediately after their confession
and before the penance was performed. (4) Until the 'Middle
Ages the form of absolution after private confession was of the
nature of a prayer, such as " May the Lord absolve thee ";
and this is still the practice of the Greek church. But about the
i3th century the Roman formula was altered, and the council
of Trent (1551) declared that the "form" and power of the
sacrament of penance lay in the words Ego le absolve, &c., and
that the accompanying prayers are not essential to it. Of the
three forms of absolution in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in
the Visitation of the Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by
decision of the Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs "I absolve thee,"
tracing the authority so to act through the church up to Christ:
the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that in
Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so general
as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of absolution.
In the Lutheran church also the practice of private confession
survived the Reformation, together with both the exhibitive
(I forgive, &c.) and declaratory (I declare and pronounce) forms
of absolution. In granting absolution, even after general con-
fession, it is in some places still the custom for the minister,
where the numbers permit of it, to lay his hands on the head of
each penitent. (W. O. B.)

ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory that
beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely a subjec-
tive feeling of pleasure in him who perceives. It follows that
there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by which all ob-
jects can be judged. The fact that, in practice, the judgments
even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, and that the
so-called criteria of one place or period are more or less opposed
to those of all others, is explained away by the hypothesis that
individuals are differently gifted in respect of the capacity to
appreciate. (See AESTHETICS.)

In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitu-
tional government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained
by laws and based directly upon force. In the strict sense such

governments are rare, but it is customary to apply the term to a
state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional develop-
ment.

ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term "absorption" (from
Lat. absorbere) means literally " sucking up " or " swallowing,"
and thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figura-
tively ; it is technically used in animal physiology for the
function of certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light
and optics absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms
used in the discussion of the transformation of rays in various
media.

If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light
which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels outwards.
The intensity of the light diminishes merely because the total
energy, though unaltered, is distributed over a wider and wider
surface as the rays diverge from the source. To prove this, it
will be sufficient to mention that an exceedingly small deficiency
in the transparency of the free aether would be sufficient to pre-
vent the light of the fixed stars from reaching the earth, since
their distances are so immense. But when light is transmitted
through a material medium, it always suffers some loss, the
light energy being absorbed by the medium, that is, converted
partially or wholly into other forms of energy such as heat,
a portion of which transformed energy may be re-emitted as
radiant energy of a lower frequency. Even the most transparent
bodies known absorb an appreciable portion of the light trans-
mitted through them. Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of
the sun's rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have
to traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, so
that on this account the sun appears less bright towards sunset.
On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance into all
substances, even the most opaque, the absorption being, however,
extremely rapid in the latter case.

The nature of the surface of a body has considerable influence
on its power of absorbing light. Platinum black, for instance,
in which the metal is in a state of fine division, absorbs nearly
all the light incident on it, while polished platinum reflects the
greater part. In the former case the light penetrating between
the particles is unable to escape by reflexion, and is finally
absorbed.

The question of absorption may be considered from either of
two points of view. We may treat it as a superficial effect,
especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or thick
enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we may investi-
gate how much is reflected at the surface and how much is ab-
sorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our attention
to the light which enters the body and inquire into the relation
between the decay of intensity and the depth of penetration.
We shall take these two cases separately.

Absorptive Power. — When none of the radiations which fall on
a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio of the
amount of radiation of a given wave-length which is absorbed
to the total amount received is called the " absorptive power "
of the body for that wave-length. Thus if the body absorbed
half the incident radiation its absorptive power would be f,
and if it absorbed all the incident radiation its absorptive power
would be i. A body which absorbs all radiations of all wave-
lengths would be called a " perfectly black body." No such
body actually exists, but such substances as lamp-black and
platinum-black approximately fulfil the condition. The frac-
tion of the incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body
gives a measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here
concerned. Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, that
is to say, they readily absorb light of particular wave-lengths,
light of other wave-lengths not being largely absorbed. All
bodies when heated emit the same kind of radiations which they
absorb — an important principle known as the principle of the
equality of radiating and absorbing powers. Thus black sub-
stances such as charcoal are very luminous when heated. A
tile of white porcelain with a black pattern on it will, if heated
red-hot, show the pattern bright on a darker ground. On the
other hand, those substances which either are good reflectors or

ABSTEMII— ABSTRACTION

77

good transmitters, are not so luminous at the same temperature;
for instance, melted silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous
as carbon at the same temperature, and common salt, which is
very transparent for most kinds of radiation, when poured in a
fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost
like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or two.
But all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive properties
when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, for in that
case those radiations which they do not emit are either trans-
mitted through them from the walls of the vessel behind, or else
reflected from their surface. This fact may be expressed by
saying that the radiation within a heated enclosure is the same
as that of a perfectly black body.

Coefficient of Absorption, and Law of Absorption. — The law
which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing
through any medium may be readily obtained. If Io represents
the intensity of the light which enters the surface, Ii the intensity
after passing through i centimetre, I2 the intensity after passing
through 2 centimetres, and so on; then we should expect that
whatever fraction of Io is absorbed in the first centimetre, the
same fraction of Ii will be absorbed in the second. That is, if an
amount yio is absorbed in the first centimetre, jl\ is absorbed in
the second, and so on. We have then

and so on, so that if I is the intensity after passing through a
thickness / in centimetres

I = I0(i-j)< (i).

We might call /, which is the proportion absorbed in one
centimetre, the "coefficient of absorption" of the medium. It
would, however, not then apply to the case of a body for which
the whole light is absorbed in less than one centimetre. It is
better then to define the coefficient of absorption as a quantity
k such that kin of the light is absorbed in i/«th part of a centi-
metre, where n may be taken to be a very large number. The
formula (i) then becomes

I = V-*< '(2)

where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and k is a constant
which is practically the same as; for bodies which do not absorb
very rapidly.

There is another coefficient of absorption (K) which occurs in
Helmholtz's theory of dispersion (see DISPERSION). It is closely
related to the coefficient k which we have just defined, the
equation connecting the two being &=4/7nc/X,A being the wave-
length of the incident light.

The law of absorption expressed by the formula (2) has been
verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and gases.
The method consists in comparing the intensity after trans-
mission through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent
with the intensity of light from the same source which has not
passed through the medium, k being thus obtained for various
thicknesses and found to be constant. In the case of solutions,
if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the effect of in-
creasing the concentration of the absorbing solute is the same
as that of increasing the thickness in the same ratio. In a
similar way the absorption of light in the coloured gas chlorine
is found to be unaltered if the thickness is reduced by compres-
sion, because the density is increased in the same ratio that the
thickness is reduced. This is not strictly the case, however,
for such gases and vapours as exhibit well-defined bands of
absorption in the spectrum, as these bands are altered in char-
acter by compression.

If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured solutions,
lie transmitted light is of one colour when the thickness of the
olution is small, and of quite another colour if the thickness
great. This curious phenomenon is known as dichromatism
(from Si-, two, and \pSifjia, colour). Thus, when a strong light is
newed through a solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a
rilliant green if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red
3r thicker layers. This effect can be explained as follows. The
olution is moderately transparent for a large number of rays

in the neighbourhood of the green part of the spectrum; it is,
on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily
penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region of
the spectrum. The small amount of red transmitted is at first
quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller coefficient
of absorption, it becomes finally predominant. The effect is
complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and many other bodies,
by selective reflexion and fluorescence.

For the molecular theory of absorption, see SPECTROSCOPY.

REFERENCES. — A. Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904); P. K. L.
Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902); F. H. Wullner's
Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv. (1899). (J- R- C.)

ABSTEMII (a Latin word, from abs, away from, temetum, in-
toxicating liquor, from which is derived the English " abste-
mious " or temperate), a name formerly given to such persons
as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist on account of
their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these to com-
municate in the species of bread only, touching the cup with
their lip; a course which was deemed a profanation by the
Lutherans. Among several Protestant sects, both in Great
Britain and America, abstemii on a somewhat different principle
have appeared in modern times. These are total abstainers,
who maintain that the use of stimulants is essentially sinful,
and allege that the wine used by Christ and his disciples at the
supper was unfermented. They accordingly communicate in
the unfermented " juice of the grape."

ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain), the fact or
habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the indul-
gence of the appetite and especially from strong drink. " Total
abstinence " and " total abstainer " are associated with taking
the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see TEMPERANCE).
In the discipline of the Christian Church abstinence is the term
for a less severe form of Fasting (<?.».).

ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere), the process or result of
drawing away; that which is drawn away, separated or derived.
Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium or epitome
of a larger work, the gist of which is given in a concentrated form.
Similarly an absent-minded man is said to be " abstracted,"
as paying no attention to the matter in hand. In philosophy
the word has several closely related technical senses, (i) In
formal logic it is applied to those terms which denote qualities,
attributes, circumstances, as opposed to concrete terms, the
names of things; thus " friend " is concrete, " friendship "
abstract. The term which expresses the connotation of a word
is therefore an abstract term, though it is probably not itself
connotative; adjectives are concrete, not abstract, e.g. " equal "
is concrete, " equality " abstract (cf. Aristotle's aphaeresis and
prosthesis). (2) The process of abstraction takes an important
place both in psychological and metaphysical speculation. The
psychologist finds among the earliest of his problems the question
as to the process from the perception of things seen and heard to
mental conceptions, which are ultimately distinct from immediate
perception (see PSYCHOLOGY). When the mind, beginning with
isolated individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived
resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process by
which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated
on a single inclusive concept (i.e. classification) is one of ab-
straction. All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge
depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion
between particular things and general ideas, rules and principles.
The nature of the resultant concepts belongs to the great contro-
versy between Nominalism, Realism and Conceptualism. Meta-
physics, again, is concerned with the ultimate problems of matter
and spirit; it endeavours to go behind the phenomena of sense
and focus its attention on the fundamental truths which are the
only logical bases of natural science. This, again, is a process of
abstraction, the attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from
the concrete individuals, are conceived as having a substantive
existence. The final step in the process is the conception of the
Absolute (q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense.

Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object is
to select a particular quality for consideration in itself as it is

ABSTRACT OF TITLE— ABU HANIFA

found in all the objects to which it belongs, whereas analysis
considers all the qualities which belong to a single object.

ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the
various instruments and events under and in consequence of
which the vendor of an estate derives his title thereto. Such an
abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage of an estate, prepared
by some competent person for the purchaser or mortgagee, and
verified by his solicitor by a comparison with the original deeds.
(See CONVEYANCING.)

ABT, FRANZ (1810-1885), German composer, was born on
the 22nd of December 1819 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at
Wiesbaden on the 3ist of March 1885. The best of his popular
songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of Ger-
many; his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c., enjoyed an extra-
ordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the igth century,
but in spite of their facile tunefulness have few qualities of last-
ing beauty. Abt was kapellmeister at Bernburg in 1841, at
Zurich in the same year and at Brunswick from 1852 to 1882,
when he retired to Wiesbaden.

ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24° 36' N. lat.
and 72° 43' E. long., within the Rajputana state of Sirohi. It is
an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being completely detached
from that chain by a narrow valley 7 miles across, in which
flows the western Banas. It rises from the surrounding plains
of Marwar like a precipitous granite island, its various peaks
ranging from 4000 to 5653 feet. The elevations and platforms of
the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines,
temples and tombs. ' On the top of the hill is a small round plat-
form containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the
impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu.
This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks and
Banians. The two principal temples are situated at Deulwara,
about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of
Guru Sikra, the highest summit. They are built of white marble,
and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical speci-
mens of Jain architecture in India. The more modern of the
two was built by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years
1197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of
detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and
lavish labour. The other was built by another merchant prince,
Vimala Shah, apparently about A.D. 1032, and, although simpler
and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in
a purely architectural object. It is one of the oldest as well as
one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known.
The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from
the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god
Parswanath. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the
whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard about 140 feet by 90 feet,
surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming
porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides,
exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihdra). In this
temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a
monk, is occupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door,
or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of
the deity. The whole interior is magnificently ornamented.

Abu is now the summer residence of the governor-general's
agent for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the
hot weather. It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the
Rajputana railway. The annual mean temperature is about
70°, rising to 90° in April; but the heat is never oppressive.
The annual rainfall is about 68 inches. The hills are laid out
with driving-roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little
lake. The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a
Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers.

ABU-BEKR (573-634), the name (" Father of the virgin ")
of the first of the Mahommedan caliphs (see CALIPH). He was
originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba (" servant of the temple "),
and received the name by which he is known historically in con-
sequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to
Mahomet. He was born at Mecca in the year A.D. 573, a
Koreishite of the tribe of Beni-Taim. Possessed of immense
wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held

in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams and a
depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession to
Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his conversion he
assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God) . His own belief
in Mahomet and his doctrines was so thorough as to procure
for him the title El Siddik (the faithful), and his success in
gaining converts was correspondingly great. In his personal
relationship to the prophet he showed the deepest veneration
and most unswerving devotion. When Mahomet fled from
Mecca, Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his
hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with him
until the day of his death. During his last illness the prophet
indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor by desiring him to offer up
prayer for the people. The choice was ratified by the chiefs of
the army, and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mahomet's son-
in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity. After
a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his
claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the
followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and
Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position (63 2) ,
under the title Califet-Resul-Allah (successor of the prophet of
God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes
Hejaz and Nejd, of which the former rejected Islamism and
the latter refused to pay tribute. He encountered formidable
opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was
successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor
Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid at the battle of
Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was
as conspicuous as that of its founder had been. When the
internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia completely
subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The
Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single campaign,
and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After
the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the
sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those
who had listened to them had all been removed by death,
induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written
form. The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa,
daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet. It was
held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess
canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of
which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the
authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's record
were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divi-
sions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly
before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another
to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the
manner Mahomet had observed in his own case.

ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the
right bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N. of Khartum. It stands
at the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and from it
the railway to Wadi Haifa strikes straight across the Nubian
desert, a little west of the old caravan route to Korosko. A
branch railway, 138 m. long, from Abu Hamed goes down the
right bank of the Nile to Kareima in the Dongola mudiria. The
town is named after a celebrated sheikh buried here, by
whose tomb travellers crossing the desert used formerly to
deposit all superfluous goods, the sanctity of the saint's tomb
ensuring their safety.

ABU HANlFA AN-NU'MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan
canon lawyer, was born at Kufa in A.H. 80 (A.D. 699) of non-
Arab and probably Persian parentage. Few events of his life
are known to us with any certainty. He was a silk-dealer and
a man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his
time to legal studies. He lectured at Kufa upon canon law
(fiqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused steadily
to take any public post. When al-Mansur, however, was build-
ing Bagdad (145-149) Abu JJanifa was one of the four over-
seers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G. Le Strange,
Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 17). In A.H. 150
(A.D. 767) he died there under circumstances which are very
differently reported. A persistent but apparently later tradition

ABU KLEA— ABUL FAZL

79

asserts that he died in prison after severe beating, because he
refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act as a judge (cadi,
qddi) . This was to avoid a responsibility for which he felt unfit
— a frequent attitude of more pious Moslems. Others say that
al-Mahdi, son of al-Mansur, actually constrained him to be a
judge and that he died a few days after. It seems certain that
he did suffer imprisonment and beating for this reason, at the
hands of an earlier governor of Kufa under the Omayyads (Ibn
Qutaiba, Ma'drif, p. 248). Also that al-Mansur desired to make
him judge, but compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings
(so in Tabarl). A late story is that the judgeship was only
a pretext with al-Mansur, who considered him a partisan of the
'Alids and a helper with his wealth of Ibrahim ibn 'Abd Allah
in his insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Geschichte, ii. 53 ff.).

For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of Ibn
Khallikan iii. 555 ff., iv. 272 ff. -For his place as a speculative
jurist in the history of canon law, see MAHOMMEDAN LAW. He
was buried in eastern Bagdad, where his tomb still exists, one
of the few surviving sites from the time of al-Mansur, the founder.
(Le Strange 191 ff.)

See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 169 ff. ; Nawawi's B-iogr. Diet.
pp. 698-770; Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ. Cairo, A.H.
1304; legal bibliography under MAHOMMEDAN LAW. (D. B. MA.)

ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda
Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It is on the road from Merawi
to Metemma and 20 m. N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned place.
Near this spot, on the i?th of January 1885, a British force
marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum was
attacked by the Mahdists, who were repulsed. On the igth,
when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists re-
newed the attack, again unsuccessfully. Sir Herbert Stewart,
the commander of the British force, was mortally wounded on
the igth, and among the killed on the I7th was Col. F. G.
Burnaby (see EGYPT, Military Operations).

ABU-L-'ALA UL-MA'ARRl [Abu-1-' Ala Ahmad ibn 'Abdallah
ibn Sulaiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter- writer, be-
longed to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh, a part of which had
migrated to Syria before the time of Islam. He was born in
973 at Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, a Syrian town nineteen hours'
journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was subject
at that time. He lost his father while he was still an infant,
and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to smallpox. This,
however, did not prevent him from attending the lectures of
the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and Tripoli. These teachers
were men of the first rank, who had been attracted to the court
of Saif-ud-Daula, and their teaching was well stored in the re-
markable memory of the pupil. At the age of twenty-one
Abu-l-'Ala. returned to Ma'arra, where he received a pension of
thirty dinars yearly. In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was
admitted to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies
and mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he
addressed some of his letters later. In 1009 he returned to
Ma'arra, where he spent the rest ef his life in teaching and
writing. During this period of scholarly quiet he developed
his characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation
of the dead and the desire for extinction after death.

Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and
two of his letters. The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the kind
usual at the time. Under the title of Saqt uz-Zand they have
beenpublishedinBulaq(i869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo (1886).
The poems of the second collection, known as the Luzum ma lam
yalzam, or the Luzumiyydt, are written with the difficult rhyme
in two consonants instead of one, and contain the more original,
mature and somewhat pessimistic thoughts of the author on
mutability, virtue, death, &c. They have been published in
Bombay (1886) and Cairo (1889). The letters on various literary
and social subjects were published with commentary by Shain
Effendi in Beirut (1894), and with English translation, &c., by
Prof. D. S. Margoliouth in Oxford (1898). A second collection
of letters, known as the Risdlat ul-Ghufrdn, was summarized and
partially translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (1900, pp. 637 ff.; 1902, pp. 75 ff., 337 ff., 813 ff.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C. Rieu, De Abu-l-'Alae Poetae Arabici vita et
carminibus (Bonn, 1843) ; A. von Kremer, Vber die philosophischen
Gedichte des Abu-l-'Ala (Vienna, 1888); cf. also the same writer's
articles in the Zeilschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft
(vols. xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.). For his life see the intro-
duction to D. S. Margoliouth's edition of the letters, supplemented
by the same writer's articles "Abu-l-'Ala al-Ma'arri's Correspond-
ence on Vegetarianism " in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
(1902, pp. 289 ff.). (G. W. T.)

ABU-L-'ATAHIYA [Abu Ishaq Isma'il ibn Qasim al-'Anazi]
(748-828), Arabian poet, was born at 'Ain ut-Tamar in the
Hijaz near Medina. His ancestors were of the tribe of 'Anaza.
His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged for some
time in selling pottery. Removing to Bagdad, he continued his
business there, but became famous for his verses, especially for
those addressed to 'Utba, a slave of the caliph al-Mahdi. His
affection was unrequited, although al-Mahdi, and after him
Harun al-Rashld, interceded for him. Having offended the
caliph, he was in prison for a short time. The latter part of his
life was more ascetic. He died in 828 in the reign of al-Ma'mun.
The poetry of Abu-1-' Atahiya is notable for its avoidance of the
artificiality almost universal in his days. The older poetry of
the desert had been constantly imitated up to this time, al-
though it was not natural to town life. Abu-1-' Atahiya was one
of the first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form. He was very
fluent and used many metres. He is also regarded as one of
the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs. Much of his poetry
is concerned with the observation of common life and morality,
and at times is pessimistic. Naturally, under the circumstances,
he was strongly suspected of heresy.

His poems (Diwan) with life from Arabian sources have been
published at the Jesuit Press in Beirut (1887, 2nd ed. 1888). On his
position in Arabic literature see W. Ahlwardt, Diwan des Abu Nowas
(Greifswald, 1861), pp. 21 ff. ; A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des
Orients (Wien, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W. T.)

ABULFARAJ [Abu-1-Faraj 'AH ibn ul-Husain ul-Isbahani]
(897-967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the
Quraish (Koreish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last
of the Omayyad caliphs. He was thus connected with the
Omayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a corre-
spondence with them and to have sent them some of his works.
He was born in Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his
early studies in Bagdad. He became famous for his knowledge
of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various
parts of the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-Daula (to
whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid
vizier Ibn 'Abbad and elsewhere. In his last years he lost his
reason. In religion he was a Shiite. Although he wrote poetry,
also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia
and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his
Book of Songs (Kitdb ul-Aghdni), which gives an account of the
chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the
composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to
the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable
authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Moslem days.
A part of it was published by J. G. L. Kosegarten with Latin
translation (Greifswald, 1840). The text was published in 20
vols. at Bulaq in 1868. Vol. xxi. was edited by R. E. Brunnow
(Leyden, 1888). A volume of elaborate indices was edited by
I. Guidi (Leyden, 1900), and a missing fragment of the text was
published by J. Wellhausen in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgen-
landischen Gesellschaft, vol. 50, pp. 146 ff.

For his life see M'G. de Slane s translation of Ibn Khallikan's
Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W. T.)

ABUL FAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul
emperor, Akbar, was born in the year A.D. 1551. His career
as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would probably
have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself
has left of it in his celebrated history. The Akbar Nameh, or
Book of Akbar, as Abul Fazl's chief literary work, written in
Persian, is called, consists of two parts — the first being a com-
plete history of Akbar's reign and the second, entitled Ain-i-
Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious
and political constitution and administration of the empire.
The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second

8o

ABULFEDA— ABU SIMBEL

part possess a unique and lasting interest. An excellent trans-
lation of the Ain by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta,
1783-1786. It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, and
copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and
correspondingly valuable. It was also translated by Professor
Blockmann in 1848. Abul Fazl died by the hand of an assassin,
while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602. The
murderer was instigated by Prince Selim, afterwards Jahangir,
who had become jealous of the minister's influence.

ABULFEDA [Abu-1-Fida' Isma'Il ibn 'All 'Imad-ud-Dnl]
(1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer, was born at
Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the
prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols. He was a de-
scendant of Ayyub, the father of Saladin. In his boyhood he
devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences,
but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in
military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285
he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights of
St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre and
Qal'at ar-Rum. In 1 298 he entered the service of the Mameluke
Sultan Malik al-Nasir and after twelve years was invested by
him with the governorship of Hamah. In 1312 he became
prince with the title Malik us-Salih, and in 1320 received the
hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad.
For more than twenty years altogether he reigned in tran-
quillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern-
ment and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly
indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of
letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in
1331. His chief historical work in An Abridgment of the History
of the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the
creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols.
1869). Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest
being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian
conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo,
in 1610 (preserved in Muratori's Rerum Ilalicarum Scriptores,
vol. i.). The section dealing with the pre-Islamitic period was
edited with Latin translation by H. O. Fleischer under the title
Abulfedae Historia Ante-I slamica (Leipzig, 1831). The part
dealing with the Mahommedan period was edited, also with
Latin translation, by J. J. Reiske as Annales Muslemici (5 vols.,
Copenhagen, 1789-1794). His Geography is, like much of the his-
tory, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately
on the work of Ptolemy. A long introduction on various geo-
graphical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing
in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each
name are given the longitude, latitude, " climate," spelling, and
then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts
of the work were published and translated as early as 1650
(cf. Carl Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen Litleratur,
Berlin, 1902, vol. ii. pp. 44-46). The text of the whole was pub-
lished by M'G. de Slane and M. Reinaud (Paris, 1840), and a
French translation with introduction by M. Reinaud and
Stanislas Guyard (Paris, 1848-1883). (G. W. T.)

ABO-L-QASIM [Khalaf ibn 'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian
physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as ABUL-
CASIS, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as physi-
cian to the caliph 'Abdur-Rahman III. (912-961). No details
of his life are known. A part of his compendium of medicine
was published in Latin in the i6th century as Liber theoricae
nee non praclicae Alsaharavii (Augsburg, 1519). His manual
of surgery was published at Venice in 1497, at Basel in 1541,
and at Oxford Abulcasis de Chirurgia arabice et latine euro,
Johannis Channing (2 vols. 1778).

For his other works see Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabi-
schen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 239-240. (G. W. T.)

ABUNDANTIA ("Abundance"), a Roman goddess, the
personification of prosperity and good fortune. Modelled after
the Greek Demeter, she is practically identical with Copia,
Annona and similar goddesses. On the coins of the later Roman
emperors she is frequently represented holding a cornucopia,
from which she shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in-

dicating the liberality of the emperor or empress. She may be
compared with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde,
Notre Dame d' Abondance) , whose name often occurs in poems
of the Middle Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to
those whom she visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. 1880,
i. 286-287).

ABU NUWiS [Abu 'AH Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-Eakaml] (c.
756-810), known as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al-
Ahwaz, probably about 756. His mother was a Persian, his
father a soldier, a native of Damascus. His studies were made
in Basra under Abu Zaid and Abu 'Ubaida (?.».), and in
Kufa under Khalaf al-Ahmar. He is also said to have spent a
year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language.
Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of Harun al-Rashld
and al-Amln, and died there probably about 810. The greater
part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness and
disregard of religion, but in his later days he became ascetic.
Abu Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his time. His
mastery of language has led to extensive quotation of his verses
by Arabian scholars. Genial, cynical, immoral, he drew on all
the varied life of his time for the material of his poems. In his
wine-songs especially the manners of the upper classes of Bagdad
are revealed. He was one of the first to ridicule the set form of
the qaslda (elegy) as unnatural, and has satirized this form in
several poems. See I. Goldziher, Abhandlungen zur Arabischen
Philologie (Leyden, 1896), i. pp. 145 ff. His poems were collected
by several Arabian editors. One such collection (the MS. of
which is now in Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped
under the ten headings: wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of
youths, love of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation
of the world. His collected poems (Diwan) have been published
in Cairo (1860) and in Beirut (1884). The wine-songs were
edited by W. Ahlwardt under the title Diwan des Abu Nowas.
i. Die Weinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). (G. W. T.)

ABU SIMBEL, or IPSAMBUL, the name of a group of temples of
Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.C.) in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile,
56 m. by river S. of Korosko. They are hewn in the cliffs at the
riverside, at a point where the sandstone hills on the west reach
the Nile and form the southern boundary of a wider portion of
the generally barren valley. The temples are three in number.
The principal temple, probably the greatest and most imposing
of all rock-hewn monuments, was discovered by Burckhardt in
i8i2andopenedbyBelzoniin 1817. (The front has been cleared
several times, most recently in 1892, but the sand is always
pressing forward from the north end.) The hillside was recessed
to form the facade, backed against which four immense seated
colossi of the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance, rise
from a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight
of steps. The colossi are no less than 65 ft. in height, of nobly
placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures of Rameses'
queen and their sons and daughters; behind and over them is
the cornice, with the dedication below in a line of huge hiero-
glyphs, and a long row of apes, standing in adoration of the
rising sun above. The temple is dedicated primarily to the solar
gods Amenre of Thebes and Raharakht of Heliopolis, the true
sun god; it is oriented to the east so that the rays of the sun in
the early morning penetrate the whole length of two great halls
to the innermost sanctuary and fall upon the central figures of
Amenre and Rameses, which are there enthroned with Ptah of
Memphis and Raharakht on either side. The interior of the
temple is decorated with coloured sculpture of fine workmanship
and in good preservation; the scenes are more than usually
interesting; some are of religious import (amongst them Ra-
meses as king making offerings to himself as god), others illus-
trate war in Syria, Libya and Ethiopia: another series depicts
the events of the famous battle with the Hittites and their allies
at Kadesh, in which Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and
army by his personal valour. Historical stelae of the same reign
are engraved inside and outside the temple; the most interest-
ing is that recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the
34th year. Not the least important feature of the temple be-
longs to a later age, when some Greek, Carian and Phoenician

ABU TAMMAM— ABYDOS

81

soldiers of one of the kings named Psammetichus (apparently
Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.) inscribed their names upon the
two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then clear of sand.
These graffiti are of the highest value for the early history of
the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek mercenaries
in the Egyptian armies of the period. The upper part of the
second colossus (from the south) has fallen; the third was re-
paired by Sethos II. not many years after the completion of the
temple. This great temple was wholly rock-cut, and is now
threatened by gradual ruin by sliding on the planes of stratifica-
tion. A small temple, immediately to the south of the first,
is believed to have had a built antechamber: it is the earliest
known example of a " birth chapel," such as was usually attached
to Ptolemaic temples for the accommodation of the divine
mother-consort and her son. The third and northernmost temple,
separated from the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the
colossi of the facade are six in number and 33 ft. high, repre-
senting Rameses and his queen Nefrere, who dedicated the temple
to the goddess Hathor. The whole group forms a singular monu-
ment of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification.

See EGYPT; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, vol. iii.
pp. 124 et seq., esp. 212; "The Temples of Lower Nubia," in the
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, October
1906. (F. LL. G.)

ABtJ TAMMAM [Hablb ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, was,
like Buhturl, of the tribe of Tai (though some say he was the son
of a Christian apothecary named Thaddeus, and that his genea-
logy was forged). He was born in Jasim (Josem), a place to the
north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Manbij (Hierapolis).
He seems to have spent his youth in Horns, though, according
to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling
water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet
was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went to
Damascus and thence to Mosul. From this place he made a visit
to the governor of Armenia, who awarded him richly. After
833 he lived mostly in Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim.
From Bagdad he visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour
of 'Abdallah ibn Tahir. About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un-
Nu'man, where he met Buhturl. He died in Mosul. Abu
Tammam is best known in literature as the compiler of the collec-
tion of early poems known as the Hamdsa (q.v.). Two other
collections of a similar nature are ascribed to him. His own poems
have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his com-
pilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, and were
distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse
and the excellent manner of treating subjects. His poems
(Diwdn) were published in Cairo (A.D. 1875).

See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. i. pp. 348 ff. ; and in
the Kit&b ul-Aghdni (Book of Songs) of Abulfaraj (Bulaq, 1869),
vol. xv. pp. 100-108. (G. W. T.)

ABUTILON (from the Arabic aubutilun, a name given by
Avicenna to this or an allied genus), in botany, a genus of plants,
natural order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about eighty
species, and widely distributed in the tropics. They are free-
growing shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and are favourite
greenhouse plants. They may be grown outside in England
during the summer months, but a few degrees of frost is fatal to
them. They are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the
spring or at the end of the summer. A large number of horti-
cultural varieties have been developed by hybridization, some
of which have a variegated foliage.

ABUTMENT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed
to receive and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or strut.
When built outside a wall it is termed a buttress.

ABU UBAIDA [Ma'mar ibn ul-Muthanna] (728-825), Arabian
scholar, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Ba§ra,
and in his youth was a pupil of Abu'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. In 803
he was called to Bagdad by Harun al-Rashld. He died in Basra.
He was one of the most learned and authoritative scholars of
his time in all matters pertaining to the Arabic language, anti-
quities and stories, and is constantly cited by later authors and
compilers. Jahiz held him to be the most learned scholar in all

branches of human knowledge, and Ibn Hisham accepted his
interpretation even of passages in the Koran. The titles of 105
of his works are mentioned in the Fihrist, and his Book of Days is
the basis of parts of the history of Ibn al-Athir and of the Book
of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), but nothing of his (except a song) seems
to exist now in an independent form. He is often described as
a Kharijite. This, however, is true only in so far as he denied
the privileged position of the Arab people before God. He was,
however, a strong supporter of the Shu'ubite movement, i.e.
the movement which protested against the idea of the superi-
ority of the Arab race over all others. This is especially seen in
his satires on Arabs (which made him so hated that no man
followed his bier when he died). He delighted in showing that
words, fables, customs, &c., which the Arabs believed to be
peculiarly their own, were derived from the Persians. In these
matters he was the great rival of Asma'I (q.v.).

See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also
I. Goldziher's Muhammedanische Sludien (Halle, 1888), vol. i. pp.
194-206. (G. W. T.)

ABYDOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated
at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile
broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was
afterwards colonized by Milesians. Here Xerxes crossed the
strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos
is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V.
of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves of Hero
and Leander. The town remained till late Byzantine times the
toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred
to the Dardanelles (q.v.), after the building of the " Old Castles "
by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456).

See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage dans I 'empire ottoman (Paris, 1842).

ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, about
7 m. W. of the Nile in lat. 26° 10' N. The Egyptian name was
Abdu, " the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred
head of Osiris was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos,
like the city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is
Arabet el Madfuneh. The history of the city begins in the late
prehistoric age, it having been founded by the pre-Menite kings
(Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been
found there. The kings of the 1st dynasty, and some of the Hnd
dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and
enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind
the town by three kings of the Hnd dynasty. The temple and
town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of
the XXXth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously.
In the XHth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by
Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in the XlXth dynasty founded
a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the
ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by
Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who also built a lesser temple of his
own. Mineptah (Merenptah) added a great Hypogeum of Osiris
to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of
Nekhtnebf in the XXXth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times
the place continued to decay and no later works are known
(Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.).

The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophois,
Wepwoi), who " opened the way " to the realm of the dead, in-
creasing from the 1st dynasty to the time of the XHth dynasty
and then disappearing after the XVIIIth. Anher appears in the
Xlth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the western Hades,
rises to importance in the middle kingdom and then vanishes
in the XVIIIth. The worship here of Osiris in his various forms
begins in the XHth dynasty and becomes more important in
later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as
sacred to him (Abydos, ii. 47).

The temples successively built here on one site were nine or
ten in number, from the 1st dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the XXVIth
dynasty, 500 B.C. The first was an enclosure, about 30 X 50 ft.,
surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall
of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall
about 10 ft. thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded
the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the Hnd or

ABYSS— ABYSSINIA

Illrd dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the IVth
dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing
a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are
found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for
sacrifices decreed by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms. A
great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier,
and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings
and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work
of the 1st dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hiero-
glyphs in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most
important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found
in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of
this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger
scale by Pepi I. in the Vlth dynasty. He placed a great stone
gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway,
with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about
40X50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing
that it was of the processional type. In the Xlth dynasty
Menthotp (Mentuhotep) III. added a colonnade and altars.
Soon after, Sankhkere entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone
pavement over the area, about 45 ft. square, besides subsidiary
chambers. Soon after Senwosri (Senusert) I. in the Xllth
dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement
of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing
a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times
the earlier size.

The XVIIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis
(Ahmosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes)
III. built a far larger temple, about 130X20x5 ft. He made also
a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery
beyond, with a great gateway of granite. Rameses III. added
a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty rebuilt
the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red
granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive
temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins;
these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various
buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and
looo levellings (Petrie, Abydos, ii.).

The temple of Seti I. was built on entirely new ground half
a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described.
This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos,
being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal
object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery,
to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The
long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall
is known as the " Table of Abydos." There were also seven
chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the
back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship
(Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from these led
out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mys-
teries, built by Mineptah (Murray, Osireion). The temple was
originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable,
and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide,
including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and
a panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but
mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and re-
finement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages.
The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not
facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i. The adjacent temple of
Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had
a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which
the lower parts remain. ' A list of kings, similar to that of Seti,
formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the
French consul and sold to the British Museum.

The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about
a mile back on the great desert plain. The earliest is about
10 X 20 ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed
with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15X25
ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this
the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is
surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual
sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the

brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of
the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such
burials being usual. By the end of the Hnd dynasty the type
changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either
hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The
greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space
of over 3000 square yards. The contents of the tombs have
been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough re-
mained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies,
a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal
table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled
with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies,
and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record
of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various
officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an
insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i.
and ii.).

The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with
some pit tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Xllth and
XIHth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. In the
XVIIIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were
made, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times.
Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's work-
men, without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and
iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos,
iii. ; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Gars tang, El Arabah.

The forts lay behind the town. That known as Shunet ez
Zebib is about 450X250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high.
It was built by Khasekhemui, the last king of the Hnd dynasty.
Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather
older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the
Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos,
iii.). (W.M.F.P.)

ABYSS (Gr. &-, privative, /3w<76s, bottom), a bottomless
depth ; hence any deep place. From the late popular abyssimus
(superlative of Low Latin abyssus) through the French abisme
(i.e. abime) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced as late
as 1616 to rhyme with time. The adjective " abyssal " or
" abysmal " has been used by zoologists to describe deep regions
of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and fauna, abys-
mal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal bed of the ocean.
In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an escutcheon. In the
Greek version of the Old Testament the word represents (i) the
original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) the Hebrew tehom (" a surging
water-deep "), which is used also in apocalyptic and kabba-
listic literature and in the New Testament for hell, the place of
punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. for the " yawning chasm of
Tartarus ") ; in the Revised (not the Authorized) version abyss
is generally used for this idea. Primarily in the Septuagint
cosmography the word is applied (a) to the waters under the
earth which originally covered it, and from which the springs
and rivers are supplied, (b) to the waters of the firmament which
were regarded as closely connected with those below. Deriva-
tively, from the general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of
the place of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as
Sheol. In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence they
may occasionally be let loose, and where Satan is doomed to
spend 1000 years. Beneath the altar in the temple of Jeru-
salem there was believed to be a passage which led down to the
abyss of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was
laid. In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of
Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or
seven parts imposed one above the other. In the Kabbalah the
abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil
spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the world
above. In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a place of
indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow.

See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Eng. trans.,
Oxford, 1905).

ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA), an inland country and
empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5° and 15° N.
and 35° and 42° E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian). W.

ABYSSINIA

ABYSSINIA

Scale, 1:9,000,000
English MUe»

D 50 tOO 150 200 ZCO

Kilometres
o 50 100 300 300 400

ay Gulf of Aden

Longitude East 40 of Greenwich

by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, S.E.
and E. by the British, Italian and French possessions in Somali-
land and on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by European
powers, which cut off Abyssinia from access to the sea, vary in
width from 40 to 250 miles. The country approaches nearest to
the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is drawn about
40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is narrowest
in the north, being here 230 m. across from east to west. It
broadens out southward to a width of goo m. along the line of
9° N., and resembles in shape a triangle with its apex to the north.
It is divided into Abyssinia proper (i.e. Tigre, Amhara, Gojam,
&c.), Shoa, Kaffa and Galla land — all these form a geographical
unit — and central Somaliland with Harrar. To the S.W. Abys-
sinia also includes part of the low country of the Sobat tributary
of the Nile. The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. m.,
of which Abyssinian Semaliland covers fully a third.

(i) Physical Features. — Between the valley of the Upper Nile
and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus
from which rise various mountain ranges. These tablelands
and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla
land. On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise with
considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting outer
mountain chains. The Abyssinian highlands are thus a clearly
marked orographic division. From Ras Kasar (18° N.) to
Annesley Bay (15° N.) the eastern wall of the plateau runs
parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows closely
the line of 40° E. for some 400 m. About 9° N. there is a break
in the wall, through which the river Hawash flows eastward.
The main range at this point trends S.W., while south of the
Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the level of the
mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This

84

ABYSSINIA

second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) eastward to the Gulf
of Aden. The two chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course
S. by W., with a broad upland valley between — in which valley
are a series of lakes — to about 3° N., the outer (eastern) spurs
of the plateau still keeping along the line of 40° E. The southern
escarpment of the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general
direction N.W. and S.E. from 6° N. to 3° N. It overlooks the
depression in which is Lake Rudolf and — east of that lake —
southern Somaliland. The western wall of the plateau from 6°
N. to 11° N. is well marked and precipitous. North of 11° N.
the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the
plains at their base. On its northern face also the plateau falls
in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan. The eastern escarp-
ment is the best defined of these outer ranges. It has a mean
height of from 7000 to 8000 ft., and in many places rises almost
perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts,
through which descend mountain torrents to lose themselves in
the sandy soil of the coast land, afford means of reaching the
plateau, or the easier route through the Hawash valley may be
chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier the traveller finds
that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level
of the plateau.

(2) The aspect of the highlands is most impressive. The
northern portion, lying mainly between 10° and 15° N., consists
of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of from
7000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, and is flooded in a deep central
depression by the waters of Lake Tsana. Above the plateau
rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges
which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 15,000 ft. Many
of the mountains are of weird and fantastic shape. Character-
istic of the country are the enormous fissures which divide it,
formed in the course of ages by the erosive action of water. They
are in fact the valleys of the rivers which, rising on the uplands
or mountain sides, have cut their way to the surrounding low-
lands. Some of the valleys are of considerable width; in other
cases the opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three
hundred yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of
feet, representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of
cubic feet. One result of the action of the water has been
the formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small
plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides. The
highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam
ranges. The Simen Mountains lie N.E. of Lake Tsana and cul-
minate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which
has an altitude of 15,160 ft. A few miles east and north re-
spectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose
summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan. In the Chok
Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft.

Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of Baila
(12,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (13,780 ft.), and Kollo (14,100 ft.), the
last-named being S.W. of Magdala. The valley between these
hills and the eastern escarpment is one of the longest and most
profound chasms in Abyssinia. Between Lake Tsana and the
eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13,800 ft.) and Uara Sahia
(13,000 ft.). The figures given are, however, approximate only.
The southern portion of the highlands — the 10° N. roughly marks
the division between north and south — has more open tableland
than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there
are a few heights between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do
not exceed 8000 ft. But the general character of the southern
regions is the same as in the north — a much-broken hilly
plateau.

Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope to the
north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way in
that direction to the Nile. Such are the Takazze1 in the north,
the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and through
these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths of the entire
drainage. The rest is carried off, almost due north by the Khor
Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red Sea south of Suakin;
by the Hawash, which runs out in the saline lacustrine district
near the head of Tajura Bay; by the Webi Shebeli (Wabi-
Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E. through Somaliland, though

the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; and by the Omo,
the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf.

The Takazze, which is the true upper course of the Atbara,
has its head- waters in the central tableland; and falls from
about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through
which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the
western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan
territory. During the rains the Takazze (i.e. the " Terrible ")
rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and at this time forms
an impassable barrier between the northern and central provinces.
In its lower course the river is known by the Arab name Setit.
The Setit is joined (14° 10' N., 36° E.) by the Atbara, a river
formed by several streams which rise in the mountains W. and
N.W. of Lake Tsana. The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly
of the Abyssinian rivers which flow towards the Nile valley.
Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarp-
ment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It
reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its
waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a
great part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden
freshets during the rains. Only the left bank of the upper course
of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming
the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia.

(3) The Abai — that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile —
has its source near Mount Denguiza in the Gojam highlands
(about 11° N. and 37° E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due
north to the south side of Lake Tsana. Tsana (q.v.}, which
stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the plateau,
has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater. It has an area of
about noo sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 ft. At the
south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as it were, breached
by a deep crevasse through which the Abai escapes, and here
develops a great semicircular bend like that of the Takazze, but
in the reverse direction — east, south and north-west — down to
the plains of Sennar, where it takes the name of Bahr-el-Azrak
or Blue Nile. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the
Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara; the
Jamma rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa; the Muger
rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the
Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa
hills and has a generally S. to N. course; the Yabus runs near
the western edge of the plateau escarpment. All these are
perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the
western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally
torrential in character. The Bolassa, however, is perennial,
and the Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time.

In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the
south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and other
of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The
Akobo, in about 7° 50' N. and 33° E., joins the Pibor, which in
about 8j° N. and 33° 20' E. unites with the Baro, the river below
the confluence taking the name of Sobat. These rivers descend
from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian
streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on
reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream afford-
ing an open waterway to the Nile. The Baro, Pibor and Akobo
form for 250 m. the W. and S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see
NILE, SOBAT and SUDAN).

The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash
(Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes a
semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the Afar
(Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern
escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left
bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and then
trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the Hawash
is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, even in
the dry season, and during the floods rising 50 or 60 ft. above
low-water mark, thus inundating the plains for many miles
along both its banks. Yet it fails to reach the coast, and after
a winding course of about 500 m. passes (in its lower reaches)
through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or
70 m. from the head of Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is

ABYSSINIA

lost. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position
of Aussa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several
hundred feet below sea-level. While most of the other lagoons
are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their
margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to
the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash.

Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights
south-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression. In this
chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some
completely closed, others connected by short channels, the
chief links in their order from north to south are: — Zwai, com-
municating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi
Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in
the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west
sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges from 6000 to nearly
9000 ft. high; lastly, in the Asille country, Lake Stefanie, the
Chuwaha of the natives, completely closed and falling to a level
of about 1800 ft. above the sea. To the same system obviously
belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf (q.v.), which is larger
than all the rest put together. This lake receives at its northern
end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands
and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of
some 370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 at its
source to 1600 at lake-level), and is consequently a very rapid
stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navi-
gable only for a short distance above its mouth. The chief rivers
of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi Shebeli and the Juba (q.v.), have
their rise on the south-eastern slopes of the Abyssinian escarp-
ment, and the greater part of their course is through territory
belonging to Abyssinia. There are numerous hot springs in
Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not
uncommon.

(4) Geology. — The East African tableland is continued into
Abyssinia. Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 1870 the geology
has received little attention from travellers. The following
formations are represented: —

Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
Recent. Coral, alluvium, sand.

Tertiary. (?) Limestones of Harrar.

Jurassic. Antalo Limestones.

Triassic (?). Adigrat Sandstones.

Archaean. Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks.

Igneous.

Recent. . Aden Volcanic Series.

Tertiary, Cretaceous (?). Magdala group.
Jurassic. Ashangi group.

Archaean. — The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass
of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre
and along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica schists form the
prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact
felspathic rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists
strike north and south.

Triassic (?). — In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic rocks
are invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, un-
fossiliferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 feet.
They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo
group. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds occur,
which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal-
bearing strata of India. The Adigrat Sandstone possibly
represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South
Africa.

Jurassic. — The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are generally
horizontal, but are in places much disturbed when interstratified
with trap rocks. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms
and include species of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya,
Trigonia and Alaria.

Igneous Rocks. — Above a height of 8000 ft. the country con-
sists of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconform-
able groups. The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts
and dolerites often amygdaloidal. Their relation to the Antalo

limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not
later in age than the Oolite. The upper (Magdala group) con-
tains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying
perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced
ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia. They are inter-
bedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more
recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in
alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia.
Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of
Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden
Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the
enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a
prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow
ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft.

($) Climate. — The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent
territories varies greatly. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands
have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the
country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and
malarious. But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as
the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate.
The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to
the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land. In
the deep valleys of the Takazze and Abai, and generally in
places below 4000 ft., the conditions are tropical and fevers are
prevalent. On the uplands, however, the aif is cool and bracing
in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of
temperature is between 60° and 80° F. On the higher moun-
tains the climate is Alpine in character. The atmosphere on
the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily
recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation
in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided
into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from
October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which
about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The
rain is heaviest in the Takazze basin in July and August. In
the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains
continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October
is a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains; indeed
rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy
season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from
June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves
southward. In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin
earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a
year in Tigre and Amhara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla land.
The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia
but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the
eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rain-
fall. A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs
of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way
to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as
practically all the flood water of that river is derived from
the Abyssinian tributaries (see NILE).

(6) Flora and Fauna. — As in a day's journey the traveller may
pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so
great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys
and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance
of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees
and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines
on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful
contrast to the open downs. These conditions are particularly
characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegeta-
tion on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varie-
ties of trees and plants found are the date palm, mimosa, wild
olive, giant sycamores, junipers and laurels, the myrrh and
other gum trees (gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on
the eastern foothills), a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine,
which resists the attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime,
pomegranate, peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees;
the grape vine (rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton
and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are
in the south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the
coffee plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes

86

ABYSSINIA

its name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large
areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose
family, which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant
pendent red blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant
are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the
kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black
grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great
variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated. A fibrous
plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the
semi-desert regions of the north and south-east.

In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below
(§ 8) the fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are
numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat
valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin
has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the
larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in
which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound
in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river
valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy
and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also common.
Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found
in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the
lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large
herds of buffalo and antelope, and gazelles of many varieties
and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country.
Among the varieties are the greater and lesser kudu (both rather
rare); the duiker, gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most
common — it has long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klip-
springer, found on the high plateaus as well as in the lower dis-
tricts; and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight
rarely exceeding 10 ft, common in the low countries and the
foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but
chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous,
as are several kinds of monkeys, notably the guereza, gelada,
guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical
lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft.

Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for
the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures,
hawks, bustards and other birds of prey are met with ; and
partridges, duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, wood-
cock, snipe, pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful.
A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds
prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black-
bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance.
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the
inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents are
not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There are
thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects.

(7) Provinces and Towns. — Politically, Abyssinia is divided into
provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The chief
provinces are Tigr6, which occupies the N.E. of the country;
Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district enclosed
by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa (q.v.),
which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara. Besides these
ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire
includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of Gojam; the Harrar
province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla land, S.W. and S.
of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland.

With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab foundation,
there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar is some 30 m.
S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway (188 m. long) to
Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence of large towns in
Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country
is divided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual
warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on
the exhaustion of fuel supplies. The earliest capital appears to
have been Axum (q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive
ruins. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital
of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the ipth

century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the
kingdom of Shoa.

The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be
grouped according to their geographical position. None of
them has a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several
large markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa
or Adua (17 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and Antalo.
The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its
eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa
to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo,
one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia.

In Amhara there are: — Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence
of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British
captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor (" Mount Tabor "), the chief
royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong
strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake
Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea ; it has
a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of
Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the time
of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station midway
between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east side of
Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the famous
shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the name of
the place, " Fort St Mary." Mahdera-Mariam (" Mary's Rest "),
for some time a royal residence, and an important market and
great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west of Debra-
Tabor; its two churches of the " Mother " and the " Son " are
held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it has a permanent
population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and Amharas, the
former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the great central
markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Amhara, at
the converging point of several main trade routes; the market
is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the salt blocks
which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns are in
Shoa: — Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; Aliu-
Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of Aden;
Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (" Mountain of Light "), once
a royal residence; Lich6 (Litche), one of the largest market
towns in southern Abyssinia. Lieka, the largest market in
Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and
other parts of the empire. Bonga, the commercial centre of
Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma,
are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces,
and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf
of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settle-
ments of any size in southern Abyssinia.

Communications. — The 'Jibuti-Dire Dawa railway has been
mentioned above. The continuation of this railway to the capital
was begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end. There are few
roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is
usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the
lower regions) camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a
well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the
caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being
spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route
from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect Adis
Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia with
Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic service,
the longest line being from Harrar to the capital.

(8) Agriculture. — The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is evident
from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its fertility to the
sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian tributaries.
Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the
indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good
farmers. In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown
— among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, ieff, pease,
cotton and sugar-cane — and many kinds of fruit trees are culti-
vated. TeJ? is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an
ordinary pin-head, of which is made the bread commonly eaten.
The low grounds also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black
bread is made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the
suf, nuc and settle (there are no European equivalents for the

ABYSSINIA

87

native names), and the ground-nut are largely grown. The
castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp
regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a
medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the
Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals
only are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley,
teff, peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee. Above 10,000
ft. the crops are confined practically to barley, oats, beans and
occasionally wheat.

Coffee is one of the most important products of the country,
and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands. It
is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to a less
extent in the central districts. Two qualities of coffee are
cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar-
Mocha. The " Abyssinian " coffee is grown very extensively
throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low
grade. " Harrar-Mocha " is of first-class quality. It is grown
in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care.
The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the
early years of the aoth century. The soil of the Hawash valley
proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high
plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower pla-
teaus and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the
summer is long and rain abundant sowing and reaping are going
on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops
a year. The methods of culture are primitive, the plough
commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth
and a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached.
This implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is
done by the men, but women and girls do the reaping. The
grain is usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay-
lined pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to ten-
fold the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields
twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very
little land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels
being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley
is the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agri-
cultural labourer is about threepence a day in addition to food,
which may cost another penny a day.

The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals.
Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common. The
bulls are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for
meat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety,
but there are also two breeds — one large, the other resembling
the Jersey cattle — which are straight-backed. The horns of
the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. Sheep, of which
there are very large flocks, belong to the short and fat-tailed
variety. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district
a very small black sheep is raised for wool. The small mountain
breed of sheep weigh no more than 20 to 30 Ib apiece. Goats
are of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the
large goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight
from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have
fine silky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches long. The meat
of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is pre-
ferred by the natives. In 1904 the estimated number of sheep
and goats in the country was 20,000,000. Large quantities of
butter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats
and sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in
considerable numbers. The horses (very numerous) are small
but strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height. The
best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small
and strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent
quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is
preferred to the horse. The mule thrives in every condition of
climate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult mountain
passes with absolute security, and can carry with ease a load of
200 Ib. The average height of a mule is 12^ hands. The
country is admirably adapted for stock-raising.

(9) Minerals. — In the south and south-west provinces placer
gold mines by the banks of watercourses are worked by Gallas
as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and fields. In
the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a
certain extent. There are also gold mines in southern Shoa.
The annual output of gold is worth not less than £500,000. Only
a small proportion is exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal
and other minerals are found. Rock-salt is obtained from the
province of Tigre.

Trade and Currency. — Abyssinia being without seaports, the
external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the north, Jibuti
(French), Zaila and Berbera (British) in the south, and for all
these ports Aden is a distributing centre. For Tigre and
Amhara products Massawa is the best port, for the rest of the
empire, Jibuti. For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands,
Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to
Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a con-
siderable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the
frontier towns of Rosaires and Gallabat. At the French and
British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abys-
sinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they
are not imported from Italy.

The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet,
ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for
its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and live
stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the United States
through Aden ; America also takes a large propoition of the
coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with
Madagascar. The chief imports are cotton goods, the yearly value
of this trade being fully £250,000; the sheetings are largely
American; the) remainder English and Indian. No other
article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a con-
siderable trade is done in arms and ammunition, rice, sugar,
flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and
matches (from Sweden), oil, carpets (oriental and European),
hats and umbrellas. Commerce long remained in a backward
condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. efforts were
made to develop the resources of the country, and in 1905 the
total volume of trade exceeded £1,000,000.

Until the end of the igth century the usual currency was the
Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In 1894
a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar or
talari, worth about two shillings, as the standard. This new
coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In 1905 the
Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country,
was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa. The
bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in
the empire for fifty years, has a capital of £500,000, has the
power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, and
to engage in commercial operations. It was founded under
Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which insti-
tution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor
Menelek.

(10) Government. — The political institutions are of a feudal
character. Within their provinces the rases (princes) exercise
large powers. The emperor, styled negus negusti (king of kings) ,
is occasionally assisted by a council of rases. In October 1907
an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on
European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of
foreign affairs, war, commerce, justice and finance. The legal
system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the
decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor.
The chief judicial official is known as the affa-negus (breath of
the king) . The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over by an
abuna, or archbishop. The land is not held in fee simple, but is
subject to the control of the emperor or the church. Revenue
is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the purchase
and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and
in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice.
Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy.
In 1907 a system of compulsory education " of all male children
over the age of 12 " was decreed. The education was to be state

ABYSSINIA

provided, Coptic teachers were brought from Egypt and school
buildings were erected.

The Abyssinian calendar is as follows: — The Abyssinian year
of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the ist of Maskarram,
which corresponds to about the loth of September. The
months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram,
Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah,
Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas'hi. The remaining five days in the
year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the extra
day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and
treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years
eight months behind the Gregorian. Festivals, such as Easter,
fall a week later than in western Europe.

Army. — A small standing army is maintained in each province
of Abyssinia proper. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected
to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with
modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field.
The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.)

ETHNOLOGY

(u) The population of the empire is estimated at from
3,500,000 to 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist mainly of the
Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two last-named
peoples are separately noticed). Of non- African races the most
numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and Greeks. There is
a small colony of British, French, Italians and Russians. The
following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its in-
habitants. It should be remembered that the term " Abys-
sinian " is purely geographical, and has little or no ethnical
significance; it is derived from the Arabic Habesh. "mixed,"
and was a derisive name applied by the Arabs to the hetero-
geneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau.

Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the
eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this
region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great
bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly
Semitized. The prevailing colour in the central provinces
(Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigre, Lasta) it
is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are seen. South-
wards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate and almost
sooty black is the rule. Many of the people are distinctly
negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly
or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is
due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been im-
ported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority,
however, may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people,
who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and
regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat
curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black. The
Galla, who came originally from the south, are not found in
many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo dis-
trict, between Shoa and Amhara. It is from the Galla that the
Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few
of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their
veins.

As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as
the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (" Agao
land ") and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called " Jews " of Abys-
sinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue. But
the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic
origin, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most
archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. Geez, as it is
called, was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen,
and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical
language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists
of numerous translations of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works,
besides a valuable version of the Bible. (See ETHIOPIA.) The
best modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigr6 and
Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic
dialect, which is used in state documents, is current in the central
and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic ele-
ments. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, un-

like all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived
from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the
very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia.

The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political
and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs
and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom,
already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas, was
suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state
religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged
in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more ad-
vanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform
Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange
mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community
which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful
murder. Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting
crime. A priest is summoned, and, if his prayers and curses fail,
a small boy is drugged, and " whatever person he dreams of is
fixed on as the criminal. ... If the boy does not dream of the
person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he
is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him " (Count
Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap, xvi., 1898).

The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history.
Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked
feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their
prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed
over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to
death or accept a ransom. When the murdered person has no
relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of avengers.
The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the
constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations.
The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The haughtiest
Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself with the
remark, " God has given us speech for the purpose of begging."
The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but easily ap-
peased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of gaiety.
On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c.,
it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh-
bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal parts
of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the re-
mainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favour-
ite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. The raw meat eaten in
this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much
more tender than when cold. The statement by James Bruce
respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently
been called in question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce
actually saw what he narrates. Mutton and goat's flesh are the
meats most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and
the hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from
superstition. Many forms of game are forbidden; for example,
all water-fowl. The principal drinks are tnese, a kind of
mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from fermented cakes.
The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion
is seized as an excuse for a carouse. Old and young, of both
sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia, at which special
customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian
preferring a thin cake of durra meal or teff, kneaded with water
and exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is
baked. Salt is a luxury; " he eats salt " being said of a spend-
thrift. Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when
broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals:
marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time
by either husband or wife. Polygamy is by no means uncommon.
Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only
between children of the same father and mother. Children of
the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be " always
enemies to each other." (Samuel Gobat's Journal of a Three
Years' Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.)

The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs.
It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees,
with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe. The Abys-
sinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the
upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common.

ABYSSINIA

89

The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, in
contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather
sandals. The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to
the wrist, where they fit tightly. The priests wear a white jacket
with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type
of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel.
In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths,
while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red. Clothes
are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear
silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The
possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence
wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual
Abyssinian method of showing respect. A high-born man covers
himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors. The men
either cut their hair short or plait it; married women plait
their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk
handkerchief; girls wear their hair short. In the hot season no
Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes.
The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk
cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For
ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver neck-
laces and silver or gold rosettes in the ears. Silver rings on
fingers and also on toes are common. The women are very fond
of strong scents, which are generally oils imported from India
and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long
curved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well.
Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the
common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are
still in use. The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword,
spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are
also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes
with leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and grey-
hound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of
a pound are used; thro wing-clubs are employed for small game,
and lions are hunted with the spear. Lion skins belong to the,
emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield.

Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian
houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill
made and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made
simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but,
in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof
sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with
pitched thatched roofs, are common. The inside walls are
plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped straw. None
of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the in-
terior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and
ill ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary
arrangements do not exist. The caves of the highlands are often
used as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia
are certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief
native industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree
metal- work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is
extensively practised. The baskets are particularly well made,
and are frequently used to contain milk.

Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough
frescoes in the churches. These frescoes, however, often exhibit
considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination
of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colour-
ing is gaudy. Saints and good people are always depicted full
face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the
finest frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at
Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of
Lake Tsana. The churches are usually circular in form, the
walls of stone, the roof thatched.

The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets
and flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular
harps.

HISTORY

(12) Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was
included in the tract of country known to the ancients as
Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time

to about Syene. The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia
was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two coun-
tries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization
of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early
times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the
Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen
of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country,
and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent.
During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought
with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the
Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered
Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies. A
Greek inscription at Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by
Cosmas of Alexandria, and preserved in his Topographia Chris-
tiana, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek
dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries on both sides of the
Red Sea, and having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to
subjection, returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered
sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and Neptune. Another inscription,
not so ancient, found at Axum, states that Aizanas, king of
the Axumites, the Homerites, &c., conquered the nation of the
Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his
victory. Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen
the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the ist to the
7th century A.D. and was at one time nearly coextensive with
Abyssinia proper. The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis
were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior
of Africa in gold dust, ivory, leather, aromatics, &c. At Axum,
the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former great-
ness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a sea-
port on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. from the shore
(see ETHIOPIA, The Axumite Kingdom).

(13) Christianity was introduced into the country by Fru-
mentius (<?.».), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by
St Athanasius of Alexandria about A.D. 330. From iatroduc-
the scanty evidence available it would appear that aoa of
the new religion at first made little progress, and the Christi-
Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest **!&•
converts. Towards the close of the sth century a great company
of monks are believed to have established themselves in the
country. Since that time monachism has been a power among
the people and not without its influence on the course of events.
In the early part of the 6th century the king of the Homerites,
on the opposite coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the
Christians, the emperor Justinian I. requested the king of
Auxume, Caleb or El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause. He ac-
cordingly collected an army, crossed over into Arabia, and con-
quered Yemen (c. 525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for
about fifty years. This was the most flourishing period in the
annals of the country. The Ethiopians possessed the richest
part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far
as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with
the Greek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by
the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle of
the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued
advances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them
off from almost every means of communication with the civilized
world; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by the enemies
of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a thousand years,
forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten." About
A.D. 1000, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the design of
murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establish-
ing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project,
the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and
conveyed to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while
Judith reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and
transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1 268 the kingdom
was restored to the royal house in the person of Yekuno Amlak.

(14) Towards the close of the isth century the Portuguese
missions into Abyssinia began. A belief had long prevailed
in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far
east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various

9o

ABYSSINIA

expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who
had engaged in this search was Pedro de Covilham, who

arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he

had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented
influence, to the negus, or emperor of the country, a letter from his

master the king of Portugal, addressed to Prester John.
Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an Armenian
named Matthew was sent by the negus to the king of Portugal
to request his aid against the Mahommedans. In 1520 a
Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea
in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet
visited the negus, Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II., and remained
in Abyssinia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father
Francisco Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the
least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1 540
armies of Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommed
Gran (or Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla) , entered Abyssinia
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom,
obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses.
In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese.
John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520,
who had remained in the country after the departure of the
embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrust-
worthy), ordained successor to the abuna (archbishop), and sent
to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what
credentials is not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese
fleet, under the command of Stephen da Gama, was sent from
India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he
received an ambassador from the negus beseeching him to send
help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of
450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher da Gama,
younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and
being joined by native troops were at first successful against the
enemy; but they were subsequently defeated, and their com-
mander taken prisoner and put to death (August 1542). On
the 2ist of February 1543, however, Mahommed Granye was
shot in an engagement and his forces totally routed. After
this, quarrels arose between the negus and Bermudez, who had
returned to Abyssinia with Christopher da Gama and who now
wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to
Rome. This the negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez
was obliged to make his way out of the country. The Jesuits
who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into
Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters at Fremona (near Adowa) ,
were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In
the beginning of the i7th century Father Pedro Paez arrived at
Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into
high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith.
He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in
different parts of the country, and carried out many useful
works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less concili-
atory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly
excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the
negus Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his
son Fasilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country,

after having had a footing there for nearly a century
Poncet an<^ a half. The French physician C. J. Poncet, who
ana Bruce, went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile, was

the only European that afterwards visited the country
before Bruce in 1769. James Bruce's main object was to dis-
cover the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in
Abyssinia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769,
he travelled via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received
by King Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a
warlike expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the
eastern shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore.
On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satis-
faction that the river originated some 40 miles S.W. of the lake
at a place called Geesh (4th of November 1770). He showed
that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well-
known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt (end of

1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, Sennar, the Nile and the
Korosko desert (see BRUCE, JAMES).

(15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian
history, as distinct from the visits and influence of Europeans,
it must be borne in mind that during the last three
hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for ^e'ae^s'
the old chroniclers may be trusted to have given a negusti.
somewhat distorted view of the importance of the
particular chieftains with whom they came in contact, the coun-
try has been merely a conglomeration of provinces and districts,
ill defined, loosely connected and generally at war with each
other. Of these the chief provinces have been Tigre (northern),
Amhara (central) and Shoa (southern). The seat of government,
or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara, the ruler
of which, calling himself negus negusti (king of kings, or em-
peror), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other
provinces. The title of negus negusti has been to a considerable
extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant. All the
emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from
Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that
in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more
to the force of their arms than to the purity of their lineage.
Some of the rulers of the larger provinces have at times been
given, or have given themselves, the title of negus or king, so
that on occasion as many as three, or even more, neguses have
been reigning at the same time; and this must be borne in mind
by the student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion
of rulers. The whole history of the country is in fact one gloomy
record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable govern-
ments, of adventurers usurping thrones, only to be themselves
unseated, and of raids, rapine and pillage. Into this chaos
enter from time to time broad rays of sunshine, the efforts of a
few enlightened monarchs to evolve order from disorder, and to
supply to their people the blessings of peace and civilization.
Bearing these matters in mind, we find that during the i8th
century the most prominent and beneficent rulers were the
emperor Yesu of Gondar, who died about 1720, Sebastie, negus
of Shoa (1703-1718), Amada Yesus of Shoa, who extended his
kingdom and founded Ankober (1743-1774), Tekla Giorgis of
Amhara (1770-1798?) and Asfa Nassen of Shoa (1774-1807), the
latter being especially renowned as a wise and benevolent
monarch. The first years of the igth century were disturbed by
fierce campaigns between Guxa, ras of Gondar, and Wolda
Selassie, ras of Tigre, who were both striving for the crown of
Guxa's master, the emperor Eguala Izeion. Wolda Selassie
was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole
country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty.

(16) Mention must here be made of the first British mission,
under Lord Valentia and Mr Henry Salt, which was sent in
1805 to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia, and BHtlsh
obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France secured mission
Egypt by dividing up the Turkish empire with Russia, aadmis-
This mission was succeeded by many travellers, slo°ary

. . . , r ti • enterprise.

missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the
stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign.
For convenience' sake we insert at this point a partial list, of mis-
sionaries and others who visited the country during the second
third of the igth century — merely calling attention to the fact
that their visits were distributed over widely different parts of
the country, ruled by distinct lines of monarchs or governors.
In 1830 Protestant missionary enterprise was begun by Samuel
Gobat and Christian Kugler, who were sent out by the Church
Missionary Society, and were well received by the ras of Tigre.
Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subse-
quently supplied by Mr C. W. Isenberg, who was followed by
Dr Ludwig Krapf, the discoverer of Mount Kenya, and others.
Mr (afterwards Bishop) Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he
also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to
Europe, and published a journal of his residence in Abyssinia.
In 1834 Gobat went back to Tigre, but in 1836 ill health
compelled him to leave. In 1838 other missionaries were
obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of the native

ABYSSINIA

priests. Messrs Isenberg and\Krapf went south, and established
themselves at Shoa. The former soon after returned to England,
but Mr Krapf remained in Shoa till March 1842, when he re-
moved to Mombasa. Dr E. Riippell, the German naturalist,
visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly two years.
M. E. Combes and M. Tamisier arrived at Massawa in 1835,
and visited districts which had not been traversed by Europeans
since the time of the Portuguese. One who did much at the time
to extend our geographical knowledge of the country was Dr
C. T. Beke (q.v.), who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield
Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and wrote the most inter-
esting book on the country since the time of Bruce. Bishop
Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries
into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as
well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf returned to Abys-
sinia in 1855 with Mr Flad as pioneers of that mission; Krapf,
however, was not permitted to remain in the country. Six lay
workers came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by
others. Their secular work, however, appears to have been
more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he
employed them as workmen to himself, and established them
at Gaffat, near his capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in
1860, and after a visit to Europe returned in 1863, accompanied
by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal.1

(17) Wolda Selassie of Tigre was succeeded in 1817, through
force of arms, by Sabagadis of Agame, and the latter, as ras of
Rivalry of Tigre, introduced various Englishmen, whom he much
British admired, into the country. He increased the pros-
and French perjty of his land considerably, but by so doing
factions. rouse(j the jealousy of Ras Marie of Amhara — to
whom he had refused tribute — and Ubie, son of Hailo Mariam,
a governor of Simen. In an ensuing battle (in January
1831), both Sabagadis and Marie were killed, and Ubie retired
to watch events from his own province. Marie was shortly
succeeded in the ras-ship of Amhara by Ali, a nephew of Guxa
and a Mahommedan. But Ubie, who was aiming at the crown,
soon attacked Ras Ali, and after several indecisive campaigns
proclaimed himself negus of Tigre. To him came many French
missionaries and travellers, chief of whom were Lieut. Lefebvre,
charged (1839) with political and geographical missions, and
Captains Galinier and Ferret, who completed for him a useful
triangulation and survey of Tigre and Simen (1840-1842). The
brothers Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie (q.v.) spent ten years
(1838-1848) in the country, making scientific investigations of
great value, and also involving themselves in the stormy politics
of the country. Northern Abyssinia was now divided into two
camps, the one, Amhara and Ras Ali, under Protestant British,
and the other, Tigre and Ubie, under Roman Catholic French,
influence. The latent hostility between the two factions threat-
ened at one time to develop into a religious war, but no serious
campaigns took place until Kassa (later Theodore) appeared on
the scene.

(18) Lij ( = Mr) Kassa was born in Kwara, a small district of
Western Amhara, in 1818. His father was a small local chief,

and his uncle was governor of the districts of Dembea,
Rise of the Kwara and Chelga between Lake Tsana and the un-
r'he'odore. defined N.W. frontier. He was educated in a monas-
tery, but preferred a more active life, and by his talents
and energy came rapidly to the front. On the death of his
uncle he was made chief of Kwara, but in consequence of the
arrest of his brother Bilawa by Ras Ali, he raised the standard
of revolt against the latter, and, collecting a large force, re-
peatedly beat the troops that were sent against him by the ras
(1841-1847). On one occasion peace was restored by his receiving
Tavavich, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage; and this lady is
said to have been a good and wise counsellor during her lifetime.
He next turned his arms against the Turks, in the direction of
Massawa, but was defeated; and the mother of Ras Ali having
insulted him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his independ-
ence. As his power was increasing, to the detriment of both Ras

1 Since Theodore's time Protestant missionary work, except by
natives, has been stopped.

Ali and Ubie, these two princes combined against him, but were
heavily defeated by him at Gorgora (on the southern shore of
Lake Tsana) in 1853. Ubie retreated to Tigre, and Ras Ali fled
to Begemeder, where he eventually died. Kassa now ruled in
Amhara, but his ambition was to attain to supreme power, and
he turned his attention to conquering the remaining
chief divisions of the country, Gojam, Tigr6 and Shoa, a"^lr"gl
which still remained unsubdued. Berro, ras of Gojam, shoa.
in order to save himself, attempted to combine with
Tigre, but his army was intercepted by Kassa and totally de-
stroyed, himself being taken prisoner and executed (May 1854).
Shortly afterwards Kassa moved against Tigre, defeated Ubie's
forces at Deragi6, in Simen (February 1855), took their chief
prisoner and proclaimed himself negus negusti of Ethiopia under
the name of Theodore III. He now turned his attention to Shoa.

(19) Retracing our steps for a moment in that direction, we
find that in 1813 Sahela (or Sella) Selassie, younger son of the
preceding ras, Wassen Seged, had proclaimed himself negus or
king. His reign was long and beneficent. He restored the
towns of Debra-Berhan and Angolala, and founded Entotto,
the strong stone-built town whose ruins overlook the modern
capital, Adis Ababa. In the terrible " famine of St Luke " in
1835, Selassie still further won the hearts of his subjects by his
wise measures and personal generosity; and by extending his
hospitality to Europeans, he brought his country within the
closer ken of civilized European powers. During his reign he
received the missions of Major W. Cornwallis Harris, sent by the
governor-general of India (1841), and M. Rochet d'Hericourt,
sent by Louis Philippe (1843), with both of whom he concluded
friendly treaties on behalf of their respective governments. He
also wrote to Pope Pius IX., asking that a Roman Catholic
bishop should be sent to him. This request was acceded to,
and the pope despatched Monsignor Massaja to Shoa. But
before the prelate could reach the country, Selassie was dead
(1847), leaving his eldest son, Haeli Melicoth, to succeed him.
Melicoth at once proclaimed himself negus, and by sending
for Massaja, who had arrived at Gondar, gave rise to the sus-
picion that he wished to have himself crowned as emperor. By
increasing his dominions at the expense of the Gallas, he still
further roused the jealousy of the northerners, and a treaty
which he concluded with Ras Ali against Kassa in 1850 deter-
mined the latter to crush him at the earliest opportunity.

Thus it was that in 1855 Kassa, under the name of the em-
peror Theodore, advanced against Shoa with a large army.
Dissensions broke out among the Shoans, and after a desperate
and futile attack on Theodore at Debra-Berhan, Haeli Melicoth
died of exhaustion and fever, nominating with his last breath
his eleven-year-old son Menelek2 as successor (November 1855).
Darge, Haeli's brother, took charge of the young prince, but
after a 'hard fight with Angeda, one of Theodore's rases, was
obliged to capitulate. Menelek was handed over to the negus,
taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service.

(20) Theodore was now in the zenith of his career. He is
described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, merciful
to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, but subject
to violent bursts of anger and possessed of unyielding pride
and fanatical religious zeal. He was also a man of education
and intelligence, superior to those among whom he lived, with
natural talents for governing and gaining the esteem of others.
He had, further, a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame
capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said to have
been " the best shot, the best spearman, the best runner, and the
best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he contented himself with
the sovereignty of Arnhara and Tigre, he might have maintained
his position; but he was led to exhaust his strength against the
Wollo Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes of
his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people, ravaged
their country, took possession of Magdala, which he afterwards
made his principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs
and their followers in his own ranks. As has been shown, he also
reduced the kingdom of Shoa, and took Ankober, the capital;

1 Menelek means "a second self."

ABYSSINIA

but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his
heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts
of his provinces, and his good queen Tavavich was now dead.

The British consul, Walter C. Plowden, who was strongly
attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his government
Theodore's in 1 860 to return to Massawa, was attacked on his
quarrel way by a rebel named Garred, mortally wounded,
nri* Oreat an(i taken prisoner. Theodore attacked the rebels,
and in the action the murderer of Mr Plowden
was slain by his friend and companion Mr J. T. Bell, an
engineer, but the latter lost his life in preserving that of
Theodore. The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly
avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels.
Theodore soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud
daughter of the late governor of Tigre, who felt neither affection
nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her father, and
the union was by no means a happy one. In 1862 he made a
second expedition against the Gallas, which was stained with
atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now given himself up to
intoxication and lust. When the news of Mr Plowden's death
reached England, Captain C. D. Cameron was appointed to
succeed him as consul, and arrived at Massawa in February
1862. He proceeded to the camp of the king, to whom he pre-
sented a rifle, a pair of pistols and a letter in the queen's name.
In October Captain Cameron was sent home by Theodore, with a
letter to the queen of England, which reached the Foreign Office
on the 1 2th of February 1863. This letter was put aside and no
answer returned, and to this in no small degree are to be attri-
buted the difficulties that subsequently arose with that country.
In November despatches were received from England, but no
answer to the emperor's letter, and this, together with a visit
paid by Captain Cameron to the Egyptian frontier town of
Kassala, greatly offended him; accordingly in January 1864
Captain Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal,
were cast into prison. When the news of this reached England,
the government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to
the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be
its bearer. He arrived at Massawa in July 1864, and immedi-
ately despatched a messenger requesting permission to present
himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor a subsequent
application was any answer returned till August 1865, when a
curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had been
released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the king, he was
to proceed by the route of Gallabat. Later in the year Theodore
became more civil, and the British party on arrival at the king's
camp in Damot, on the 2$th of January 1866, were received
with all honour, and were afterwards sent to Kwarata, on Lake
Tsana, there to await the arrival of the captives. The latter
reached Kwarata on the I2th of March, and everything appeared
to proceed favourably. A month later they started for the coast,
but had not proceeded far when they were all brought back and
put into confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the queen,
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans, although
detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated; but
in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, where they were
soon afterwards put in chains. They suffered hunger, cold and
misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the spring of
1868 when they were relieved by the British troops.

(21) In the meantime the power of Theodore in the country
was rapidly waning. Shoa had already shaken off his yoke;
Gojam was virtually independent; Walkeit and Simen were
under a rebel chief; and Lasta, Waag and the country about
Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagshum Gobassie, who had
also overrun Tigre and appointed Dejaj Kassai his governor.
The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled against his master and
assumed the supreme power of that province. This was the
state of matters when the English troops made their appearance
in the country. With a view if possible to effect the release of
the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back,
with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from the queen,
stating that these would be handed over to his majesty on the

release of the prisoners and their return to Massawa. This,
however, failed to influence the emperor, and the English
government at length saw that they must have recourse to arms.
In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved to send an army into
Abyssinia to enforce the release of the captives, under Sir
Robert Napier (ist Baron Napier of Magdala). The landing-
place selected was Mulkutto (Zula), on Annesley Bay, the point
of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient Adulis, and we
are told that "the pioneers of the English expedition followed
to some extent in the footsteps of the adventurous
soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint traces
of this old-world enterprise " (C. R. Markham). The expedition.
force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides
12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, making
in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be accomplished
was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous and little-known
country, inhabited by savage tribes, to the camp or fortress of
Theodore, and compel him to deliver up his captives. The com-
mander-in-chief landed on the 7th of January 1868, and soon
after the troops began to move forward through the pass of
Senafe, and southward through the districts of Agame, Tera,
Endarta, Wojerat, Lasta and Wadela. In the meantime
Theodore had been reduced to great straits. His army, which at
one time numbered over 100,000 men, was rapidly deserting him,
and he could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved
to quit his captial Debra-Tabor, which he burned, and set out
with the remains of his army for Magdala. During this march
he displayed an amount of engineering skill in the construction
of roads, of military talent and fertility of resource, that excited
the admiration and astonishment of his enemies. On the after-
noon of the loth of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly
poured down upon the English in the plain of Arogie, a few
miles from Magdala. They advanced again and again to the
charge, but were each time driven back, and finally retired in
good order. Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux,
one of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief,
to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned,
that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, and
submit to the queen of England, he would receive honourable
treatment. The captives were liberated and sent away, and
accompanying a letter to the English general was a present
of looo cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would,
according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted.
Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore
that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was now
safe; but in the evening he learned that it had not been received,
and despair again seized him. Early next morning he attempted
to escape with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned.
The same day (i3th April) Magdala was stormed and taken,
practically without loss, and within they found the dead body
of the emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabit-
ants and troops were subsequently sent away, the fortifications
destroyed and the town burned. The queen Terunish having
expressed her wish to go back to her own country, accompanied
the British army, but died during the march, and her son Alam-
ayahu, the only legitimate son of the emperor, was brought to
England, as this was the desire of his father.1 The success of
the expedition was in no small degree owing to the aid afforded
by the several native chiefs through whose country it passed,
and no one did more in this way than Dejaj Kassa or Kassai of
Tigre. In acknowledgment of this, several pieces of ordnance,
small arms and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores,
were handed over to him, and the English troops left the country
in May 1868.

(22) It is now time to return to the story of the young prince
Menelek, who, as we have seen, had been nomin- Meoelek
ated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, but was «•»
in Theodore's power in Tigre. The following table
shows his descent since the beginning of the igth century: —

1 He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but died in his
nineteenth year, on the I4th of November 1879. He was buried
at St George's Chapel, Windsor.

ABYSSINIA

93

Asfa Nassen, d. 1807

Wassan Seged = Woizero Zenebe Work
d. 1811

Becurraye

Sella Selassie = Woizero Betsabesh
(1795-1847)

Haeli Melicoth = Ejigayu
(1825-1855)

Menelek II. =Tai'tu
b. 1844

Siefu Darge

(1826-1860) b. 1827

Masnasha

I son Zauditu Tanina Work

(dead) (Judith) (daughter)

On the retirement of Theodore's forces from Shoa in 1855,
Siefu, brother of Haeli Melicoth, proclaimed himself negus of
Shoa at Ankober, and beat the local representatives of the
northern government. The emperor returned, however, in
1858, and after several repulses succeeded in entering Ankober,
where he behaved with great cruelty, murdering or mutilating
all the inhabitants. Siefu kept up a gallant defence for two
more years, but was then killed by Kebret, one of his own chiefs.
Thus chaos again reigned supreme in Shoa. In 1865, Menelek,
now a dejazmach1 of Tigre, took advantage of Theodore's diffi-
culties with the British government and escaped to Workitu,
queen of the Wollo Galla country. The emperor, who held as
hostage a son of Workitu, threatened to kill the boy unless
Menelek were given up; but the gallant queen refused, and lost
both her son and her throne. The fugitive meanwhile arrived
safely in Shoa, and was there acclaimed as negus. For the next
three years Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and
disciplining his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as
Liche (near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country),
&c., and to repelling the incursions of the Gallas. On the death
of Theodore (i3th April 1868) many Shoans, including Ras
Darge, were released, and Menelek began to feel himself strong
KlagJoha enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to
attains undertake offensive operations against the northern
supreme princes gut these projects were of little avail, for
Kassai of Tigre, as above mentioned, had by this time
(1872) risen to supreme power in the north. With the help of the
rifles and guns presented to him by the British, he had beaten
Ras Bareya of Tigre, Wagshum Gobassie of Amhara and Tekla
Giorgis of Condar, and after proclaiming himself negus negusti
under the name of Johannes or John, was now preparing to
march on Shoa. Here, however, Menelek was saved from prob-
able destruction through the action of Egypt. This power had,
by the advice of Werner Munzinger (q.v.), their Swiss governor
of Massawa, seized and occupied in 1872 the northern province
of Bogos; and, later on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also,
for fear Bogos should be attacked. John, after futile protests,
collected an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael,
hereditary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyptian forces,
who were under the command of one Arendrup, a Dane. Meeting
near the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in detail, and almost
annihilated at Gundet (i3th November 1875). An avenging
expedition was prepared in the spring of the following year, and,
numbering 14,000 men under Ratib Pasha, Loring (American),
and Prince Hassan, advanced to Gura and fortified a position
in the neighbourhood. Although reinforced by Walad Michael,
who had now quarrelled with John, the Egyptians were a second
time (25th March 1876) heavily beaten by the Abyssinians, and
retired, losing an enormous quantity of both men and rifles.
Colonel C. G. Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now
ordered to go and make peace with John, but the king had moved
south with his army, intending to punish Menelek for having
raided Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyptians.

1 A title variously translated. A dejazmach (dejaj) is a high
official, ranking immediately below a ras.

(23) Menelek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by
serious dissensions, which had been instigated by his concubine
Bafana. This lady, to whom he was much attached, had been
endeavouring to secure the succession of one of her own sons to
the throne of Shoa, and had almost succeeded in getting rid of
Mashasha, son of Siefu and cousin of Menelek, who was the ap-
parent heir. On the approach of John, the Shoans united for a
time against their common enemy. But after a few skirmishes
they melted away, and Menelek was obliged to submit and do
obeisance to John. The latter behaved with much generosity,
but at the same time imposed terms which effectually deprived
Shoa of her independence (March 1878). In 1879 Gordon was
sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of Egypt; but he was
treated with scant courtesy, and was obliged to leave the country
without achieving anything permanent.

The Italians now come on the scene. Assab, a port near the
southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the
local sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company,
which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, f^"^af
was bought out by the Italian government in 1882. influence.
In this year Count Pietro Antonelli was despatched to
Shoa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties
with Menelek and the sultan of Aussa. Several missions followed
upon this one, with more or less successful results; but both
John and Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north
of Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in January 1885, and
Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month.
This latter act was greatly resented by the Abyssinians, for by a
treaty concluded with a British and Egyptian mission under
Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha2 in the previous year, free
transit of goods was to be allowed through this port. Matters
came to a head in January 1887, when the Abyssinians, in con-
sequence of a refusal from General Gene to withdraw his troops,
surrounded and attacked a detachment of 500 Italian troops
at Dogali, killing more than 400 of them. Reinforcements were
sent from Italy, whilst in the autumn the British government
stepped in and tried to mediate by means of a mission under Mr
(afterwards Sir Gerald) Portal. His mission, however proved
abortive, and after many difficulties and dangers he returned to
Egypt at the end of the year. In April 1888 the Italian forces,
numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Abys-
sinian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with
the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving
some 5000 troops in Eritrea, as their colony was now called.
Meanwhile John had not been idle with regard to the dervishes,
who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian
Sudan. Although he had set his troops in motion too late to
relieve Kassala, Ras Alula, his chief general, had succeeded in
inflicting a handsome defeat on Osman Digna at Kufit in Sep-
tember 1885. Fighting between the dervishes and the Abys-
sinians continued, and in August 1887 the dervishes entered
and sacked Gondar. After some delay, King John took the field
in force against the enemy, who were still harassing the north-
west of his territory. A great battle ensued at Gallabat, in which
the dervishes, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten. But a stray
bullet struck the king, and the Abyssinians decided to retire.
The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands
of the enemy (gth March 1889).

(24) Immediately the news of John's death reached Menelek,
he proclaimed himself emperor, and received the submission of
Gondar, Gojam and several other provinces. In
common with other northern princes, Mangasha,
reputed son and heir of King John, with the yellow-

eyed Ras Alula,3 refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of
Menelek; but, on the latter marching against them in the
following January with a large army, they submitted. As it
happened, Count Antonelli was with Menelek when he claimed

2 The main object of this mission was to seek John's assistance
in evacuating the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan, which were
threatened by the dervishes.

3 Ras Alula died February 1897, AS^ about 52. He had raised
himself by his military talents from being a groom and private
soldier to the position of generalissimo of the army.

94

ABYSSINIA

the throne, and promptly concluded (2nd of May 1889) with
him on behalf of Italy a friendly treaty, to be known hereafter
as the famous Uccialli treaty. In consequence of this the
Italians occupied Asmara, made friends with Mangasha and
received Ras Makonnen,1 Menelek's nephew, as his plenipo-
tentiary in Italy. Thus it seemed as though hostilities between
the two countries had come to a definite end, and that peace
was assured in the land. For the next three years the land was
fairly quiet, the chief political events being the convention (6th
February 1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between
Italy and Great Britain (24th March and isth April 1891) and
a proclamation by Menelek (loth April 1891), all on the subject
of boundaries. As, however, the Italians became more and more
friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic
versions. According to the former, the negus was bound to
make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with other
powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. Mean-
while the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine action by
Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (zist December
1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri resulted in
the acquisition of Kassala (i7th July 1894).

On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier with a
large army. At Koatit and Senate (i3th to i5th January 1895)
Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by Baratieri, who
occupied Adrigat in March. But as the year wore on the Italian
commander pushed his forces unsupported too far to the south.
Menelek was advancing with a large army in national support
of Mangasha, and the subsequent reverses at Amba Alagi (7th
December 1895) and Macalle (23rd January 1896) forced the
Italians to fall back.

Reinforcements of many thousands were meanwhile arriving
at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took the field at the
head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army, amounting
to ab°ut 90,000, had during this time advanced, and
was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima,
near Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the ist
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one
of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This
brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on the
remaining brigades advancing in support, they were successively
cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians
lost over 4500 white and 2000 native troops killed and wounded,
and over 2500 prisoners, of which 1600 were white, whilst the
Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 3000. General Baldissera
advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this
defeat, but the Abyssinians, desperately short of supplies, had
already retired, and beyond the peaceful relief of Adrigat no
further operations took place. It may here be remarked that
the white prisoners taken by Menelek were exceedingly well
treated by him, and that he behaved throughout the struggle
with Italy with the greatest humanity and dignity. On the
26th of October following a provisional treaty of peace was
concluded at Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and
recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This
treaty was ratified, and followed by other treaties and agree-
ments defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian-
Italian Somaliland frontiers (see ITALY, History, and SOMALI-
LAND, Italian).

(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention
of all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous
Menelek missions, two Russian, three French and one British,
as lade- were despatched to the country, and hospitably re-
ceived bv Menelek. The British one, under Mr (after-
wards Sir) Rennell Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty
with Abyssinia (isth of May 1897), but did not, except in the
direction of Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for
several years continued a subject of discussion. During the

1 Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered and occupied
by Menelek in January 1887.

same year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs
Clochette and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile,
but, after surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes
of the Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expe-
dition of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompan-
ied by three Europeans — Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and
Artomonov (Russian) — started early in 1898, and reached the
Nile at the Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major
Marchand and his gallant companions arrived on the scene.
But no contact was made, and the expedition returned to
Abyssinia.

In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large
army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again
rebelling against his authority. After some trifling fighting
Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force
to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, Wad
Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This effected,
the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the Egyptian
troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation of Khartum)
to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both sides were
anxious to avoid a collision over this latter town, no hostile
results ensued. An excellent understanding was, in fact, estab-
lished between these two contiguous countries, in spite of occa-
sional disturbances by bandits on the frontier. On this frontier
question, a treaty was concluded on the isth of May 1902
between England and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the
Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not
to obstruct the waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat,
so as not to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he
also agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, for
the construction of a British railway through his dominions, to
connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined British- Abys-
sinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched in 1901 to
propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the one
side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the
report of the expedition was made public by the British govern-
ment in November 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agree-
ment defining the frontiers concerned.

(26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called "mad "mullah
(Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders of
British Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was,
at Great Britain's request, sent against the mullah, ti0'a^h'
but without much effect. In the spring and Britain
summer of 1901 a fresh expedition from Harrar was "gainst the
undertaken against the mullah, who was laying waste fj^£"
the Ogaden country. Two British officers accompanied
this force, which was to co-operate with British troops advancing
from Somaliland; but little was achieved by the Abyssinians,
and after undergoing considerable privations and losses, and
harassing the country .generally, including that of some friendly
tribes, it returned to Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign of
General (Sir) W. H. Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000
to co-operate with the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli
and south-western parts of the Haud. This time the Abyssinians
were more successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but
the difficulties of the country again precluded effective co-opera-
tion. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) yet another
force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards Somaliland.
Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked its way south-
ward, but did not contribute much towards the final solution.
In any case, however, it is significant that the Abyssinians have
repeatedly been willing to co-operate with the British away
from their own country.

Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a
railway from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the
interior was granted by Menelek to a French company
in 1894. The company having met with numberless E
difficulties and financial troubles, the French govern- influence.
ment, on the extinction of the company's funds, came
to the rescue and provided money for the construction. (In the
alternative British capitalists interested in the company would
have obtained control of the line.) The French government's

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH

95

help enabled the railway to be completed to Dire Dawa, 28 m.
from Harrar, by the last day of 1902. Difficulties arose over
the continuation of the railway to Adis Ababa and beyond,
and the proposed internationalization of the line. These diffi-
culties, which hindered the work of construction for years, were
composed (so far as the European Powers interested were con-
cerned) in 1906. By the terms of an Anglo-French-Italian
agreement, signed in London on the i3th of December of that
year, it was decided that the French company should build the
railway as far as Adis Ababa, while railway construction west
of that place should be under British auspices, with the stipula-
tion that any railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red
Sea with its Somaliland protectorate should be built under
Italian auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian
representative were to be appointed to the board of the French
company, and a French director to the board of any British or
Italian company formed. Absolute equality of treatment on
the railway and at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all
the Powers.

Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened
out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers
appointed representatives at Menelek's capital — the British
minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel Sir
J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British
mission in 1897. In December 1903 an American mission visited
Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between the United States
and Abyssinia was signed. A German mission visited the
country early in 1905 and also concluded a treaty of commerce
with the negus. Later in the year a German minister was ap-
pointed to the court of the emperor.

After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was
sensibly on the increase. Of the remaining powers France
occupied the most important position in the country. Ras
Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable
successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in the
same year; the question of the succession therefore opened up
the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences,
Abyssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state
of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of December
1906 contained provisions in view of this contingency. The
preamble of the document declared that it was the common
interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity
of Ethiopia," and Article I. provided for their co-operation in
maintaining "the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia."
Should, however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to
concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms of the
agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith
communicated to the negus. After considerable hesitation
Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the powers, in which,
after thanking them for their intentions, he stipulated that the
agreement should not in any way limit his own sovereign rights.
In June '1908, by the nomination of his grandson, Lij Yasu (b.
1896), as his heir, the emperor endeavoured to end the rivalry
between various princes claiming the succession to the throne.
(See MENELEK.) A convention with Italy, concluded in the
same year, settled the frontier questions outstanding with that
country. (G.*)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For general information see A. B. Wylde's Mod-
ern Abyssinia (London, 1901), a volume giving the result of many
years' acquaintance with the country and people ; Voyage enAbyssinie
. . . 1839-43, par une commission scientifique, by Th. Lefebvre
and others (6 vols. and atlas, 3 vols., Paris, 1845-54) : Elisee Reclus,
Nouvelle geographic universelle, vol. x. chap. v. (Paris, 1885). For
latest geographical and kindred information consult the Geographical
Journal (London), especially "A Journey through Abyssinia,"
vol. xv. (1900), and "Exploration in the Abai Basin," vol. xxvii.
(1906), both by H. Weld Blundell, and "From the Somali Coast
through S. Ethiopia to the Sudan," vol. xx. (1902), by C. Neumann;
Antoine d'Abbadie, Geographie de I'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890). The
British parliamentary paper Africa, No. 13 (1904), is a report on the
survey of the S.E. frontier by Capt. P. Maud, R.E., and contains
a valuable map. For geology, &c., see W. T. Blanford, Observa-
tions on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (London, 1870);

C. Futterer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Ost-Afrika," Zeit.
Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. xlix. p. 568 (1897) ; C. A. Raisin, "Rocks from
Southern Abyssinia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lix. pp. 292-306
(1903)-

Among works by travellers describing the country are — James
Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile [1768-1773] (Edin-
burgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vols.); The Highlands oj Aethiopw (3 vols.,
London, 1844), by Sir W. Cornwallis Harris, dealing with the Danakil
country, Harrar and Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia;
being notes collected during three years' residence and travels (2nd ed.,
London, 1868); Antoine d'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute-
Ethiopie (Paris, 1868); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A Sporting Trip
through Abyssinia (London, 1902); A. Donaldson Smith, Through
Unknown African Countries (London, 1897); M. S. Wellby, 'Twixt
Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901). For history see — A. M. H. J.
Stokvis' Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. pp. 439-46, and vol. ii. pp. Ixxiv-v
(Leiden, 1888-89), which contains lists of the sovereigns of Abyssinia,
Shoa and Harrar, from the earliest times, with brief notes. Texts
of treaties between Abyssinia and the European Powers up to 1896
will be found in vol. i. of Sir E. Hertslet's The Map of Africa by
Treaty (London, 1896). L. J. Morie's Histoire de I'Ethiopie: Tome
n, "L'Abyssinie " (Paris, 1904), is a comprehensive survey (the views
on modern affairs being coloured by a strong anti-British bias).
For more detailed historical study consult C. Beccari's Notizia e
Saggi di opere e documenti inediti riguardanti la Storia di Etiopia
durante i Secoli XVI., XVII. e XVIII. (Rome, 1903), a valuable
guide to the period indicated; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien
und Afrika (Munich, 1895); The Portuguese Expedition to Abys-
sinia in 1541-1543 as narrated by Castanhoso (with the account of
Bermudez), translated and edited by R. S. Whiteway (London,
Hakluyt Society, 1902), which contains a bibliography; Futuh el-
Habacha, a contemporary Arab chronicle of the wars of Mahommed
Gran, translated into French by Antoine d'Abbadie and P. Pau-
litschke (Paris, 1898) ; A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jerome Lobo,
from the French [by Samuel Johnson] (London, 1735); Record of
the Expedition to Abyssinia, 3 vols., an official history of the war of
1868, by Major T. J. Holland and Capt. H. Hozier (London, 1870);
Hormuzd Rassam, Narrative of the British Mission to Theodore
[1865-1868] (2 vols., London, 1869); Henry Blanc, A Narrative of
Captivity in Abyssinia (London, 1868), by one of Theodore's prisoners;
Sir Gerald H. Portal, My Mission to Abyssinia (London, 1892),
an account of the author's embassy to King John in 1887; Count
A. E. W. Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, 1897 (London,
1898), containing the story of the Rennell Rodd mission; R. P.
Skinner, Abyssinia of To-Day (London, 1906), a record of the first
American mission to the country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Cam-
paign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (London, 1902). Books deal-
ing with missionary enterprise are — Journal of a Three Years'
Residence in Abyssinia, by Bishop Samuel Gobat (London, 1834);
J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours during
an 18 years' residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860); Cardinal
G. Massaja, I miei Trentacinque anni di Missione nell' Alia Etiopia
(10 vols., Milan, 1886-1893). Political questions are referred to by
T. Lennox Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethiopian Railway and the
Powers (London, 1906); H. le Roux, Menelik et nous (Paris, 1901);
Charles Michel, La question d'Ethiopie (Paris, 1905). (F. R. C.)

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates,
Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century.
About A.D. 330 Frumentius was made first bishop of Ethiopia
by Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Cedrenus and Nice-
phorus err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian,
c. 542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break,
the Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from
Egypt, and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner. Little is
known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule,
which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to
1633. But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon,
and still remain monophysites. Union with the Coptic Church
(q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt. Abu Salih
records (i2th century) that the patriarch used always to send
letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, till Al
Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus
as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce
observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These
examples show the close relations of the two churches in the
Middle Ages. But early in the i6th century the church was
brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission. In 1439,
in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious discussion between an
Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank had led to the despatch
of an embassy from Abyssinia to the Vatican; but the initiative
in the Roman Catholic missions to Abyssinia was taken, not by
Rome, but by Portugal, as an incident in the struggle with the
Mussulmans for the command of the trade route to India by the

96

ACACIA

Red Sea. In 1 507 Matthew, or Matheus, an Armenian, had been
sent as Abyssinian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the
Mussulmans, and in 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de
Lima landed in Abyssinia. An interesting account of this
mission, which remained for several years, was written by
Francisco Alvarez, the chaplain. Later, Ignatius Loyola wished
to essay the task of conversion, but was forbidden. Instead,
the pope sent out Joao Nunez Barreto as patriarch of the East
Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys
went to Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the
king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure
of success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make
formal submission to the pope. Then the people rebelled and
the king was slain. Fresh Jesuit victories were followed sooner
or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly triumphed
when once for all it was overthrown. In 1633 the Jesuits were
expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed.

There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely
resembling the Coptic. After these, two main types of archi-
tecture are found — one basilican, the other native. The cathe-
dral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas are nearly
all in ruins — e.g. that at Adulis and that of Martula Mariam in
Gojam, rebuilt in the i6th century on the ancient foundations.
These examples show the influence of those architects who, in
the 6th century, built the splendid basilicas at Sanaa and else-
where in Arabia. Of native churches there are two forms — one
square or oblong, found in Tigre; the other circular, found in
Amhara and Shoa. In both, the sanctuary is square and stands
clear in the centre. An outer court, circular or rectangular,
surrounds the body of the church. The square type may be
due to basilican influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of
the native hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based
on Jewish tradition. Church and outer court are usually
thatched, with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude
frescoes. The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having
upon it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim
wood, which forms its essential part. At Martula Mariam, the
wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid gold, one
500, the other 800 ounces in weight. The ark kept at Axum is
described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and gems. The
liturgy was celebrated on it in the king's palace at Christmas,
Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross.

Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and
practice. The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the
literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly
understood. Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored,
but graven images are forbidden. Fasts are long and rigid.
Confession and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power to
the priesthood. The clergy must marry, but once only. Pil-
grimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins.

AUTHORITIES. — Tellez, Hisloria de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 1660);
Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc. by Lord Stanley
of Alderley, under the title Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to
Abyssinia (London, 1881); Ludolphus, History of Ethiopia (London,
1684, and other works); T. Wright, Christianity of Arabia (London,
1855); C. T. Beke. "Christianity among the Gallas," Brit. Mag.
(London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Described (London, 1868);
"Abyssinian Church Architecture," Royal Inst. Brit. Arch. Trans-
actions, 1869; Ibid. Journal, March 1897; Archaeologia, vol. xxxii. ;
J. A. de Graca Barreto, Documenta historiam ecclesiae Habessinarum
illustrantia (Olivipone, 1879); E. F. Kromrei, Glaubenlehre und
Gebrauche der alteren Abessinischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895) ; F. M. E.
Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon, 1894); Idem, Vida do Abba
Daniel (Lisbon, 1897) ; ldem,Historiados Martyresde Nagran (Lisbon,
1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, text 1892, tr. and notes
1900) ; Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac (Coimbra, 1903) ; Idem, Vida de
S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 1904); Archdeacon Bowling, The
Abyssinian Church, (London, 1909) ; and periodicals as under COPTIC
CHURCH. (A. J. B.)

ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the family
Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae. The small flowers
are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters. The leaves are
compound pinnate in general (see fig.). In some instances,
however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets
are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically flattened,

and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects
the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their edges
towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as
ordinary horizontally placed leaves. There are about 450 species
of acacia widely scattered over the warmer regions of the globe.
They abound in Australia and Africa. Various species yield
gum. True gum-arabic is the product of Acacia Senegal, abun-
dant in both east and west tropical Africa. Acacia arabica is
the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the
true gum-arabic. An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.)
or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially
from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating
the solution so as to get an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica,
under the name of babul or babool, is used in Scinde for tanning.
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is
also very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export.
Such are Acacia pycnantha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan
wattle, and A. dealbata, silver wattle. The pods of Acacia
nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species

•^

Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer

and Schumann).
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Boianik.

are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. The seeds of
Acacia niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America.
Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia melan-
oxylon, black wood of Australia, which attains a great. size; its
wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish ; and Acacia
homalophylla (also Australian), myall wood, which yields a
fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formosa
supplies the valuable Cuba timber called sabicu. Acacia seyal
is supposed to be the shittah tree of the Bible, which supplied
shittim- wood. Acacia heterophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon,
and Acacia koa from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber
trees. The plants often bear spines, especially those growing in
arid districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa. These
sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard
and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the
kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. girajfae, the African camel-
thorn. In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala (bull-
thorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like stipules
are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion
of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of
the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-cutting
insects. In common language the term Acacia is often applied
to species of the genus Robinia (q.v.) which belongs also to the

ACADEMIES

97

Leguminous family, but is placed in a different section. Robinia
Pseud-acacia, or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of
Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pea-like blossoms.
The tree is sometimes called the locust tree.

ACADEMIES. The word "academy" is derived from "the
olive grove of Academe, Plato's retirement, " the birthplace
of the Academic school of philosophy (see under ACADEMY,
GREEK). The schools of Athens after the model of the Academy
continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries
till they were abolished by a decree of Justinian. It was not
without significance in tracing the history of the word that
Cicero gave the name to his villa near Puteoli. It was there
that he entertained his cultured friends and held the symposia
which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other
philosophic and moral dialogues.

"Academy," in its modern acceptation, may be defined as a
society or corporate body having for its object the cultivation
and promotion of literature, of science and of art, either sever-
ally or in combination, undertaken for the pure love of these
pursuits, with no interested motive. Modern academies, more-
over, have, almost without exception, some form of public
recognition; they are either founded or endowed, or subsidized,
or at least patronized, by the sovereign of the state. The term
" academy " is very loosely used in modern times; and, in
essentials, other bodies with the title of " society " or " college,"
or even " school, " often embody the same idea; we are only
concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of
academy, are of historical importance in their various spheres.

Early History. — The first academy, as thus defined, though it
might with equal justice claim to be the first of universities,
was the museum of Alexandria founded at the beginning of the
3rd century B.C. by the first of the Ptolemies. There all the
sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men
of Greece and of the East gathered beneath its spacious por-
ticos. Here, too, was the nucleus of the famous library of
Alexandria.

Passing over the state institute for the promotion of science
founded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the pth century,
and the various academies established by the Moors at Granada,
at Corduba and as far east as Samarkand, we come to the
academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch of the School
of the Palace established by Charlemagne in 782. This academy
was the prototype of the learned coteries of Paris which Moliere
afterwards satirized. It took all knowledge for its province;
it included the learned priest and the prince who could not
write his own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty
definitions.

The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the
emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the
tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been
proved to rest on a forgery. The academy of arts founded at
Florence in 1270 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and has left
no memories, and modern literary academies may be said to
trace their lineage in direct descent from the troubadours of the
early I4th century. The first Floral Games were held at Tou-
louse in May 1324, at the summons of a gild of troubadours,
who invited " honourable lords, friends and companions' who
possess the science whence spring joy, pleasure, good sense,
merit and politeness " to assemble in their garden of the " gay
science " and recite their works. The prize, a golden violet,
was awarded to Vidal de Castelnaudary for a poem to the glory
of the Virgin. In spite of the English invasion and other
adversities the Floral Games survived till, about the year 1500,
their permanence was secured by the munificent bequest of
Clemence Isaure, a rich lady of Toulouse. In 1694 the Acad&mie
des Jeux Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent
of Louis XIV. ; its statutes were reformed and the number of
members raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it
was revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of
gold and silver lilies, for which there is keen competition.

Provence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the soil
in which academies most grew and flourished. The Accademia

1.4

Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Flor-
ence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of Palermo and fostered by
Lauren tius Valla. Far more famous was the Accademia Pla-
tonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo de' Medici, which numbered
among its members Marsih'o Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Machia-
velli and Angelo Poliziano. It was, as the name implies, chiefly
occupied with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of
Dante and the purification of the Italian language, and though it
lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a model for
similar learned societies was great and lasting.

Modern Academics. — Academies have played an important
part in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific
inquiry. They mark an age of aristocracies when letters were
the distinction of the few and when science had not been differ-
entiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists.
Their interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained
that at the present day they have much direct influence on the
advancement of learning either by way of research or of publi-
cation. For example, the standard dictionaries of France,
Germany and England are the work, not of academies, but of
individual scholars, of Littre, Grimm and Murray. Matthew
Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to save his
countrymen from the note of vulgarity and provinciality has
met with no response. Academies have been supplanted,
socially by the modern club, and intellectually by societies
devoted to special branches of science. Those that survive from
the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp
on literary and scientific merit. The principal academies of
Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes,
according to the subjects to which they are devoted.

I. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES

Austria. — The Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften at
Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, was founded by the
emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes — mathe-
matics and natural science, and history and philology.

Belgium and the Netherlands. — A literary society was founded
at Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of
Maria Theresa, which after various changes of name and con-
stitution became in 1816 the Acad&mie imp&riale et royale des
sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of William I. of the
Netherlands. It has devoted itself principally to natural his-
tory and antiquities. The Royal Institute of the Low Countries
was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte. It was replaced
in 1851 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, to
which in 1856 a literary section was added.

Denmark. — The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab (Royal
Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin to
Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to
arrange his cabinet of medals. Historians and antiquaries were
called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission developed
into a sort of learned club. The king took it under his protec-
tion, enlarged its scope by the addition of natural history,
physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal
academy with an endowment fund.

France. — The old Academic des sciences had the same origin
as the more celebrated Academic franQaise. A number of men
of science had for some thirty years met together, first at the
house of P. Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of
the Council of State, afterwards at that of Melchisedec Thevenot,
the learned traveller. It included Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise
and Etienne Pascal. Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, was
presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640. Colbert con-
ceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club.
A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent
mathematicians, among whom were Christian Huyghens and
Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous
treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of
the new society. Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each
of the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment
was placed at their disposal. They began their session on the
22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice a

98

ACADEMIES

week — the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on
Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a
post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific
attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded
in Latin, and C. A. Couplet was made treasurer. At first the
academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an
academy proper. Experiments were undertaken in common
and results discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the
Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted by
the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physi-
cian and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were
made foreign associates. The death of Colbert, who was suc-
ceeded by Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes
of the academy. The labours of the academicians were diverted
from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the construc-
tion of fountains and cascades at Versailles, and the mathema-
ticians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of
lansquenet and basset. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted
by Louis Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, under whose
department as secretary of state the academies came. By its
new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten
honorary, men of high rank interested in science, and fifteen
pensionaries, who were the working members. Of these three
were geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanicians,
three anatomists, and three chemists. Each of these three had
two associates, and, besides, each pensionary had the privilege
of naming a pupil. There were eight foreign and four free
associates. The officers were, a president and a vice-president,
named by the king from among the honorary members, and a
secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held
office for life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer
of science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as
secretary. The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing
in that respect from that of the French Academy, in which the
principle of equality among the members was never violated.
Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage
of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this
period were Clairault and Reaumur. To trace the subsequent
fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the
rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among
its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D'Alembert, Lavoisier,
and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. On the 2ist of
December 1792 it met for the last time, and it was suppressed
with its sister academies by the act of the Convention on the
8th of April 1793. Some of its members were guillotined, some
were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty. The aristo-
cracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by
the Revolution as that of rank.

In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institut
National which was to replace all the academies, and its first
class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences. In
1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch
of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its
members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the engineer,
the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay-
Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires. In France there were also considerable
academies in most of the large towns. Montpellier, for example,
had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV.,
on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it
was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in
1847, and organized under three sections — medicine, science
and letters. Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640,
under the name of Society de lanternistes; and there were analo-
gous institutions at Nimes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and
elsewhere.

Germany. — The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society,
founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on
the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted
of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the
death of its founder. The early labours of the society were

devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most
notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the re-
sults. Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published
by Sturm. The former, Collegium Experimental sive Curiosum,
begins with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention";
next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian
experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c.

The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, if judged by the
work it has produced, holds the first place in Germany. Its
origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1700 by
Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was
its first president. Hampered and restricted under Frederick
William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French
model furnished by Maupertuis, and received its present con-
stitution in 181 2. It is divided into two classes and four sections
— physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical.
Each section has a permanent secretary with a salary of 1200
marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks a
year. Among the contributors to its transactions (first volume
published in 1710), to name only the dead, we find Immanuel
Bekker, Bockling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P. Buttmann, Encke (of
comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers Grimm, the two Humboldts,
Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. Mommsen, J. Mtiller, G.
Niebuhr, C. Ritter (the geographer), Savigny and Zumpt.
Frederick II. presented in 1768 A Dissertation on Ennui. To
the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Grae-
carum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum, and the Monumenta
Germaniae Historica.

The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mannheim was founded
by the elector Palatine in 1755. Since 1780 it has devoted itself
specially to meteorology, and has published valuable observa-
tions under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologicae
Theodora- Palatinae.

The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Milnchen was
founded in 1759. It is distinguished from other academies by
the part it has played in national education. Maximilian Joseph,
the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of Bavaria, induced
the government to hand over to it the organization and super-
intendence of public instruction, and this work was carried out
by Privy-councillor Jacobi, the president of the academy. In
recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with
natural history.

The Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, which
dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the
Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which publishes medical
transactions, also deserve mention.

Great Britain and Ireland. — In 1616 a scheme for founding a
royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent
scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to King James I.,
which was supported by George Villiers, marquis of Buckingham,
proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James,
his Academe or College of honour." A list of the proposed
original members is still extant, and includes the names of
George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden,
Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton. The constitution is
of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king. The
academy was to consist of three classes, — tutelaries, who were
to be Knights of the Garter, auxiliaries, all noblemen or ministers
of state, and the essentials, "called from out of the most famous
lay gentlemen of England, and either living in the light of things,
or without any title of profession or art of life for lucre." Among
other duties to be assigned to this academy was the licensing of
all books other than theological. The death of King James put
an end to the undertaking. In 1635 a second attempt to found
an academy was made under the patronage of Charles I., with
the title of "Minerva's Museum," for the instruction of young
noblemen in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was
soon dropped. (For the "British Academy" see III. below.)
About 1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet,
some in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects
connected with experimental science. This was the original oi
the Royal Society (q.v.), which received its charter in 1662.

ACADEMIES

99

A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society
in London, as early as 1683; but the distracted state of the
country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of philosophy
and literature. The Royal Irish Academy grew from a society
established in Dublin about 1782 by a number of gentlemen,
most of whom belonged to the university. They held weekly
meetings, and read, in turn, essays on various subjects. They
professed to unite the advancement of science with the history
of mankind and polite literature. The first volume of transac-
tions appeared in 1788.

Hungary. — The Magyar Tudomdnyos Akademia (Hungarian
Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen
Szechenyi for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian
language and the various sciences. It has about 300 members
and a fine building in Budapest containing a picture gallery and
housing various national collections.

Italy. — The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at
Naples in 1560 by Giambattista della Porta. It arose like the
French Academy from a little club of friends who met at della
Porta's house and called themselves the Otiosi. The condition
of membership was to have made some discovery in natural
science. Della Porta was suspected of practising the black arts
and summoned to Rome to justify himself before the papal
court. He was acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close
his academy.

The Accademia dei Lined, to which della Porta was admitted
when at Rome, and of which he became the chief ornament, had
been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di Monti-
celli. Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest members.
Its device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a Cerberus
with its claws. As a monument the Lincei have left the magni-
ficent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural History of
Mexico (Rome, 1651, fol.), printed at the expense of the founder
and elaborately annotated by the members. This academy
was resuscitated in 1870 under the title of Reale Accademia dei
Lincei, with a literary as well as a scientific side, endowed in
1878 by King Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recog-
nition from the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini
palace, whose owner made over to it his library and collections.

The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657
by Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II.,
at the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician. It
was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against the
deductive science of the quadrivium. Its founder left it when he
was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten years, but the grand
folio published in Italian (afterwards translated into Latin) in
1667 is a landmark in the history of science. It contains ex-
periments on the pressure of the air (Torricelli and Borelli were
among its members), on the incompressibility of water and on
universal gravity.

Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia
dette Scienze (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 as
a private society, and incorporated under its present name by
royal warrant in 1783. It consists of 40 full members, who
must be residents of Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 foreign
members. It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings and
awards prizes to learned works. There are, besides, royal
academies of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo.

Portugal. — The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal Academy
of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779. It was reorganized
in 1851 and since then has been chiefly occupied in the publication
of Portugaliae Monumenta Historica,

Russia. — The Academic Imperiale des sciences de Saint- Peters-
bourg, Imperatorskaya Akademiya nailk, was projected by Peter
the Great. The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was sought, and
several learned foreigners were invited to become members.
Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the loth of February
1724; but his sudden death delayed its fulfilment. On the
2ist of December 1725, however, Catherine I. established it
according to his plan, and on the 27th the society met for the
first time. On the ist of August 1726, Catherine honoured the
meeting with her presence, when Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a

German scientist, delivered an oration upon the determination
of magnetic variations and longitude. Shortly afterwards the
empress settled a fund of £4982 per annum for the support of
the academy; and 15 eminent members were admitted and
pensioned, under the title of professors in the various branches
of science and literature. The most distinguished of these
were Nicholas and Darnel Bernouilli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger,
and Wolff.

During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members
were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court;
but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a
seminary under the superintendence of the professors. Both
institutions flourished for some time under the direction of
Baron Johann Albrecht Korff (1697-1766). At the accession
of Elizabeth the original plan was enlarged and improved;
learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; and, what
was considered a good omen for the literature of Russia, two
natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius who had
prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled
among its members. The annual income was increased to
£10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred upon the
institution. Catherine II. utilized the academy for the advance-
ment of national culture. She altered the court of directors
greatly to the advantage of the whole body, corrected many of
its abuses, added to its means, and infused a new vigour and
spirit into its researches. By her recommendation the most
intelligent professors visited all the provinces of her vast do-
minions, with most minute and ample instructions to investigate
the natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report
on the real state of the empire. The result was that no country
at that time could boast, within so few years, such a number of
excellent official publications on its internal state, its natural
productions, its topography, geography and history, and on
the manners, customs and languages of the different tribes that
inhabited it, as came from the press of this academy. In its
researches in Asiatic languages, oriental customs and religions,
it proved itself the worthy rival of the Royal Asiatic Society
in England. The first transactions, Commentarii 'Academiae
Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae ad annum 1726, with a
dedication to Peter II., were published in 1728. This was con-
tinued until 1747, when the transactions were called Novi
Commentarii Academiae, &c. ; and in 1777, A eta Academiae
Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, with some alteration in
the arrangements and plan of the work. The papers, hitherto in
Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or in French,
and a preface added, Partie Historique, which contains an ac-
count of the society's meetings. Of the Commentaries, fourteen
volumes were published: of the New Commentaries (1750-1776)
twenty. Of the Ada Academiae two volumes are printed every
year. In 1872 there was published at St Petersburg in 2 vols.,
Tableau general des matures contenues dans les publications de
I' Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The
academy is composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides
the president and director. Each of the professors has a house
and an annual stipend of from £200 to £600. Besides the pro-
fessors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present at
the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies.
The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a vast scale.
There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and manuscripts; and
an extensive museum, considerably augmented by the collections
made by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstadt and other professors,
during their expeditions through the Russian empire. The motto
of the society is Paulatim.

Spain. — The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid (see below)
had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum (dating
from 1657) modelled on that of Naples. It was reconstituted
in 1847 after the model of the French academy.

Sweden. — The Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien owes
its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, among
whom was Linnaeus. They met on the 2nd of June 1739, and
formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum', and at
the end of the year their first publication made its appearance.

IOO

ACADEMIES

As the meetings continued and the members increased the
society attracted the notice of the king; and on the sist of
March 1741 it was incorporated as the Royal Swedish Academy.
Though under royal patronage and largely endowed, it is, like
the Royal Society in England, entirely self-governed. Each of
the members resident at Stockholm becomes in turn president,
and continues in office for three months. The dissertations
read at each meeting are published in the Swedish language,
quarterly, and make an annual volume. The first forty volumes,
octavo, completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions.

United States of America. — The oldest scientific association
in the United States is the American Philosophical Society
Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. It
owed its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published
" A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the
British Plantations in America," which was so favourably
received that in the same year the society was organized, with
Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as
secretary. In 1769 it united with another scientific society
founded by Franklin, called the American Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its
present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title of
the American Society, and elected Franklin president, an office
which he held until his death (1790). The American Philo-
sophical Society is national in scope and is exclusively scien-
tific; its Transactions date from 1771, and its Proceedings from
1838. It has a hall in Philadelphia, with meeting-rooms and a
valuable library and collection of interesting portraits and relics.
David Rittenhouse was its second and Thomas Jefferson was
its third president. In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan, of
London, presented a fund, the income of which was to supply
a gold medal for the author of the most important discovery
" relating to navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy
(mere natural history excepted)." An annual general meeting
is held.

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the
second oldest scientific organization in the United States, was
chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most promi-
nent men of that time. James Bowdoin was its first president,
John Adams its second. The Academy published Memoirs
beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846. The Rumford
Premium awarded through it for the most "important discovery
or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light " is the income of
$5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford.

The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated
by Congress with the object that it " shall, whenever called upon
by any department of the Government, investigate, examine,
experiment and report upon any subject of science or art." Its
membership was first limited to 50; after the amendment of
the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit was placed at 100;
and in 1907 it was prescribed that the resident membership
should not exceed 1 50 in number, that not more than 10 members
be elected in any one year, and that the number of foreign
associates be restricted to 50. The Academy is divided into six
committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and en-
gineering; chemistry; geology and palaeontology; biology;
and anthropology. It gives several gold medals for meritorious
researches and discoveries. It publishes scientific monographs
(at the expense of the Federal Government) . Its presidents have
been Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers,
Othniel C. Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira
Remsen.

The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was or-
ganized in 1812. It has a large library, very rich in natural
history, and its museum, with nearly half a million specimens,
is particularly strong in conchology and ornithology. The
society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings since
1841; it also has published the American Journal of Conchology.
The American Entomological Society (in 1859-1867 the Entomo-
logical Society of Philadelphia, and since 1876 part of this
academy) has published Proceedings since 1861, and the Entomo-
logical News (a monthly).

There are also other scientific organizations like the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874,
as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists,
founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association
of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its Proceedings
annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with
headquarters in New York; the National Geographic Society
(1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological
Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union
(1883), the American Society of Naturalists (1883), the Botanical
Society of America (1893), the American Academy of Medicine
(1876); and local academies of science, or of special sciences, in
many of the larger cities. The Smithsonian Institution at
Washington is treated in a separate article.

II. ACADEMIES OF BELLES LETTRES

Belgium. — Belgium has always been famous for its literary
societies. The little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a
society of poets in 1302, and the Catherinists of Alost date from
1107. It is at least certain that numerous Chambers of Rhetoric
(so academies were then called) existed in the first years of the
rule of the house of Burgundy.

France. — The French Academy (I' Academic franfaise) was
established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in its
original form existed four or five years earlier. About the year
1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet informally
each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the king's secretary.
The conversation turned mostly on literary topics; and when
one of the number had finished some literary work, he read it to
the rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The fame of these
meetings, though the members were bound to secrecy, reached
the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who promised his protection and
offered to incorporate the society by letters patent. Nearly all
the members would have preferred the charms of privacy, but,
considering the risk they would run in incurring the cardinal's
displeasure, and that by the letter of the law all meetings of any
sort were prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high
honour the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at
once to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution,
appoint officers and choose a name. Letters patent were granted
by the king on the 2gth of January 1635. The officers consisted
of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and a permanent
secretary, chosen by vote. They elected also a publisher, not
a member of the body. The director presided at the meetings,
being considered as primus inter pares. The chancellor kept the
seals and sealed all the official documents of the academy. The
cardinal was ex officio protector. The meetings were held weekly
as before.

The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth
in its statutes, was the purification of the French language.
" The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with
all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, and
to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the arts and
sciences " (Art. 24). They proposed " to cleanse the language
from the impurities it has contracted in the mouths of the
common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, from the mis-
usages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit"
(Letter of A cademy to Cardinal Richelieu) .

The number of members was fixed at forty. The original
members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 that
the full number was completed. Their first undertaking con-
sisted of essays written by the members in rotation. To judge
by the titles and specimens which have come down to us, these
possessed no special originality or merit, but resembled the
6Tri6et£eis of the Greek rhetoricians. Next, at the instance of
Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a criticism of Corneille's Cid,
the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of the academy
that no work could be criticized except at the author's request,
and fear of incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from
Corneille an unwilling consent. The critique of the academy
was re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's
approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was published

ACADEMIES

101

I

under the title, Sentiments de I'academie franfaise sur le Cid.
This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a saying attributed
to him on the occasion shows. "Horatius," he said, referring to
his last play, " was condemned by the Duumviri, but he was
absolved by the people." But the crowning labour of the
academy, begun in 1639, was a dictionary of the French language.
By the twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged
to compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and
one on poetry. Jean Chapelain, one of the original members
and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out that the diction-
ary would naturally be the first of these works to be undertaken,
and drew up a plan of the work, which was to a great extent
carried out. A catalogue was to be made of all the most ap-
proved authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed
among the members, and all approved words and phrases were
to be marked for incorporation in the dictionary. For this they
resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other
than the regular days. C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor
in chief. To remunerate him for his labours, he received from
the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs. The first edition of this
dictionary appeared in 1694, the sixth and last in 1835, since
when complements have been added.

This old Academic franc.aise perished with the other pre-
revolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little but the name
in common with the present academy, a section of the Institute.
That Jean Baptiste Suard, the first perpetual secretary of the
new, had been a member of the old academy, is the one con-
necting link.

The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 have
been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le premier
siede de I'lnstitut de France, and from it we extract a few lead-
ing facts and dates. Before the Revolution there were in exist-
ence the following institutions: — (i) the Academie de poesie et
de musique, founded by Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of
Ba'if, which counted among its members Ronsard and most of
the Pleiade; (2) the Academie des inscriptions et medailles,
founded in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions et belles-
lettres; (4) the old Academie des sciences; (5) the Academie
de peinture et de sculpture, a school as well as an academy; (6)
the Academie d 'architecture.

The object of the Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the
institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine
them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble: —
"II y a pour toute la RepuUique un Institut national charge de
recueiller les decouvertes, de perfeclionner les arts et les sciences."
As Renan has remarked, the Institute embodied two ideas,
one disputable, the other of undisputed truth: — That science
and art are a state concern, and that there is a solidarity between
all branches of knowledge and human activities. The Institute
was at first composed of 184 members resident in Paris and an
equal number living in other parts of France, with 24 foreign
members, divided into three classes, (i) physical and mathe-
matical science, (2) moral and political science, (3) literature
and the fine arts. It held its first sitting on the 4th of April
1796. Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, as
subversive of government, and reconstituted the other classes
as follows: (i) as before, (2) French language and literature,
(3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine arts. The class of
moral and political science was restored on the proposal of M.
Guizot in 1832, and the present Institute consists of the five
classes named above. Each class or academy has its own
special jurisdiction and work, with special funds; but there is
a general fund and a common library, which, with other common
affairs, are managed by a committee of the Institute — two
chosen from each academy, with the secretaries. Each member
of the Institute receives an annual allowance of 1200 francs,
and the secretaries of the different academies have a salary of
francs.

The class of the Institute which deals with the language and
iterature takes precedence, and is known as the Academie
fran<;aise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each
secretary of sections presiding in turn. Shortly afterwards

J. B. Suard was elected to the post, and ever since the history
of the academy has been determined by the reigns of its succes-
sive perpetual secretaries. The secretary, to borrow an epigram
of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs. There have been in
order: Suard (13 years), Frangois Juste Raynouard (9 years),
Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, Arnault, Villemain (34
years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles Camille Doucet (19 years),
Gaston Boissier. Under Raynouard the academy ran a tilt
against the abbe Delille and his followers. Under Auger it did
battle with romanticism, " a new literary schism." Auger did
not live to see the election of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed
ten more years for Victor Hugo after many vain assaults to
enter by the breach. The academy is professedly non-political.
It accepted and even welcomed in succession the empire, the
restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and it tolerated
the republic of 1848; but to the second empire it offered a
passive resistance, and no politician of the second empire, what-
ever his gifts as an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair.
The one seeming exception, Emile Ollivier, confirms the rule.
He was elected on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his
discours de reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and
never delivered. The Institute appears in the annual budget
for a grant of about 700,0x30 fr. It has also large vested funds
in property, including the magnificent estate and library of
ChantiJly bequeathed to it by the due d'Aumale. It awards
various prizes, of which the most considerable are the Montyon
prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who has
performed the most virtuous action during the year, and one for
the French author who has published the book of most service
to morality. The conditions are liberally interpreted; the first
prize is divided among a number of the deserving poor, and the
second has been assigned for lexicons to Moliere, Corneille and
Madame de Sevigne.

One alteration in the methods of the French Academy has to
be chronicled: in 1869 it became the custom to discuss the
claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of the members.
In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher Caro, supported by
A. Dumas fils, and by the aged Desire Nisard, it was decided to
abandon this method.

A point of considerable interest is the degree in which, since
its foundation, the French Academy has or has not represented
the best IRerary life of France. It appears from an examination
of the lists of members that a surprising number of authors of
the highest excellence have, from one cause or another, escaped
the honour of academic " immortality." When the academy
was founded in 1634, the moment was not a very brilliant one
in French letters. Among the forty original members we find
only ten who are remembered in literary history; of these four
may reasonably be considered famous still — Balzac, Chapelain,
Racan and Voiture. In that generation Scarron was never one
of the forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or
Pascal occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic,
Pascal was best known as a mathematician — (his Lettres pro-
vinciales was published anonymously) — and when his fame was
rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the life of a
recluse. The due de la Rochefoucauld declined the honour from
a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be elected. The
one astounding omission of the i7th century, however, is the
name of Moliere, who was excluded by his profession as an
actor.1 On the other hand, the French Academy was never
more thoroughly representative of letters than when Boileau,
Corneille, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault were all members.
Of the great theologians of that and the subsequent age, the
Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, Fenelon, and Massillon,
but not Bourdaloue. La Bruyere and Fontenelle were among
the forty, but not Saint-Simon, whose claims as a man of letters
were unknown to his contemporaries. Early in the i8th century
almost every literary personage of eminence found his place
naturally in the Academy. The only exceptions of importance

1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the
Salle des seances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription "Rienne
manque a so. gloire, il manquait & la notre."

IO2

ACADEMIES

were Vauvenargues, who died too early for the honour, and
two men of genius but of dubious social position, Le Sage and
the abbe Prevost d'Exiles. The approach of the Revolution
affected gravely the personnel of the Academy. Montesquieu
and Voltaire belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais.
Of the Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors
to D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe,
but not to Diderot, Rollin, Condillac, Helvetius or the Baron
d'Holbach. Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay
did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was
elected. In the transitional period, when the social life of Paris
was distracted and the French Academy provisionally closed,
neither Andre Chenier nor Benjamin Constant nor Joseph de
Maistre became a member. In the early years of the ipth
century considerations of various kinds excluded from the ranks
of the forty the dissimilar names of Lamennais, Prudhon, Comte
and Beranger. Critics of the French Academy are fond of point-
ing out that neither Stendhal, nor Balzac, nor Theophile Gautier,
nor Flaubert, nor Zola penetrated into the Mazarine Palace.
It is not so often remembered that writers so academic as Thierry
and Michelet and Quinet suffered the same exclusion. In later
times neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither
Guy de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the
forty immortals. The non-election, after a long life of distinc-
tion, of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account
for. Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the kind that no
academy can ever be expected to recognize.

Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the lan-
guage and literature, the most opposite opinions have been
advanced. On the one hand, it has been asserted that it has
corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed the lan-
guage of French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking
characteristics of French h'terature, its purity, delicacy and flexi-
bility. Thus Matthew Arnold, in his Essay on the Literary Influence
of Academies, has pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French
Academy as a high court of letters, and a rallying-point for
educated opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in
matters of tone and taste. To it he attributes in a great measure
that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; and
to the want of a similar institution in England he traces that
eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness which, as
he thinks, are barely compensated by English genius. Thus, too,
Renan, one of its most distinguished members, says that it is
owing to the academy " qu'on pent tout dire sans appareil
scholastique avec la langue des gens du monde." " Ah ne dites,"
he exclaims, " qu'ils n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont
la vie se passe a instruire le proces des mots, a peser les syllables.
Us ont fait un chef-d'eeuvre — la langue fran$aise." On the other
hand, its inherent defects have been well summed up by P.
Lanfrey in his Histoire de Napoleon: " This institution had never
shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the monarchy
and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to the spirit of
intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any sustained or combined
labour, a stranger to those great works pursued in common
which legitimize and glorify the existence of scientific bodies,
occupied exclusively with learned trifles, fatal to emulation,
which it pretends to stimulate, by the compromises and calcu-
lations to which it subjects it, directed in everything by petty
considerations, and wasting all its energy in childish tourna-
ments, in which the flatteries that it showers on others are only
a foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the
French Academy seems to have received from its founders the
special mission to transform genius into bel esprit, and it would
be hard to produce a man of talent whom it has not demoralized.
Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, it alternately pursues
and avoids them; but it is specially attracted by the gossip of
politics, and whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go
into opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices.
If we examine its influence on the national genius, we shall see
that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it
never possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its

masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour,
its natural grace. It has disciplined it, but it has emasculated,
impoverished and rigidified it. It sees in taste, not a sense of
the beautiful, but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form
of mediocrity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school
routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity,
fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the
source and spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced
under its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer,
never the man. By all its traditions the academy was made to
be the natural ornament of a monarchical society. Richelieu
conceived and created it as a sort of superior centralization
applied to intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intel-
lectual unity and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware
of all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges;
but it had in his eyes one fatal defect — esprit. Kings of France
could condone a witticism even against themselves, a parvenu
could not."

On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been
conservative rather than creative. It has done much by its
example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on lan-
guage have, from the nature of the case, failed. For, however
perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing
language of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise — a
Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset — who will set at defiance all
dictionaries and academic rules.

Germany. — Of the German literary academies the most cele-
brated was Die Fruchtbringende Gesettschaft (the Fruitful Society),
established at Weimar in 1617. Five princes were among the
original members. The object was to purify the mother tongue.
The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint
titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent
influence on the language or literature of the country.

Italy. — Italy in the i6th century was remarkable for the
number of its literary academies. Tiraboschi, in his History
of Italian Literature, has given a list of 171; and Jarkius, in
his Specimen Historiae Academiarum Conditarum, enumerates
nearly 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave
themselves ludicrous names, or names expressive of ignorance.
Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the Estravaganti, the Ful-
minales, the Trapessali, the Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious,
the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the
Ethereal. " The first academies of Italy chiefly directed their
attention to classical literature; they compared manuscripts;
they suggested new readings or new interpretations; they de-
ciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment ort a Latin
ode or debated the propriety of a phrase. Their own poetry
had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not till the
writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian
language that they began to study it with the same minuteness
as modern Latin." " They were encouragers of a numismatic
and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throwing for ever
little specks of light on the still ocean of the past, but not very
favourable to comprehensive observation, and tending to bestow
on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real learning."
The Italian nobility, excluded as they mostly were from politics,
and living in cities, found in literature a consolation and a career.
Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they
encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish
originality. Far the most celebrated was the Accademia della
Crusca or Furfuratorum; that is, of bran, or of the sifted,
founded in 1582. The title was borrowed from a previous
society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, of the well-shaken.
Its device was a sieve; its motto, " II piu bel fior ne coglie " (it
collects the finest flower) ; its principal object the purification of
the language. Its great work was the Vocabulario della Crusca,
printed at Venice in 1612. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan
principles, and regarded the i4th century as the Augustan period
of the language. Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and
this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent
editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated with

1 Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502.

ACADEMIES

103

two older societies — the Accademia degli Apatici (the Impartials)
and the Accademia Florentina.

Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy we
may mention the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by
Alphonso, the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540,
to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the
close study of Petrarch; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; the
Infiammati of Padua, 1534; the Rozzi of Siena, suppressed by
Cosimo, 1568.

The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of
witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman
gentleman. It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some
diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first im-
promptus and afterwards set compositions. This gave them
the name, Belli Humori, which, after they resolved to form an
academy of belles lettres, they changed to Humoristi.

In 1690 the Accademia degli Arcadi was founded at Rome,
for the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Crescimbeni,
the author of a history of Italian poetry. Among its members
were princes, cardinals and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid
disputes about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings masked
and dressed like Arcadian shepherds-. Within ten years from
its establishment the number of academicians was 600.

The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was made
a royal academy by Charles Albert in 1848. Its emblem is a
gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto " Flores
fructusque perennes," the same as that of the famous Florimen-
tane Academy, founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It
,has published valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities
of Savoy.

Spain. — The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid held its
first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the duke
d'Escalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, including
the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards added,
the founder being chosen president or director. In 1714 the
king granted them the royal confirmation and protection. Their
device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto,
Limpia,fixa, y da esplendor — " It purifies, fixes, and gives bright-
ness." The number of its members was limited to 24; the duke
d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but his. successors were
elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their object, as
marked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and im-
prove the national language. They were to begin with choosing
carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best
Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones;
and composing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished
from the former.

Sweden. — The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for
the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language.
A medal is struck by its direction every year in honour of some
illustrious Swede. This academy does not publish its transac-
tions.

III. ACADEMIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY

France. — The old Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (or
' Petite Academie" founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the
French Academy, which then at least contained the elite of
French learning. Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one
nost occupied with his own aggrandisement. Literature, and
ven science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to
own glory. Nor were literary men inclined to assert their
ndependence.' Boileau well represented the spirit of the age
vhen, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he wrote:
' The least things become important if in any degree they can
erve the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus it was that
be Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the suggestion of Colbert

company (a committee we should now call it) had been ap-
>ointed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, charged
ith the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices and legends
or medals. It consisted of four academicians: Chapelain,
hen considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors
of the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable de Bourzeis (1606-

1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), an antiquary of high
repute among his contemporaries; and the abbe Jacques de
Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his appointment more to the
fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations
of Cicero and Sallust. This company used to meet in Colbert's
library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the
summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of
the minister, who was always present. Their meetings were
principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues
and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but
Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector
of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on
matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published
work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip-
tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. Louvois,
who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived
the company, which had begun to relax its labours. Felibien,
the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and
Boileau, were added to their number. A series of medals was
commenced, entitled Midailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other
words, the history of the Grand Monarque.

But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of
finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in-
stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques
Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son,
and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon,
librarian to the king. By a new regulation, dated the i6th
of July 1701, the Acadimie royale des inscriptions et medailles
was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten
pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was
an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among
the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly
the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body:
" The academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute
to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such
monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg-
ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present
and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such
works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities,
and of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success in
labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves
to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most
worthy objects of their pursuit."

Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable
Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders),
Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan;
among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient
History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 1711
they completed L'Histoire metallique du roi, of which Saint-
Simon was asked to write the preface. In 1716 the regent
changed its title to that of the Acad&mie des inscriptions et belles-
lettres, a title which better suited its new character.

In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns
which divided the learned world in the first half of the i8th
century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the
cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of
the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu-
tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and
on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis
XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper
on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the
dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published
the 45th and 46th vols. of the M&moires de I'academie. On the
2nd of August of the same year the last seance of the old academy
was held. More fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences,
it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these
was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members
of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should
be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation.

In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795,
no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip-
tions; but most of the members who survived found themselves

104

ACADEMIES

re-elected either in the class of moral and political science, under
which history and geography were included as sections, or more
generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em-
braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments.

In 1816 the academy received again its old name. The Pro-
ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very
various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown
most originality are comparative mythology, the history of
science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities
of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members
De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the
philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, GuUlaume J. de
C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau,
who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy
has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, A. Remusat,
Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry.

In consequence of the attention of several literary men in
Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy
was established in that city in 1805. Its objects were, first, the
elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and
monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the
etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the
Celto-British, Welsh and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating
to Druidism. The attention of the members was also particu-
larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia.
Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was
appointed president. The academy still exists as La societe
nationale des antiquaires de France.

Great Britain. — The British Academy was the outcome of a
meeting of the principal European and American academies, held
at Wiesbaden in October 1899. A scheme was drawn up for an
international association of the academies of the world under the
two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the
Royal Society adequatelyrepresented Englandinscience there was
then no existing institution that could claim to represent England
in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academies
this chair was vacant. A plan was proposed by Professor H.
Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after
long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council.
The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a
separate society, and invited certain persons to become the
first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy
for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological
studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for
a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter
was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council.
The objects of the academy are therein defined — "the promo-
tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including
history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology
and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members
are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is
governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council
of fifteen elected annually by the fellows.

Italy. — Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy of
Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples
about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti-
quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by
the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its object
was to explain the paintings, &c., discovered at those places.
For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each
meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians,
who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume
of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued
under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. They contain engravings
of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures,
medals, utensils, &c., with explanations. In the year 1807 an
academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab-
lished at Naples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members
was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by
the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice,
three names for each of those needed to complete the full number.
Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the

current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to the authors of
four works which should be deemed by the academy most
deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held
every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses
of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th of
April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of
Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this
institution. In the same year an academy was established at
Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub-
lished some volumes of memoirs.

IV. ACADEMIES OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Austria. — The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was
instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction
of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla
(1728-1 800) . For many years it did important work, and though
closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph
in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become
mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools.

France. — Academic de Medecine. Medicine is a science which
has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle-
magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various
societies have been founded, and privileges granted to the
faculty by his successors. The A cademiede medecine succeeded
to the old Academie royale de chirurgie et societe royale de medecine.
It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December 20, 1820.
It was divided into three sections — medicine, surgery and
pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Academie
des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine
matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government
on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health
generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in
all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes.

Germany. — The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called
the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in 1662 by
J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general
invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary
cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works
of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately ; but
in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume
of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first
volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it was.
published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor
Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was
changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but
follows the home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden.
By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi-
dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or
members. At their admission the last come under a twofold
obligation — first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the
animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated
by any colleague of the academy ; and, secondly, to apply them-
selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides.

V. ACADEMIES or THE FINE ARTS

France. — The Acadimie royale de peinture et de sculpture at
Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of
Academie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united
the Academie d' architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of
painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers.
From among the members of the society who are painters,
is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux arts at
Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's
province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors,
&c., who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense
of the government, to complete their studies in that country.
Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career
in this way.

The Academie nationale de musique is the official and adminis-
trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the
poet Ba'if established in his house a school of music, at which
ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought

ACADEMY

from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue
du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Achille in
Sciro, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's
death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli,
and there were performed all Gluck's great operas; there
Vestris danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's
Devin du Village.

Great Britain. — The Royal Academy of Arts in London,
founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See
ACADEMY, ROYAL.)

The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London
in 1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the
gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with
the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish for many
years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of
harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was formed for the
performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by
him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The subscription
amounted to £50,000, and the king, besides subscribing £1000,
allowed the society to assume the title Royal. It consisted of
a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest
between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which
the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis-
solution of the academy after it had existed with honour for
more than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music
dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 1830. It instructs
pupils of both sexe,s in music. (See also the article CONSERVA-
TOIRE for colleges of music.)

Italy. — In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was
established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of
the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful
members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the middle
of the 1 8th century an academy of the arts was established there,
after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were
furnished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed
by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a
gold medal. Before the effects of the French Revolution reached
Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that
kingdom. In the hall of the academy were some admirable
examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit,
particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina,
of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had
been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was
restored in the end of the i8th century. In it there are halls for
nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and the
painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the
treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were
greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French.
The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the
French, dwindled into a petty school for drawing from living
models. There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua,
and another at Venice.

Russia. — The academy of St Petersburg was established in
X757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count
Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund
for its support was £4000 per annum, and the foundation ad-
mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate
institution, augumented the annual revenue to £12,000, and
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built
for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The
scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they
have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed and
lodged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read-
ing, writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the
age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following
arts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic,
enamelling, &c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, seal-
cutting, &c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth,

watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues
in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste
and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes are
annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four
prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge
of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling
expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive
during four years an annual salary of £60. The academy has a
small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those
who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures
in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are
full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy.

South America.— There are several small academies in the
various towns of South America, the only one of note being
that of Rio de Janeiro, 'founded by John VI. of Portugal in
1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes.

Spain. — In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and
architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, was
founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi-
dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few
students are supplied by government with the means of drawing
and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase
the requisite instruments are provided with them.

Sweden. — An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock-
holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the
ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI.
The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are
distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished
ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to
reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation
and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors
and generally about four hundred students.

Austria. — In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture
and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of
encouraging and promoting the fine arts.

United States of America. — In America the institution similar
to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy
of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American
Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the
academy.

The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of books in
the British Museum, "Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a
complete bibliography. (F. S.)

ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. dxaSij^eiaor waSy pia) ,
the name given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The
name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated
in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a
mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum.
It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus,
who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister
Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was
hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced
the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions
of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned
with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. dm. 13), who
bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens.
Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato (q.v.) , who
had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for
nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers
continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach-
ing by Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools.
Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he
composed his dialogue The Academic Questions.

The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato
to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceable
a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination
as a real intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity
of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine
was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that the
Academy has been divided into either two, three or five main
sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally, in the days
of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism

io6

ACADEMY

of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which
combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the
doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism
which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which
afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy.
Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy
and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, " My
words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but
I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I
ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?"
And again : " The characteristic of the Academy is never to
interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable,
to compare together different opinions, to see what may be
advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge
without pretending to dogmatize."

The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the
general view that there were three academies: the first, or Old,
academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or
Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or
New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus. Sextus
notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of
Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes
Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy
(i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero (de Oral. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro insist that
there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those
who maintain that there -is no justification for the five-fold
division hold that the agnosticism of Carneades was really latent
in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re-
futing the Stoic criterion.

The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards
practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to the
inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors.
Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: " Their
writings and method contain all liberal learning, all history, all
polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of
arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without their
aid. ... In a word the Academy is, as it were, the workshop of
every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific
investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high alti-
tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on
the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and
speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited
nothing, " nor amid all the learning which has been profusely
lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc-
tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their
progress or regression " (Archer Butler, Led. on Anc. Phil.

ii- 3I5)-

The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero

may be indicated briefly under four heads.

(1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by
Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot
be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as
an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be
.secondary to some other more fundamental principle of exist-
ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha-
gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles,
one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The
Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and
resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in-
fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful ,of Plato's
successors. He distinguished three spheres, the sensible, the
intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which corre-
spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (56£a). Cicero
notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon
the Socratic principle of hesitancy.

(2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle
of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a
principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however,
broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty.
Socrates had said, " This alone I know, that I know nothing."
But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even
the Socratic minimum of certainty: " I cannot know even

whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the
master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic
criticism.

(3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder-
ate scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his
opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of
perception, the tpavratria KaraX^TTTi/oj, by which they expressed a
conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to
amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which
denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and
the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute
scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which
may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of
imagination (<f>aVTaaia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable
and attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be
wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid. In ethics he
was an avowed sceptic. During his official visit to Rome, he
gave public lectures, in which he successively proved and dis-
proved with equal ease the existence of justice.

(4) In the last period we find a tendency not only to reconcile
the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to con-
nect it with parallel growths of thought. Philo of Larissa en-
deavours to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato,
and further that the apparent antagonism between Plato and
Zeno was due to the fact that they were arguing from different
points of view. From this syncretism emerged the prudent
non-committal eclecticism of Cicero, the last product of Aca-
demic development.

For detailed accounts of the Academicians see SPEUSIPPUS,
XENOCRATES, &c. ; also STOICS and NEOPLATONISM. Consult his-
tories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. Gomperz,
Greek Thinkers, ii. 270 (Eng. tr., London, 1905).

ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts in London,
to give it the original title in full, was founded in 1768, " for the
purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculp-
ture and architecture." Many attempts had previously been
made in England to form a society which should have for its
object the advancement of the fine arts. Sir James Thornhill,
his son-in-law Hogarth, the Dilettanti Society, made efforts
in this direction, but their schemes were wrecked by want of
means. Accident solved the problem. The crowds that attended
an exhibition of pictures held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital
for the benefit of charity, suggested a way of making money
hitherto unsuspected. Two societies were quickly formed, one
calling itself the " Society of Artists " and the other the " Free
Society of Artists." The latter ceased to exist in 1774. The
former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal charter
under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great
Britain." But though prosperous it was not united. A number
of the members, including the most eminent artists of the day,
resigned in 1768, and headed by William Chambers the archi-
tect, and Benjamin West, presented on z8th November in that
year to George III., who had already shown his interest in the
fine arts, a memorial soliciting his " gracious assistance, patron-
age and protection," in " establishing a society for promoting
the arts of design." The memorialists stated that the two prin-
cipal objects they had in view were the establishing of " a well-
regulated school or academy of design for the use of students in
the arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of distin-
guished merit; the profit arising from the last of these institu-
tions " would, they thought, " fully answer all the expenses of
the first," and, indeed, leave something over to be distributed
" in useful charities." The king expressed his agreement with
the proposal, but asked for further particulars. These were
furnished to him on the 7th of December and approved, and on
the icth of December they were submitted in form, and the docu-
ment embodying them received his signature, with the words,
" I approve of this plan; let it be put into execution." This
document, known as the " Instrument," defined under twenty-
seven heads the constitution and government of the Royal
Academy, and contained the names of the thirty-six original
members nominated by the king. Changes and modifications

ACADEMY

107

in the laws and regulations laid down in it have of course been
made, but none of them without the sanction of the sover-
eign, and the " Instrument " remains to this day in all essential
particulars the Magna Charta of the society. Four days after
the signing of this document — on the i4th of December — twenty-
eight of the first nominated members met and drew up the Form
of Obligation which is still signed by every academician on receiv-
ing his diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary,
council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen

t a further meeting held on the i7th. No time was lost in
establishing the schools, and on the 2nd of January 1769 they
were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of the
site now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the presi-
dent, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the first
of his famous " discourses." The opening of the first exhibition
at the same place followed on the 26th of April.

The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply
out of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts
derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on
the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve
years he was called upon to do so, and contributed in all some-
thing over £5000, but in 1781 there was a surplus, and no further
call has ever been made on the royal purse. George III. also
gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own palace of
Somerset House, and the schools and offices were removed there
in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held in Pall Mall,
till the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset House, when the
Academy took possession of the apartments in it which the king,
on giving up the palace for government offices, had expressly
stipulated should be provided. Here it remained till 1837, when
the government, requiring the use of these rooms, offered in
exchange a portion of the National Gallery, then just erected
in Trafalgar Square. The offer, which contained no conditions,
was accepted. But it was not long before the necessity for a
further removal became imminent. Already in 1850 notice was
given by the government that the rooms occupied by the Aca-
demy would be required for the purposes of the National Gallery,
and that they proposed to give the Academy £40,000 to provide
themselves with a building elsewhere. The matter slumbered,
however, till 1858, when the question was raised in the House of
Commons as to whether it would not be justifiable to turn the
Academy out of the National Gallery without making any pro-
vision for it elsewhere. Much discussion followed, and a royal
commission was appointed in 1863 " to inquire into the present
position of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and

ato the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies
a portion of the National Gallery, &c." In their report, which
contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, some of
them since carried put, the commissioners stated that they had
" come to the clear conclusion that the Royal Academy have
no legal, but that they have a moral claim to apartments at
the public expense." Negotiations had been already going on
between the government and the Academy for the appropriation
to the latter of a portion of the site occupied by the recently
purchased Burlington House, on which the Academy offered to
erect suitable buildings at its own expense. The negotiations
were renewed in 1866, and in March in the following year a lease
of old Burlington House, and a portion of the garden behind it,
was granted to the Academy for 999 years at a peppercorn rent,
subject to the condition that " the premises shall be at all times
exclusively devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of the fine
arts." The Academy immediately proceeded to erect, on the
garden portion of the site thus acquired, exhibition galleries and
schools, which were opened in 1869, further additions being made
in 1884. An upper storey was also added to old Burlington
House, in which to place the diploma works, the Gibson statuary
and other works of art. - Altogether the Academy, out of its
accumulated savings, has spent on these buildings more than
£160,000. They are its own property, and are maintained
entirely at its expense.

The government of the Academy was by the " Instrument "
vested in " a president and eight other persons, who shall form

a council." Four of these were to retire every year, and the
seats were to go by rotation to every academician. The number
was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten in 1875.
The rules as to retirement and rotation are still in force. Newly
elected academicians begin their two years' service as soon as
they have received their diploma. The council 'has, to quote
the "Instrument," "the entire direction and management of
the business " of the Academy in all its branches; and also the
framing of new laws and regulations, but the latter, before
coming into force, must be sanctioned by the general assembly
and approved by the sovereign. The general assembly consists
of the whole body of academicians, and meets on certain fixed
dates and at such other times as the business may require;
also at the request to the president of any five members. The
principal executive officers of the Academy are the president,
the keeper, the treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all
now elected by the general assembly, subject to the approval of
the sovereign. The president is elected annually on the founda-
tion day, loth December, but the appointment is virtually for
life. No change has ever been made in the conditions attached
to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried
instead of an unsalaried post. The treasurership and librarian-
ship, both offices originally held not by election but by direct
appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, the holders
being subject to re-election every five years, and the keepership
is also held upon the same terms; while the* secretaryship,
which up to 1873 had always been filled like the other offices
by an academician, has since then been held by a layman.
Other officers elected by the general assembly are the auditors
(three academicians, one of whom retires every year), the
visitors in the schools (academicians and associates), and the
professors of painting, sculpture and architecture — who must
be members — and of anatomy and chemistry. There are also
a registrar, and curators and teachers in the schools, who are
appointed by the council.

The thirty-six original academicians were named by George
III. Their successors have been elected, up to 1 867, by academi-
cians only — since that date by academicians and associates
together. The original number was fixed in the " Instrument "
at forty, and has so remained. Each academician on his election
has to present an approved specimen of his work — called his
diploma work — before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign
for signature. On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of
Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general
assembly. The class of associates, out of whom alone the academi-
cians can be elected, was founded in 1769 — they were " to be
elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled to every
advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, excepting that of
having a voice in the deliberations or any share in the govern-
ment of the Academy." Those exhibitors who wished to be-
come candidates had to give in their names at the close of the
exhibition. This condition no longer exists, candidates having
since 1867 merely to be proposed and seconded by members of
the Academy. On election, they attend at a council meeting
to sign the Roll of Institution as an associate, and receive a
diploma signed by the president and secretary. In 1867 also
associates were admitted to vote at all elections of members;
in 1868 they were made eligible to serve as visitors in the schools,
and in 1886 to become candidates for the professorships of
painting, sculpture and architecture. At first the number of
associates was limited to twenty; in 1866 the number was
made indefinite with a minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the
minimum was raised to thirty. Vacancies in the lists of academi-
cians and associates caused by death or resignation can be
filled up at any time within five weeks of the event, except in
the months of August, September and October, but a vacancy
in the associate list caused by election only dates from the day
on which the new academician receives his diploma. The mode
of election is the same in both cases, first by marked lists and
afterwards by ballot. All who at the first marking have four
or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest then go
to the ballot. Engravers have always constituted a separate

io8

ACADEMY

class, and up to 1855 they were admitted to the associateship
only, the number, six, being in addition to the other associates;
now the maximum is four, of whom not more than two may be
academicians. A class of honorary retired academicians was
established in 1862, and of honorary retired associates in 1884.
The first honorary foreign academicians were elected in 1869.
The honorary members consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a
secretary for foreign correspondence, and professors of ancient
history and ancient literature. These posts, which date from
the foundation of the Academy, have always been held by
distinguished men.

Academy Schools. — One of the most important functions of the
Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged
alone, was the instruction of students in art. The first act, as has
been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to establish schools
— " an Antique Academy," and a " School for the Living Model " for
painters, sculptors and architects. In the first year, 1769, no fewer
than seventy-seven students entered. A school of painting was
added in 1815, and special schools of sculpture and architecture in
1871. It would occupy too much space to follow the various changes
that have been made in the schools since their establishment. In
one important respect, however, they remain the same, viz. in the
instruction being gratuitous — no fees have ever been charged. Up
to the removal of the Academy to its present quarters the schools
could not be kept permanently open, as the rooms occupied by them
were wanted for the exhibition. They are now open all the year
round with the exception of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months
of August and September. They consist of an antique school, upper
and lower schools of painting, a school of drawing from the life, a
school of modelling from the life and an architectural school. Ad-
mission is gained by submitting certain specimens of drawing or
modelling, and the successful candidates, called probationers, have
then to undergo a further test in the schools, on passing which they
are admitted as students for three years. At the end of that time
they are again examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term
of two years. These examinations are held twice a year, in January
and July. Female students were first admitted in 1860. There are
many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be gained by the
various classes of students during the time of studentship, including
travelling studentships of the value of £200 for one year, gold and
silver medals, ahd prizes varying from £50 to £10. There are per-
manent curators and teachers in all the schools, but the principal
teaching is done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected
to serve in each school. The average cost of maintaining these
schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, prizes, books, main-
tenance of building, &c., is from £5000 to £6000 a year, apart from
certain scholarships and prizes derived from moneys given or be-
queathed for this purpose, such as the Landseer scholarships, the
Creswick prize, the Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship
and gold medal.

Charities. — Another of the principal objects to which the profits
of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been the relief of dis-
tressed artists and their families. From the commencement of the
institution a fund was set apart for this purpose, and subsequently
a further sum was allotted to provide pensions for necessitous
members of the Academy and their widows. Both these funds were
afterwards merged in the general fund, and various changes have
from time to time been made in the conditions under which pensions
and donations have been granted and in their amount. At the
present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount may be
given to academicians and associates, sixty years of age, who have
retired and whose circumstances show them to be in need, provided
the sum given does not make their total annual income exceed a
certain limit, and the same amounts can be given to their widows
subject to the same conditions. No pensions are granted without
very strict inquiry into the circumstances of the applicant, who is
obliged to make a yearly declaration as to his or her income. The
average annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about
£2000. Pensions are also given according to the civil service scale
to certain officers on retirement. It may be stated here that with the
exception of these pensions and of salaries and fees for official services,
no member of the Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the
funds of the institution. Donations to distressed artists who are or
have been exhibitors at the Royal Academy, their widows and
children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice a year in
February and August. The maximum amount that can be granted
to any one applicant in one donation is £100, and no one can receive
a grant more than once a year. The average yearly amount thus
expended is from £1200 to £1500. In addition to these charities from
its general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of artists,
not members of the Academy, certain other funds which have been
bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, viz. the Turner fund, the
Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, the Newton bequest and the Edwards
fund (see below).

Exhibitions. — The source from which have been derived the funds
for carrying on the varied work of the Royal Academy, its schools,
its charities and general cost of administration, and which has

enabled it to spend large sums on building, and provided it with the
means of maintaining the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions.
With the exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some of
which was spent in building the gallery containing the statues and
bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions have provided the
sole source of revenue, all other moneys that have come to the
Academy having been either left in trust, or been constituted trusts,
for certain specific purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained
136 works, of which more than one-half were contributed by members,
and brought in £699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the
receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was 489, of
which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum received was
£3069: Is. This increase continued gradually with fluctuations,
and in 1836, the last year at Somerset House, the number of works
was 1154, and the receipts were £5179: 193. No great addition to
the number of works exhibited took place at Trafalgar Square, but
the receipts steadily grew, and their careful management enabled
the Academy, when the time came for moving, to erect its own
buildings and become no longer dependent on the government for a
home. The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington
House rendered it possible to increase the number of works exhibited,
which of late years has reached a total of over 2000, while the receipts
have also been such as to provide the means for further building, and
for a largely increased expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted
that the number of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed
the space available. In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the
number sent was 3011. This went on increasing, with occasional
fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it reached
the number of 13,462. The annual winter exhibition of works by
old masters and deceased British artists was begun in 1870. It was
never intended to be a source of revenue, but appreciation by the
public has so far prevented it from being a cause of loss. The summer
exhibition of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in May,
and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter exhibition of
works by deceased artists opens on the first Monday in January, and
closes on the second Saturday in March. The galleries containing
the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of art are
open daily, free.

Presidents of the Royal Academy. — Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1768-
1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt
(president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820;
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820-1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830-
1850; Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850-1865; Sir Francis Grant,
1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878-1896; Sir
John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896.

The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with the history,
the theory and the practice of the various branches of the fine arts,
some of them of great rarity and value. It is open daily to the
students and members, and to other persons on a proper introduction.

The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are: —

The Turner fund (]. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides sixteen
annuities of £50 each, for artists of repute not members of the
Academy, also a biennial scholarship of £50 and a gold medal for a
landscape painting.

The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the income of
which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, is spent on pictures and
sculpture. (See CHANTREY.)

The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides an
annual prize of £30 for a landscape painting in oil.

The Cooke fund (E. W. Cooke, R.A.), which provides two annuities
of £35 each for painters not members of the Academy, over sixty
years of age and in need.

The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides four
scholarships of £40 each, two in painting and two in sculpture,
tenable for two years, open to students at the end of the first two
years of studentship, and given for the best work done during the
second year.

The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R. A.), which provides two annual
prizes of £30 and. £10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture.

The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R. A.), which provides sevenannuities
of £80 each for deserving artists, not members of the Academy, in
need of assistance.

The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an annual
sum of £60 for the indigent widow of a painter.

The Bizofund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific investigation
into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c.

The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing £40 a year for the
benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers.

The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received from Mrs
Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their brother, the income from
which, about £300, is expended on the decoration of public places
and buildings.

The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists chiefly of
pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral value. More serious
works are: William Sandby, The History of the Royal Academy of
Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn from circulation on a question of
copyright); Report from the Select Committee on Arts and their Con-,
nexion with Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
(London, 1836); Report of the Royal Commission on the Royal Academy,
with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1863); Martin

ACADIAN— ACANTHOCEPHALA

109

Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A. Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860);
C R. Leslie, R.A., and Torn Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua
Reynolds, P.R.A. (London, 1865); J. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late),
and Fred. A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., " The Royal Academy in the Last
Century," Art Journal, 1889-1891. But the chief sources of informa-
tion on the subject are the minute-books of the council and of
the general assembly, and the annual reports, which, however, only
date from 1859. (F. A. E.)

ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson in
1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and slates, with
dark grey limestones, which are well developed at St John, New
Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and Braintree in E.
Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle Cambrian age and
possess a Paradoxides fauna. They have been correlated with
limestone beds in Tennessee, Alabama, Central Nevada and
British Columbia (St Stephen).

See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull. U.S. Geol.
Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology,
ist ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878.

ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to
that part of the mainland of North America lying between the
latitudes 40° and 46°. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the
words used in transferring the French possessions to Britain
were " Nova Scotia or Acadia." See NOVA SCOTIA for the limits
included at that date under the term.

ACANTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, para-
sitic worms,' with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its
members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal,
but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by

From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., " Worms, &c.," by permission of
' nillan & Co., Lid.

FIG. i.

A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus, Rud., attached to a
iece of intestinal wall, X 4.

B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified.

leans of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly,
forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus

\igas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live in
eat numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate,
sually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the body cavity

of some invertebrate, most often an insect or crustacean, more
arely a small fish. The body is divisible into a proboscis and
trunk with sometimes an intervening neck region. The

proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal
ows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches

itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or
tiree shapes. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its
avity is separated from the body cavity by a septum or pro-
oscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are

muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end

and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes

the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity (fig. 2). But
he whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially,
ithdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two
etractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the
eptum to the body wall (fig. 3).

The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this covers
the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell
limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching
tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering,
amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the syncytium is a not very
regular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again
some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endo-
thelium. In their minute structure the muscular fibres resemble
those of Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longi-
tudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the
body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut
off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base.
From the circular canal two sac-like, diverticula called the

From Cambridge Natural • History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.

FIG. 2. — A longitudinal section through the anterior end of
Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from Hamann).

a, The proboscis not fully ex-

b, Proboscis-sheath. [panded.

c, Retractor muscles of the pro-

d, Cerebral ganglion. [boscis.

e, Retinaculum enclosing a

nerve.

/, One of the retractors of the
g, A lemniscus. [sheath.

h, One of the spaces in the sub-
cuticular tissue.

*, Longitudinal muscular layer.

;', Circular muscular layer.

k, Line of division between the
sub-cuticular tissue of the
trunk and that of the pro-
boscis with the lemnisci.

" lemnisci " depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each
consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the
proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty
muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the
fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it
is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when
it is wished to expand the proboscis.

There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for circula-
tion or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from
the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala
live.

J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like
minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into
which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane
pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen
of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion. •

The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the proboscis-
sheath or -septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and
gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2).
Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the com-
plex retains the old name of " retinaculum." In the male at

I IO

ACANTHUS— ACAPULCO

least there is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae
may possibly be sense-organs.

The Acanthocephala are dioecious. There is a "stay" called
the " ligament " which runs from the hinder end of the proboscis-
sheath to the posterior end of the body. In this the two testes
lie (fig. 3). Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three
diverticula or vesiculae seminales, and three pairs of cement
glands also are found which pour
their secretions through a duct into
the vasa deferentia. The latter
unite and end in a penis which opens
posteriorly.

The ovaries arise like the testes as
rounded bodies in the ligament. From
these masses of ova dehisce into the
body cavity and float in its fluid.
Here the eggs are fertilized and here
they segment so that the young em-
bryos are formed within their mother's
body. The embryos escape into the
uterus through the " bell," a funnel-
like opening continuous with the
uterus. Just at the junction of the
" bell " and the uterus there is a
second small opening situated dorsally.
The " bell " swallows the matured em-
bryos and passes them on into the
uterus, and thus out of the body via
the oviduct, which opens at one end
into the uterus and at the other on
to the exterior at the posterior end of
the body. But should the "bell"
swallow any of the ova, or even one of
the younger embryos, these are passed
back into the body cavity through the
second and dorsal opening.

The embryo thus passes from the
body of the female into the alimentary
canal of the host and leaves this with
the faeces. It is then, if lucky, eaten
by some crustacean, or insect, more

Ltd. ' rarely by a fish. In the stomach it

FIG. 3. — An optical sec- casts its membranes and becomes
tion through a male Neo- mobile, bores through the stomach

rU?omHamann)CepS' ^ Wal!S and encvsts usually in the body

a,rproboscis. cavity of its first and invertebrate host.

b, Proboscis sheath. By this time the embryo has all the

c, Retractor of the pro- organs of the adult perfected save

d, Cerebral ganglion. ^ *« reproductive; these develop
/,/, Retractors of the pro- only when the first host is swallowed

boscis sheath. by the second or final host, in which

g, g, Lemnisci, each with case the parasite attaches itself to

two giant nuclei. th u f th alimentary canal and

h, Space m sub-cuticular .

layer of the skin. becomes adult.

I, Ligament. A curious feature shared by both

m, m, Testes. larva and adult is the large size of

From Cambridge Natural His-
yU''ircrmuian&C& Co!

,
g, Opening of vas deferens. and the bell.

O. Hamann has divided the group
into three families, to which a fourth must be added.

(i.) Fam. Echinorhynchidae. This is by far the largest family
and contains the commonest species; the larva of Echino-
rhynchus proteus lives in Gammarus pulex and in small fish,
the adult is common in many fresh-water fish: E, polymorphus,
larval host the crayfish, adult host the duck: E. anguslatus
occurs as a larva in Asellus aquaticus, as an adult in the
perch, pike and barbel: E. moniliformis has for its larval
host the larvae of the beetle Blaps mucronata, for its final
host certain mice, if introduced into man it lives well: E. acus
is common in whiting: E. porrigeus in the fin- whale, and E.
strumosus in the seal. A species named E. hominis has been
described from a boy.

(ii.) Fam. Gigantorhynchidae. A small family of large forms
with a ringed and flattened body. Gigantorhynchus gigas lives
normally in the pig, but is not uncommon in man in South Russia,
its larval host is the grub of Melolontha vulgaris, Cetonis auratus,
and in America probably of Lachno sterna arcuala: G. echino-
discus lives in the intestine of ant-eaters: G. spira in that of the

widge Natural History, vol. ii.. "Worms &c.," by permission of
Macmillan&Co., Ltd.

FIG. 4.

A, The larva of Echinorhynchus proleus from the body cavity of
Phoxinus laevis, with the proboscis retracted and the whole still
enclosed in a capsule.

B, A section through the same; a, the invaginated proboscis;
b, proboscis sheath; c, beginning of the neck; d, lemniscus. Highly
magnified (both from Hamann).

king vulture, Sarcorhampus papa, and G. taeniod.es in Dicholopus
cristatus, a cariama.

(iii.) Fam. Neorhynchidae. Sexually mature whilst still in
the larval stage. Neorhynchus clavaeceps in Cyprinus carpio
has its larval form in the larva of Sialis
lutaria and in the leech Nephelis octocula:
N. agilis is found in Mugil auratus and
M . cephalus.

(iv.) Apororhynchidae. With no pro-
boscis. This family contains the single
species Apororhynchus hemignalhi,
found near the anus of Hemignathus
procerus, a Sandwich Island bird.

AUTHORITIES. — O. Hamann, 0. Jen.
Zeitschr. xxv., 1891, p. 113; Zool. Anz. xv.,
1892, 195; J. Kaiser, Bibl. Zool. ii., 1893;
A. E. Shipley, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.
xxxix., 1896; ibid, xlii., 1899, p. 361;
Villot, Zool. Anz. viii., 1885, p. 19.

(A. E. S.)

ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin
name for the plant, connected with
d/07, a sharp point), a genus of plants
belonging to the natural order Acan-
thaceae. The species are natives of
the southern parts of Europe and the
warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The
best -known is Acanthus mollis (brank-
ursine, or bears' breech), a common
species throughout the Mediterranean ^7mi™'on'of' Macm
region, having large, deeply cut, hairy, Co-> Ltd-
shining leaves. Another species, Acan- , FlG- 5-~ Fully formed
thus spinosus, is so called from its spiny JSS/SWSS
leaves. They are bold, handsome cavity of Phoxinus laevis
plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. (from Hamann). Highly
high, of flowers with spiny bracts. A. "laS"i'cd- a- Proboscis;
mollis, A latifolius and A longi/olius
are broad-leaved species; A. spinosus
and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed leaves. In
decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in metal, and subse-
quently carved in stone by the Greeks. It was afterwards, with
various changes, adopted in all succeeding styles of architecture
as a basis of ornamental decoration. There are two types, that
found in the Acanthus spinosus, which was followed by the
Greeks, and that in the Acanthus mollis, which seems to have
been preferred by the Romans.

ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on the
Pacific coast of Mexico, 190 m. S.S.W. of the city of Mexico,
Pop. (1900) 4932. It is located on a deep, semicircular bay,

From Cambridge Natural

e, lemniSl

ACARNANIA— ACCENT

in

almost land-locked, easy of access, and with so secure an anchor-
age that vessels can safely lie alongside the rocks that fringe the
shore. It is the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico,
and it is a port of call for steamship lines running between
Panama and San Francisco. The town is built on a narrow strip
of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and
the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural
beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render the town
difficult of access from the interior, and give it an exceptionally
hot and unhealthy climate. The effort to admit the cooling sea
breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the
Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. Acapulco was
long the most important Mexican port on the Pacific, and the
only depot for the Spanish fleets plying between Mexico and
Spain's East Indian colonies from 1778 until the independence
of Mexico, when this trade was lost. The town has been chosen
as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port — -
the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The town suffered
considerably from earthquakes in July and August 1909. There
are exports of hides, cedar and fruit, and the adjacent district of
Tabares produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian
corn, beans and coffee.

ACARNANIA, a district of ancient 'Greece, bounded on the
W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the
E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Achelous. The Echinades
islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually being joined up to
the mainland. Its most populous region was the plain of the
Achelous, commanded by the principal town Stratus; com-
munication with the coast was impeded by mountain ridges
and lagoons. Its people long continued in semi -barbarism,
having little intercourse with the rest of Greece. In the 5th
century B.C. with the aid of Athens they subdued the Corinthian
factories on their coast. In 391 they submitted to the Spartan
king Agesilaus; in 371 they passed under Theban control. In
the Hellenistic age the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by
their Aetolian neighbours. On the advice of Cassander they
made effective their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the
pattern of Aetolia. In the 3rd century they obtained assistance
from the Illyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V.
of Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their
new federal capital, Leucas, standing a siege in his interest.
For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were de-
prived of Leucas and required to send hostages to Rome (167).
The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who drafted
its inhabitants into Nicopolis and Patrae. Acarnania took a
prominent part in the national uprising of 1821; it is now
joined with Aetolia as a nome. The sites of several ancient
towns in Acarnania are marked by well-preserved walls, especially
those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea.

AUTHORITIES. — Strabo vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv.
40; Livy xxxiii. 16-17; Corpus Inscr. Graecarum, no. 1739; E.
Oberhummer, Akarnanien im Altertum (Munich, 1887); Heuzey,
Mt. Olympe et I'Acarnanie (Paris, 1860). (M. O. B. C.; E. GR.)

ACARUS (from Gr. ana.pi, a mite), a genus of Arachnids, repre-
sented by the cheese mite and other forms.

ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pelias, king of lolcus
in Thessaly (Ovid, Metam. viii. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224;
Pindar, Nemea, iv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason,
and took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonautic
expedition. After his father's death he instituted splendid
funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists
and poets, such as Stesichorus. His wife Astydameia (called
Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with Peleus
(q.v.), who had taken refuge at lolcus, but when her advances
were rejected accused him falsely to her husband. Acastus, to
avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep on Mount Pelion,
having first hidden his famous sword. On awaking, Peleus was
attacked by the Centaurs, but saved by Cheiron. Having re-
covered his sword he returned to lolcus and slew Acastus and
Astydameia. Acastus was represented with his famous horses
in the painting of the Argonautic expedition by Micon in the
temple of the Dioscuri at Athens.

ACATALEPSY (Gr. &.-, privative, and KaraXaiJ.l3a.vta', to seize),
a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility.

ACAULESCENT (Lat. acaulescens, becoming stemless, from
a, not, and caulis, a stem), a term used of a plant apparently
stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed.

ACCA LARENTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the
wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the twins
Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the Tiber.
She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them Romulus
took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded the
college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales). The tradition
that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has been
explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called lupa
(" courtesan," literally " she-wolf ") on account of her immoral
character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 55). According to another
account, Larentia was a beautiful girl, whom Hercules won in
a game of dice (Macrobius i. 10; Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5,
Quaest. Rom. 35; Aulus Gellius vi. 7). The god advised her
to marry the first man she met in the street, who proved to be a
wealthy Etruscan named Tarutius. She inherited all his property
and bequeathed it to the Roman people, who out of gratitude
instituted in her honour a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec.
23). According to some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the
Lares, and, like Ceres, Tellus, Flora and others, symbolized the
fertility of the earth — in particular the city lands and their
crops.

See Mommsen, " Die echte und die falsche Larentia," in Romische
Forschungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History
(Eng. trans. 1906), whose views on the subject are criticized by
W. W. Fowler in W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical
Studies (1907) ; C. Pascal, Studii di antichitd. e Mitologia (1896).

ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerare, to hasten, celer, quick),
hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term employed to
denote the rate at which the velocity of a body, whose motion
is not uniform, either increases or decreases. (See MECHANICS
and HODOGRAPH.)

ACCENT. The word " accent " has its origin in the Lat.
accenlus, which in its turn is a literal translation of the Gr.
7rpoacj)6ta. The early Greek grammarians used this term for the
musical accent which characterized their own language, but later
the term became specialized for quantity in metre, whence comes
the Eng. prosody. Besides various later developments of usage
it is important to observe that " accent " is used in two different
and often contrasted senses in connexion with language. In all
languages there are two kinds of accent: (i) musical chromatic
or pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent. The former
indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound and
another in speech, the latter the difference between one syllable
and another which is occasioned by emitting the breath in the
production of one syllable with greater energy than is employed
for the other syllables of the same word. These two senses, it is
to be noticed, are different from the common usage of the word
in the statement that some one talks with a foreign or with a
vulgar accent. In these cases, no doubt, both differences of
intonation and differences of stress may be included in the
statement, but other elements are frequently no less marked,
e.g. the pronunciation of t and d as real dentals, whereas the
English sounds so described are really produced not against the
teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce the
interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced as in this
and its representation by d or z, the production pf o as a uniform
sound instead of one ending as in English in a slight « sound,
or such dialect changes as lydy (laidy) for lady, or toime for time
(taime).

In different languages the relations between pitch and stress
differ very greatly. In some the pitch or musical accent pre-
dominates. In such languages if signs are employed to mark
the position of the chief accent in the word it will be the pitch
and not the stress accent which will be thus indicated. Amongst
the languages of ancient times Sanskrit and Greek both indicate
by signs the position of the chief pitch accent in the word, and
the same method has been employed in modern times for lan-
guages in which pitch accent is well marked, as it is, for example.

112

ACCENT

in Lithuanian, the language still spoken by some two millions
of people on the frontier between Prussia and Russia in the
neighbourhood of Konigsberg and Vilna. Swedish also has a
well-marked musical accent. Modern Greek has changed from
pitch to stress, the stress being generally laid upon the same
syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek.

In the majority of European languages, however, stress is
more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence
to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin,
Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are
descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree.
To the existence of this accent must be attributed a large part
of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see INDO-
EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). In modern languages we can see the
same principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. (Anglo-
Saxon) de-tun (oak-town), and in more recent times producing
the contrast between New Town and Newton. In French, stress
is less marked than it is in English, but here also there is evidence
to show that in the development from Latin to .French a very
strong stress accent must have existed. The natural result of
producing one syllable of a word with greater energy than the
others is that the other syllables have a less proportion of breath
assigned to them and therefore tend to become indistinct or
altogether inaudible. Thus the strong stress accent existing in
the transition period between Latin and French led to the
curtailing of long Latin words like latrocinium or hospitale into
the words which we have borrowed from French into English as
larceny and hotel. It will be observed that the first syllable and
that which bears the accent are the two which best withstand
change, though the strong tendency in English to stress heavily
the first syllable bids fair ultimately to oust the e in the pro-
nunciation of larceny. No such changes arise when a strong
pitch accent is accompanied by a weaker stress accent, and
hence languages like ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where
such conditions existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister
languages or than even their own descendants, when stress takes
the place of pitch as the more important element in accent.

In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be
observed. In pitch, the accent may be uniform, rising or
falling. Or there may be combinations of rising and falling or
of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable. In ancient
Greek, as is well known, three accents are distinguished — (i) the
acute ('), a rising accent; (2) the grave ('), apparently merely the
indication that in particular positions in the sentence the acute
accent is not used where it would occur in the isolated word;
and (3) the circumflex, which, as its form (A) shows, and as the
ancient grammarians inform us, is a combination of the rising
and the falling accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being
always long. Different Greek dialects, however, varied the
syllables of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek,
for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable of a
word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented.

The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was origin-
ally free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and this
condition of things is still found in the earliest Sanskrit literature.
But in Greek before historical times the accent had become
limited to the last three syllables of a word, so that a long word
like the Homeric genitive faponkvovo could in no circumstances
be accented on either of its first two syllables, while if the final
syllable was long, as in the accusative plural <t>tpop£vovs, the
accent could go back only to the second syllable from the end.
As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a frequent inter-
change between e ( a high vowel) and o (a low vowel) occurs in the
Indo-European languages, it has been suggested that e originally
went with the highest pitch accent, while o appeared in syllables
of a lower pitch. But if there is any foundation for the theory,
which is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted
and modified by all manner of analogical processes. Thus Toijuiyi'
with acute accent and da.ip.uv with the acute accent on the
preceding syllable would correspond to the rule, so would a\r)8es
and ihros, but there are many exceptions like 656s where
the acute accent accompanies an o vowel. Somewhat similar

distinctions characterize syllables which are stressed. The
strength of the expiration may be greatest either at the begin-
ning, the end or the middle of the syllable, and, according as it is
so, the accent is a falling, a rising, or a rising and falling one.
Syllables in which the stress is produced continuously whether
increasing or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables,
those in which a variation in the stress occurs without being
strong enough to break the syllable into two are called double-
pointed syllables. These last occur in some English dialects,
but are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian,
which have a " sing-song " pronunciation. It is often not easy
to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether what
we hear is really two-single-pointed syllables. There is no separ-
ate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') is used for the
increasing, the grave O for the decreasing stress, and the circum-
flex (") for the rising and falling (increasing and decreasing) and
(v) for the opposite. A separate notation is much to be desired,
as the nature of the two accents is so different, and could easily
be devised by using S for the falling, (') for the rising stress,
and «» for the combination of the two in one syllable. This
would be clearer than the upright stroke ( ) preceding the stressed
syllable, which is used in some phonetic works.

The relation between the two accents in the same language
at the same time is a subject which requires further investiga-
tion. It is generally assumed that the chief stress and the chief
pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no means certain for all
cases, though the incidence of the chief stress accent in modern
Greek upon the same syllable as had the chief pitch accent in
ancient times suggests that the two did frequently fall upon the
same syllable. On the other hand, in words like the Sanskrit
sapta, the Gr. «rra, the pitch accent which those languages
indicate is upon a syllable which certainly, in the earliest times
at least, did not possess the principal stress. For forms in other
languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show that
the a of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is the repre-
sentative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the earliest
times, the nasal alone existed (see under N for the history of
these so-called sonant nasals). It is possible that sporadic
changes of accent, as in the Gr. mrrip compared with the Sanskrit
mold, is owing to the shifting of the pitch accent to the same
syllable as the stress occupied.

There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent also
may shift its position in the history of a language from one
syllable to another. In prehistoric times the stress in Latin
must have rested upon the first syllable in all cases. Only on
this hypothesis can be explained forms like pepercl (perfect of
parco) and collide (a compound of laedo). In historical times,
when the stress in Latin was on the second syllable from the end
of the word if that syllable was long, or on the third syllable
from the end if the second from the end was short, we should have
expected to find *peparci and *collaedo, for throughout the
historical period the stress rested in these words upon the second
syllable from the end. The causes for the change of position
are not always easy to ascertain. In words of four syllables
with a long penult and words of five syllables with a short
penult there probably developed a secondary accent which
in course of time replaced the earlier accent upon the first
syllable. But the number of such long words in Latin is com-
paratively small. It is no less possible that relations between
the stress and pitch accents were concerned. For unless we
are to regard the testimony of the ancient Latin grammarians
as altogether untrustworthy there was at least in classical Latin a
well-marked pitch as well as a stress accent. This question,
which had long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes
in his treatise entitled Recherches s-ar Vhistoire el les ejfels de
I'intensite initiale en latin (Paris, 1902).

In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the first
syllable, which leads in time to the modification of borrowed words.
Thus throughout the l8th century there was a struggle going on
over the word balcony, which earlier was pronounced balcony.
Swift is the first author quoted for the pronunciation balcony, and
Cowper's balcdny in "John Gilpin" is among the latest instances of the
old pronunciation. Disregarding the Latin quantity of orator and

ACCEPTANCE— ACCESSORY

senator, English by throwing the stress on the first syllable has
converted them*5nto orator and senator, while Scots lawyers speak
also of a curator. How far French influence plays a part here is not
easy to say.

Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which have
been already discussed, there remains the accent of the sentence.
Here the problem is much more complicated. The accent of a
word, whether pitch or stress, may be considerably modified in the
sentence. From earliest times some words have become parasitic
or enclitic upon other words. Pronouns more than most words are
modified from this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. re (" and "),
the Lat. que, have throughout their whole history been enclitic
upon the preceding word. A very important word may be enclitic,
as in English don't, shan't. It is to be remembered that the unit
of language is rather the sentence than the word, and that the form
which is given to the word in the dictionary is very often not the
form which it takes in actual speech. The divisions of words in
speech are quite different from the divisions on the printed page.
Sanskrit alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this,
and preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken.

Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence to
express a great variety of meanings. Thus in English a sentence
like You rode to Newmarket yesterday, which contains five words,
may be made to express five different statements by putting the
stress upon each of the words in turn. By putting the stress on
you the person addressed is marked out as distinct from certain
others, by putting it upon rode other means of locomotion to New-
market are excluded, and so on. With the same order of words five
interrogative sentences may also be expressed, and a third series of
exclamatory sentences expressing anger, incredulity, &c., may be
obtained from the same words. It is to be noticed that for these
two series a different intonation, a different musical (pitch) accent
appears from that which is found in the same words when employed
to make a matter-of-fact statement.

In languages like Chinese, which have neither compound words
nor inflection, accent plays a- very important part. As the words
are all monosyllabic, stress could obviously not be so important as
pitch as a help to distinguish different senses attached to the same
vocable, and in no other language is variety of pitch so well developed
as in Chinese. In languages which, like English, show^comparatively
little pitch accent it is to be noticed that the sentence tends to
develop a more musical character under the influence of emotion.
The voice is raised and at the same time greater stress is generally
employed when the speaker is carried away by emotion, though
the connexion is not essential and strong emotion may be expressed
by a lowering as well as by a raising of the voice. In either case,
however, the stress will be greater than the normal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1890, now in
3rd edition), § 96 ff., History of English Sounds (1888), § no ff., and
other works; E. Sievers, Grunaziige der Phonetik (1893), § 532 ff. ;
O. Jespersen, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1904), an abbreviated German
translation of the author's larger work in Danish, § 216 ff. The books
of Sievers and Jespersen give (especially Sievers) full references to
the literature of the subject. For the accent system of the Indo-
European languages see " Betonung " in Brugmann's Crundriss der
vergleichendenGrammatikderindogermanischenSprachen,vo\.\. (1897),
or, with considerable modifications, his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik
der idg. Sprachen (1902), §§ 32-65 and 343-350. (P. Gi.)

ACCEPTANCE (Lat. accept/ire, frequentative form of accipere,
to receive), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of receipt;
in law, the act by which a person binds himself to comply with
the request contained in a bill of exchange (q.v.), addressed to him
by the drawer. In all cases it is understood to be a promise to
pay the bill in money, the law not recognizing an acceptance in
which the promise is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in
money and partly by another bill. Acceptance may be either
general or qualified. A general acceptance is an engagement to
pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by the
drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word " ac-
cepted," at the bottom of the bill, or across the face of it. Quali-
fied acceptance may be a promise to pay on a contingency occur-
ring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods consigned by the drawer to
the acceptor. No contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the
body of the bill, but a qualified acceptance is quite legal, and
equally binding with a general acceptance upon the acceptor
when the contingency has occurred. It is also qualified accept-
ance where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned
in the bill, or to pay at a different time or place from those
specified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the
drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he
chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent parties,
acting at his own risk if they dissent. In all cases acceptance
involves the signature of the acceptor either by himself or by

some person duly authorized on his behalf. A bill can be accepted
in the first instance only by the person or persons to whom it
is addressed; but if he or they fail to do so, it may, after being
protested for non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else
" supra protest," for the sake of the honour of one or more
of the parties concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a
claim against the drawer and all those to whom he could have
resorted.

ACCEPTILATION (from Lat. acceptilatio) , in Roman and
Scots law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation. This formal
mode of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received
its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a
receipt, i.e. carrying it to credit. The words conveying the
release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the expressed
obligation. Figuratively, in theology, the word acceptilation
means free remission or forgiveness of sins.

ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of approach-
ing. In law, the word is used in various connexions. The pre-
sumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be proved
that a husband has not had access to his wife within such a period
of time as would admit of his being the father. (See LEGITI-
MACY.) In the law of easements, every person who has land
adjoining a public road or a public navigable river has a right
of access to it from his land. So, also, every person has a right
of access to air and light from an ancient window. For the right
of access of parents to children under the guardianship of the
court, see INFANT.

ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach), in
law, a method of acquiring property adopted from Roman law, by
which, in things that have a close connexion with or dependence
on one another, the property of the principal draws after it the
property of the accessory, according to the principle, accessio
cedet principali. Accession may take place either in a natural
way, such as the growth of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or
in an artificial way. The various methods may be classified as
(i) land to land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land
(see FIXTURES); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables
added to by the art or industry of man; this may be by speci-
fication, as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion,
or commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids,
respectively. In the case of industrial accession ownership is
determined according as the natural or manufactured substance
is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is pay-
able to the person who has been dispossessed of his property.

In a historical or constitutional sense, the term " accession "
is applied to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of
sovereigns or of a single sovereign.

" Accession " sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquies-
cence. Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, where there
is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each
creditor by a " deed of accession."

ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as
principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, aid
or concealment. In certain crimes, there can be no accessories;
all concerned being principals, whether present or absent at the
time of their commission. These are treason, and all offences
below the degree of felony, as specified in the Offences against the
Person Act 1861.

There are two kinds of accessories — before the fact, and after
it. The first is he who commands or procures another to commit
felony, and is not present himself; for if he be present, he is a
principal. The second is he who receives, harbours, assists, or
comforts any man that has done murder or felony, whereof he
has knowledge.' An accessory before the fact is liable to the
same punishment as the principal; and there is now indeed no
practical difference between such an accessory and a principal
in regard either to indictment, trial or punishment. Acces-
sories after the fact are in general punishable with imprisonment
(with or without hard labour) for a period not exceeding two
years, but in the case of murder punishable by penal servitude
for life, or not less than three years, or by imprisonment (with
or without hard labour) to the extent of two years.

ACCIAJUOLI— ACCLIMATIZATION

The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces-
sory to any crime and the principal (see ART AND PART). Except
in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by
the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove
previous accession.

ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was
born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning,
especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to
his native state. Having previously been entrusted with
several important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence
in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to
ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope
Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried
in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his
daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he
left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small.
He wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lines (Flor-
ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics;
and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work
on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus.

ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin
neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for the gram-
matical changes to which words are subject in their inflections
as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote
a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the
rudiments of any subject or art.

ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely
variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected;
a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of
tort, it is defined as " an occurrence which is due neither to
design nor to negligence "; in equity, as " such an unforeseen
event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of
any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, " an effect
is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is
not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence
as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person
of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take
reasonable precaution against it " (Stephen, Digest of Criminal-
Law, art. 210). The word may also have in law the more
extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused
by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846,
Notice of Accidents Act 1894. See also CONTRACT, CRIMINAL
LAW, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, INSURANCE, TORT, &c.

•In logic an " accident " is a quality which belongs to a subject
but not as part of its essence (,m Aristotelian language Kara.
<ruw3«|37)/c6s, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes
are necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g.
the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible
from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation,
of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that in-
creased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was
thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or
vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no
such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge
would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An
accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents
have been classed as (i) " inseparable," i.e. universally present,
though no causal connexion is established, and (2) " separable,"
where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal.
Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and an
accident are classed as " accidental," " real " or " ampliative,"
as opposed to " verbal " or " analytical," which merely express
a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation

(<?.<>.

ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (i) in philosophy for any system
of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that
events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in
the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics,
accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or re-
sults from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous
with Tychism (rbxri, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for
the theories which make chance an objective factor in the

process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism main-
tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due
to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of imagination,
knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect.
In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the
theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to
previously ascertained psychological states, and that voh'tion is
not causally related to the motives involved. An example of
this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae
("liberty of indifference"), according to which the choice of
two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by con-
temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by
crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used
for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern
Painters, I. n. 4, iii. § 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for
the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification
of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by
modifying external conditions.

ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the i6th century, to whom is attri-
buted a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger
speaks with great praise.

ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman,
was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of his
death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since
Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on
literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very
high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. i, 56; Cicero, Pro Plancio,
24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of
some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free
translations from the Greek, his favourite subjects being the
legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national
history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius,
— the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius
Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous
language and show a lively power of description.
• Accius wrote other works of a literary character: Didascalicon
and Pragmaticon libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek
and Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga
and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an
Annales. He also introduced innovations in orthography and
grammar.

See Boissier, Le Poete Accius, 1856; L. Miiller, De Accii fabulis
Disputatio (1890) ; Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892) ;
editions of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by
Bahrens (1886); Plessis, Poesie latine (1909).

ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in delibera-
tive or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or
praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the
passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct
distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate
opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in
such forms as Omnes, omnes, Aequum est, Justum est, &c.; and
the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged
sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body
of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is
very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet
or non placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes
by acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without
any previous consultation " acclaimed " one of their number
as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its
application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church
services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In
modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation
when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by
shouting such words as A ye or Agreed.

ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which
animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving
and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats,
or under meteorological conditions different from those which
they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them.

The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and
some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It

ACCLIMATIZATION

is often confounded with domestication or with naturalization;
but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated
animal or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatized;
that is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the
seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated
but not acclimatized, and many of our most extensively culti-
vated plants are in the same category. A naturalized animal or
plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all the
vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore
be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in
many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see Appendix below)
there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions
which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea
of acclimatization. On the contrary, many species, in a new
country and under somewhat different climatic conditions,
seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land,
and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as
often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus L.
Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road-
side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number
of 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis-
appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according
to T. Kirk ( Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii.
p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than
100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace
the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat
and pig are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply
to such an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many
native productions. In none of these cases is there any indica-
tion that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place.

On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be
naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. It has been
shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants
in a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far
more efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere
influence of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so
few, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever
run wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize
them usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Geographie bolaniqtie,
p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and
especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds
of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the
most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has
any one of them become naturalized. Attempts have also been
made to naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places
where the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem
generally favourable, but in no case do they seem to have
succeeded. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated
and so perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state
in any part of Europe.

Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and
Plants. — Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness
of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only
will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate climate,
but many species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees
of latitude beyond their natural limits. This is probably due to
the fact, established by the experiments of A. C. Becquerel,
that plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly de-
pendent on that of the surrounding medium.

Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive
to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from
north to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from
the equator to northern Asia as far as the river Amur, and to
the isothermal of 32° Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer
montana) is abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform
equatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a con-
siderable portion of northern Europe. It is true that most
terrestrial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a
great range of temperature or very diversified climates, but
there is reason to believe that this is d'^e to quite a different set
of causes, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appro-
priate food. When supplied with food and partially protected

from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring
climates very different from that in which they originally flour-
ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of
very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost
every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form
one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of birds, only a
few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet
even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means
delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account,
by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps
Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama-
zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose
crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained
at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they
almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing
to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when
the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good spirits
and vigorous health. Some of these birds have lived thus ex-
posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds,
rain, hail and snow, all through the winter — a marvellous
contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less
than 70°) to which many of them had been accustomed for the
first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex-
perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots
and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to
changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly
beneficial as compared with the older method of strict protection
from cold.

Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical
than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable,
some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold.
Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an
elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively
among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths.
In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by
W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore
conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm
latitudes is probably determined by other causes than tempera-
ture alone.

Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species
inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extinct Siberian
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species
now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes
are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as
are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous
genera of waders and aquatic birds.

A consideration of these and many analogous facts might
induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least,
there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in
their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numer-
ous examples of domestic animals which show that such adapta-
tion does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long
survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain
altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased
density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same
animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there
readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the
Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost
than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adapta-
tion is often more marked. Snakes, which are so abundant in
warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly
cease at lat. 62°. Most insects are also very susceptible to cold,
and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature.

From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude,
firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitution-
ally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but are
capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less exten-
sive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and,
secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less
closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native
habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former

n6

ACCLIMATIZATION

class in countries not extremely differing from that from which
the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize,
in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class,
however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to natural-
ization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have
therefore to inquire whether it is possible.

Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation. — It is evident that
acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either
by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to
the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may
be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The
alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is
not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many
writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indica-
tions that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are
propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the
existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad-
duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from
Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those
taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however
prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the
individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that
acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed little or no evi-
dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at
first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub-
jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily
and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may,
on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such
an acclimatization would take place.

Acclimatization by Variation. — A mass of evidence exists
showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among
the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular,
constitutional variations are by no means uncommon. Among
cultivated plants, for example, hardier and more tender varieties
often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: —
Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some
are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and
Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States.
Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for
example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland.
Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted
by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced
a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken
to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native
wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in
Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month
earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long
as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender;
but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts
of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were
found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds.
Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties
always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing
in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us
unless marked out by tjieir behaviour under exceptional con-
ditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of
1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some
plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them.
In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely
killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips
of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be
found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Hue, who, in his
L' Empire chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract
from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang: — " On the ist day of
the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been
sown to be ready for the harvest in the gth moon. I observed
by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was
higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered.
I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and
well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see
if the following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so.

All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual
time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied
the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice
which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and
of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant
taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first
cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen
north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins
very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate
is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be
easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have
procured this advantage for my people." Hue adds his testi-
mony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no
other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example
of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional
variation.

That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step
to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following
examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported
from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants from
French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised
from Darjeeling seed (originally imported from England) both
flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been
tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first
introduced into Greece ; so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling
northward during two thousand years it must have become
much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical
range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while
in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can
thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important
fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the
altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the
upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than
those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker
to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons,
raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes.

Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. When geese
were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long
intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the
fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to
what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according
to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they
were not fertile, whereas now they are as much so as in Europe.
C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep
bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better
adapted for India than those imported from England; and
while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite
hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm
latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance
that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that
animals should be removed from one district to another as little
as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese
agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves
that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country
in which it originated has always been recognized.

Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External
Modification. — Although in some cases no perceptible alteration
of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to
climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin
collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under
Domestication.

In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167),
A. R.Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among
insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes.
He found that the butterflies of the family Papilionidae, and some
others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups
of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and
Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied
species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of
the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or
closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the
species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite

ACCLIMATIZATION

117

distinct from that of the same or closely allied species of ad-
jacent islands; and, lastly, numerous species which have tailed
wings in India and the western islands of the Archipelago,
gradually lose the tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea
and the Pacific.

Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due to
other causes than climate only, but they serve to show how
powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form
and structure of both plants and animals; and they render it
probable that changes of constitution are also continually pro-
duced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no means of
detecting them. It is also impossible to determine how far the
effects described are produced by spontaneous favourable varia-
tions or by the direct action of local conditions; but it is prob-
able that in every case both causes are concerned, although in
constantly varying proportions.

Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Naturalization.
— We may now take it as an established fact that varieties of
animals and plants occur, both in domesticity and in a state of
nature, which are better or worse adapted to special climates.
There is no positive evidence that the influence of new climatal
conditions on the parents has any tendpncy to produce variations
in the offspring better adapted to such conditions. Neither does
it appear that this class of variations are very frequent. It is,
however, certain that whenever any animal or plant is largely
propagated constitutional variations will arise, and some of these
will be better adapted than others to the climatal and other
conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every recurring
severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season weeds out those
individuals of tender constitution or imperfect structure which
may have got on very well during favourable years, and it is
thus that the adaptation of the species to the climate in which
it has to exist is kept up. Under domestication the same thing
occurs by what C. Darwin has termed "unconscious selection."
Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his
soil and climate and rejects those which are tender or otherwise
unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as he finds
to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those which suffer from
cold, damp or disease. A more or less close adaptation to local
conditions is thus brought about, and breeds or races are pro-
duced which are sometimes liable to deterioration on removal
even to a short distance in the same country, as in numerous
cases quoted by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domesti-
cation).

The Method of Acclimatization. — Taking into consideration
the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered as
proved — ist, That habit has little (though it appears to have
some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of animals to
a new climate; but that it has a decided, though still slight,
influence in plants when, by the process of propagation by buds,
shoots or grafts, the individual can be kept under its influence
for long periods; 2nd, That great and sudden changes of climate
often check reproduction even when the health of the individuals
does not appear to suffer. In order, therefore, to have the best
chance of acclimatizing any animal or plant in a climate very dis-
similar from that of its native country, and in which it has been
proved that the species in question cannot live and maintain itself
without acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the
following: —

1. We must transport as large a number as possible of adult
healthy individuals to some intermediate station, and increase
them as much as possible for some years. Favourable varia-
tions of constitution will soon show themselves, and these should
be carefully selected to breed from, the tender and unhealthy
individuals being rigidly eliminated.

2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to pass
through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number of the
hardiest may be removed to the more remote station, and the
same process gone through, giving protection if necessary while
the stock is being increased, but as soon as a large number of
healthy individuals are produced, subjecting them to all the
vicissitudes of the climate.

It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would
succeed. It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at one
of the early meetings of the Societe Zoologique d' Acclimatalion, at
Paris, Isodore Geoffrey St Hilaire insisted that it was the only
method by which acclimatization was possible. But in looking
through the long series of volumes of Reports published by this
society, there is no sign that any systematic attempt at acclimat-
ization has even once been made. A number of foreign animals
have been introduced, and more or less domesticated, and some
useful exotics have been cultivated for the purpose of testing
their applicability to French agriculture or horticulture; but
neither in the case of animals nor of plants has there been any sys-
tematic effort to modify the constitution of the species, by breed-
ing largely and selecting the favourable variations that appeared.

Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. This
is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and great beauty,
which will thrive in the extreme south of France. In the Bulletin
of the society a large number of attempts to introduce this tree
into general cultivation in other parts of France are recorded in
detail, with the failure of almost all of them. But no precautions
such as those above indicated appear to have been taken in any
of these experiments; a.nd we have no intimation that either the
society or any of its members are making systematic efforts to
acclimatize the tree. The first step would be, to obtain seed from
healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at the greatest
altitude in its native country, sowing these very largely, and in
a variety of soils and situations, in a part of France where the
climate is somewhat but not much more extreme. It is almost
a certainty that a number of trees would be found to be quite
hardy. As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in the
same district and farther north in a climate a little more severe.
After an exceptionally cold season, seed should be collected from
the trees that suffered least, and should be sown in various dis-
tricts all over France. By such a process there can be hardly any
doubt that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any
part of France, and in many other countries of central Europe;
and more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of
this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual
animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are the
species that do not require to be acclimatized.

Acclimatization of Man. — On this subject we have, unfortu-
nately, very little direct or accurate information. The general
laws of heredity and variation have been proved to apply to
man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous facts in the
distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at
least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate.
If the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact
that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case consti-
tutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization
has occurred. But we have the same phenomenon in single
varieties of man, such as the American, which inhabits alike the
frozen wastes of Hudson's Bay and Tierra del Fuego, and the
hottest regions of the tropics, — the low equatorial valleys and
the lofty plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transfer-
ence to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is
to most animals and plants; but there is every reason to believe
that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can be acclimat-
ized to almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively
few generations. Some eminent writers haye denied this. Sir
Ranald Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate
of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there is no
such thing as acclimatization. Dr Hunt, in a report to the
British Association in 1861, argued that "time is no agent,"
and — " if there is no sign of acclimatization in one generation;
there is no such process." But he entirely ignored the effect of
favourable variations, as well as the direct influence of climate
acting on the organization from infancy.

Professor Theodor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology,
adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitu-
tional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. Negroes,
for example, who have been for three or four generations acclimat-
ized in North America, on returning to Africa become subject to

n8

ACCLIMATIZATION

the same local diseases as other unacclimatized individuals.
He well remarked that the debility and sickening of Europeans
in many tropical countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate,
but are rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratifica-
tion and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who
cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are less able
to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sober Spaniards
and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of European troops
in India, and the delicacy of the children of European parents,
do not affect the real question of acclimatization under proper
conditions. They only show that acclimatization is in most
cases necessary, not that it cannot take place. The best examples
of partial or complete acclimatization are to be found where
European races have permanently settled in the tropics, and
have maintained themselves for several generations. There are,
however, two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against^ and
these are made the most of by the writers above referred to,
and are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are
otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we have the
possibility of a mixture of native blood having occurred; in the
second, there have almost always been a succession of immigrants
from the parent country, who continually intermingle with the
families of the early settlers. It is maintained that one or other
of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans
to continue long to flourish in the tropics.

There are, however, certain cases in which the sources of error
above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and cannot seri-
ously affect the results; such as those of the Jews, the Dutch at
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards
in South America.

The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they
have been established for many centuries in climates very
different from that of their native land; they keep themselves
almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around
them; and they are often so populous in a country that the inter-
mixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot seri-
ously affect the local purity of the race. They have, for instance,
attained a population of millions in such severe climates as
Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they have succeeded
so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst of anti-semitism;
and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed in rearing children
and forming permanent communities.

In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans
are perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it
seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes on this
subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known
botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South
America, but who was prevented by ill-health from publishing
his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botanist, 1908).
As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, both of man and
nature, he had few superiors. He says:

The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2° 13' S.) are kept pure
by careful selection. The slightest tincture of red or black blood bars
entry into any of the old families who are descendants of Spaniards
from the Provincias Vascongadas or those bordering the Bay of
Biscay, where the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the inter-
course of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of
the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing
possible. The consequence of this careful breeding is, that the
women of Guayaquil are considered (and justly) the finest along the
whole Pacific coast. They are often tall, sometimes very handsome,
decidedly healthy, although pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their
sons are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to
become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, who have farms
in the savannahs and are accustomed to take long rides in all
weathers, and those whose trade obliges them to take frequent
journeys in the mountainous interior, or even to Europe and North
America, are often as active and as little burdened with superfluous
flesh as a Scotch farmer.

The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5°S.), which was
founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is very hot, especially in
the three or four months following the southern solstice. In March
1843 the temperature only once fell as low as 83° during the whole
month, the usual lowest night temperature being 85°. Yet people
of all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very prolific. I
resided in this town itself nine months, and in the neighbourhood
seven months more. The population (in 1863-1864) was about 10,000,

of which not only a considerable proportion waswhite, but was mostly
descended from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity of
descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guaya-
quil. The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or even
supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed race, and fear
or favour has often availed toprocure them an alliance with theoldest
and purest-blooded families.

These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate
the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest
parts of South America. Although we have here nothing to do
with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been often
taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has been
also sometimes held to prove that neither the European nor his
half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The
following observation is therefore of interest: —

At Guayaquil for a lady of good family — married or unmarried —
to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does happen it is
felt as a calamity by the whole community. But here, and perhaps
in most other towns in South America, a poor girl of mixed race —
especially if good-looking — rarely thinks of marrying one of her own
class until she has — as the Brazilians say — "apprpveitada de sua
mocidade " (made the most of her youth) in receiving presents from
gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry to her husband, he does
not care to inquire, or is not sensitive, about the mode in which it
was acquired. The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual inter-
course, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to
paralyse, the fertility of the female. And as among people of mixed
race it is almost universal, the population of these must fall off both
in numbers and quality.

The following example of divergent acclimatization of the
same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and will
conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes: —

One of the most singular cases connected with this subject that
have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, or apparent
impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian in a certain zone of
the Andes. Any person who has compared the physical characters
of the native races of South America must be convinced that these
have all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences
exist, but none capable of invalidating tnis conclusion. The warmth
yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon; the Indian of the hot, dry
and treeless coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head
to the sun with as much zest as an African negro ; the Indian of the
Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantly bare-
legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude straw hut the
piercing wind of the paramos sweeps andNchills the white man to the
very bones; — all these, in the colour and t^tture of the skin, the hair
and other important features, are plainly of one and the same race.

Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between
about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best flavoured
coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant but more saccharine than
in the plains, and which is therefore very desirable to cultivate, but
where the red man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the
sierra get ague and dysentery. Those of the plains find the tempera-
ture chilly, and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the
limbs. I have seen the difficulty experienced in getting farms culti-
vated in this zone, on both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent
residents are generally limited to the major-domo and his family;
and in the dry season labourers are hired, of any colour that can be
obtained — some from the low country, others from the highlands —
for three, four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane,
and plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of
resident Indian labourers, such as exists in the farms of the sierra,
cannot be kept up in the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are
called. White men, who take proper precautions, and are not
chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the climate perfectly, but
the creole whites are still too much caballeros to devote themselves
to agricultural work.

In what is now the republic of Ecuador, the only peopled portions
are the central valley, between the two ridges of the Andes — height
7000 to 12,000 feet — and the hot plain at their western base; nor
do the wooded slopes appear to have been inhabited, except by
scattered savage hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians
of the highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited
that region exclusively for untold ages; and a similar affirmation
may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now, there is little doubt
that the progenitors of both these sections came from a temperate
region (in North America); so that here we have one moiety ac-
climatized to endure extreme heat, and the other extreme cold; and
at this day exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as we
have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always pernicious
and often fatal. But if this great difference has been brought about
in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white man?
Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt that the
inherent adaptability is the same in both, or (if not) that the white
man possesses it in a higher degree.

ACCLIMATIZATION

119

The observations of Spruce are of themselves almost conclu-
sive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized
in the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies
only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately able
to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated and con-
clusive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic races. In
South Africa the Dutch have been settled and nearly isolated
for over 200 years, and have kept themselves almost or quite
free from native intermixture. They are still preponderatingly
fair in complexion, while physically they are tall and strong.
They marry young and have large families. The population,
according to a census taken in 1798, was under' 22,000. In
1865 it was near 182,000, the majority being of " Dutch, German
or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." In
more recent times, the conditions have been so greatly changed
by immigration, that the later statistics cease to have a definite
meaning with regard to acclimatization. We have here a
population which doubled itself every twenty-two years; and
the greater part of this rapid increase must certainly be due
to the old European immigrants. In the Moluccas, where the
Dutch have had settlements for 250 years, some of the inhabit-
ants trace their descent to early immigrants; and these, as
well as most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are
quite as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health,
and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate themselves
admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work early
in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a quiet, tem-
perate and cheerful life. They also pay great attention to
drainage and general cleanliness. In addition to these examples,
it is obvious that the rapid increase of English-speaking popula-
tions in the United States and in Australia is far greater than
can be explained by immigration, and shows two conspicuous
examples of acclimatization.

On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under
favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means
to the end in view, man may become acclimatized with at least
as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations rather
than by years) as any of the lower animals. The greatest
difficulty in his way is not temperature, but the presence of
parasitic diseases to resist which his body has not been prepared,
and modern knowledge is rapidly defining these dangers and the
modes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.)

APPENDIX

The task of collecting information as to animals which
have become permanently naturalized away from their native
haunts is anything but easy, as few regular records have
been kept by acclimatizers. Moreover, recorders of local fauna
have been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms,
except when they have had occasion to comment on the effects,
real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas.

Mammals. — It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world-
wide distribution of the two rats M us rattus and M . decumanus,
and of the house-mouse M. musculus; their introduction has
always been involuntary. Similarly nearly all our domestic
mammals except the sheep have become feral somewhere or
other, whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the
smaller ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and
cats. This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New
Zealand; in America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle
are also feral. Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand.

The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as a wild
animal in North Australia; it is very liable to revert to a wild
state, being little altered from its still-existing wild ancestor.
A more curious case is that of the one-humped camel {Camelus
dromedarius), a beast only known in domestication, and that in
arid countries; yet a number of these have become feral in the
Spanish marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal
flamingoes.

The red deer (Cemus elaphus) is now widely distributed as a
wild animal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer (C.
dama) and the Indian sambar (C. aristotelis or unicolor) have been

introduced locally. The sambar, or one or other of its sub-
species, has also been naturalized in Mauritius, and in the
Marianne Islands in the open Pacific.

The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well
known. Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it
is also established in the Falklands and Kerguelen; its presence
in much of Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it
seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula.

The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes.

Few other rodents have been designedly naturalized, but the
North American grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus) appears to be
established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, Bedfordshire,
England, and may probably spread thence.

To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and pole-
cats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) were intro-
duced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the last quarter
of the ipth century. They have spread widely, and have not
confined their depredations to the rabbits, so that the indigenous
flightless birds have suffered largely.

Another carnivore of very similar habits, the Indian mongoose
(Herpestus griseus or H . mungo) , has been naturalized in Jamaica,
whence it has been carried to other West Indian Islands, and in
the Hawaiian group. It has also been tried, but unsuccessfully,
in Australia. The first introduction into Jamaica took place in
1872, and ten years later the animal was credited with saving
many thousands of pounds annually by its destruction of rats.
But before an equal space of time had further elapsed, it had
itself become a pest; the most recent information, however, is
to the effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that
the disturbed faunal equilibrium is being readjusted.

The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion,
are likely animals to have been naturalized. W. T. Blanford
(Fauna of British India, " Mammals ") thinks that the presence
of the Indian form, Viverricula malaccensis, in Socotra, the
Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of
man.

The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia,
where it is destructive to the native fauna and to lambs.

Among primates, a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pileatus) has
been naturalized in Mauritius for centuries, the circumstances
of introduction being unknown.

The common Australian "opossum" or phalanger (Tricho-
surus vulpeculd) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although
very destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably
the motive. It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand
specimens is superior, as might be expected from the colder
climate.

Birds. — The introduction of mammals has been largely in-
fluenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was not
absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case of birds
it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many cases, and
hence is looked upon with especial dislike by naturalists. The
domestic birds have comparatively seldom become feral, doubt-
less, as C. Darwin points out, from the reduction of their powers
of flight in many cases. The guinea-fowl, however, has long
been in this condition in Jamaica and St Helena, and the fowl
in Hawaii and other Polynesian islands. The pheasant has been
naturalized in the United States, New Zealand, Hawaii and
St Helena. Its naturalization in western Europe is very ancient,
but the race supposed to have been introduced by the Romans
(Phasianus colchieus) has been much modified within the last
century or two by the introduction of the ring-necked Chinese
form (P. torquatus), which produces fertile hybrids with the old
breed. Thus those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of
mixed blood, and further introductions of pure Chinese stock
have tended to make the latter the dominant form, at any rate
in the United States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian1)
and in New Zealand. In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck
appears to have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in
the former the Japanese race (P. tiersicolor) is also naturalized.

1 The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongoHcus), a very different
bird, has recently been introduced into England.

120

ACCLIMATIZATION

The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) is locally estab-
lished in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants of
less common species. The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevesi) is at
large on some English estates. Of the partridges, the continental
red-leg (Caccabis rufa) is established in England, and its ally,
the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St Helena, as is the Cali-
fornian quail (Lophortyx calif arnica ) in New Zealand and Hawaii.
The latter, however, though thriving as an aviary bird, has
failed at large in England, as did the bob-white (Ortyx virginianus)
both there and in New Zealand.

The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led
to many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these
have been unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), how-
ever, the only endemic British bird, is naturalized in some parts
of Europe.

Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is natural-
ized to a small extent in Britain, and also, to a less degree, the
Egyptian goose (Chenalopex aegyptiacus); the latter bird also
occurs wild in New Zealand. The modern presence of the black
swan of Australia (Chenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be
due to a natural irruption of the species about half a century
ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so.

Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little favour
that few attempts have been made to naturalize them; the
continental little owl (Athene noctua), however, has for some
time been well established in England, where it has hardly, if
ever, appeared naturally.

Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has
become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese turtle-
dove (Turtur chinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is the small
East Indian zebra dove (Geopelia striala) in the Seychelles, and
the allied Australian (G. tranquilld) in St Helena. There has
also been very little naturalization of parrots, but the rosella
parrakeet of Australia (Platycercus eximius) is being propagated
by escaped captives in the north island of New Zealand, and its
ally the mealy rosella (P. pallidiceps) is locally wild in Hawaii,
the stock in this case having descended from a single pair in-
tentionally liberated. Attempts to naturalize that well-known
Australian grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Melopsiltacus un-
dulatus) in England have so far proved abortive, and none of
the species experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire
effected a settlement. The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis
cana) of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles. Some
of the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed,
especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus), which is now
an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in the
Australasian States and in North America. It is, in fact, as
notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as the
rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the
New Zealand animals (London, 1905) it is not regarded in this
light, considering that some very common exotic birds were
needed to keep down the insects, which it certainly did. Even
in the United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer
of weed-seeds. The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina,
some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans.

The allied tree-sparrow (P. monlanus) has been locally
naturalized in the United States; it is a more desirable bird,
being less prolific and pugnacious, but it is expelled from towns
by the house-sparrow.

The so-called Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora), although a
destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed by accident
or design, and is now found in several East Indian islands besides
Java, in south China, St Helena, India, Zanzibar and the east
African coast. An allied but much smaller weaver-finch, a form
of the spice-bird (Munia nisoria punclala), is introduced and
well distributed over the Hawaiian islands. The little rooibek
of South Africa (Estrilda aslrild) has been so long and well
established in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as
the St Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Mada-
gascar (Foudia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird
Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands.

Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete

with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by man
is the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), now established all over
New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United States and
Jamaica. It bears a good character, and is one of the marked
successes of naturalization. The redpoll (Acanthis linaria),
chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and greenfinch (Chloris Moris) are
established in New Zealand, the last named being a pest there,
as is also the cirl-bunting (Emberiza cirlus) — the yellow-hammer
(E. citrinella) being perhaps confused with this also.

Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah,
Acridotheres tristis, but some other species seem to have been
confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans,
Seychelles, Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand.
Its alleged destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open
to doubt.

The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is naturalized in
New Zealand, Australia and to some extent in the United
States. Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the
song- thrush and blackbird ( Turdus musicus and Merula merula)
are common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuc-
cessfully, to establish the latter in the United States. The
so-called hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), really a member
of this group, is one of the successful introductions into New
Zealand. The robin (Erithacus rubecula) failed there.

Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and the Australian "magpie" or
piping crow (Gymnorhina) are to be found in New Zealand, but
only locally, especially the former.

Reptiles and Amphibians. — Very little naturalization has been
effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in regard to these
groups, but the occurrence of the edible frog of the continent
of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an introduced animal in certain
British localities is well known. An Australian tree-frog (Hyla
peronii) is naturalized in many parts of the north island of New
Zealand.

Fish. — The instances of naturalization in this class are few,
but important. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), originally
a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized in Europe,
where indeed it is in places a true domestic creature, with
definite variations. It is, however, quite feral also, and has
been introduced into North America.

The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in New
Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic form (C.
auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely distributed as a pet,
and is feral in some places.

The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) of the East Indies has been
established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable food-
fish.

The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however,
the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New
Zealand. These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo
fario and 5. trutla); they attain a great size. So far, attempts
to establish the true salmon in alien localities have been un-
successful, but the American rainbow trout (S. irideus) has
thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char of the same conti-
nent (S. fontinalis) inhabits at least one stream there to the
exclusion of the common trout.

Invertebrates. — Many insects and other invertebrates, mostly
noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have
been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in
Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported
into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover.

The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately
encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the native
flesh-fly, a more objectionable pest, disappears.

The wide distribution of three common cockroaches (Peri-
planeta americana, Blatla orientalis and Ectobia germanica) is
well known, but these are chiefly house-insects.

The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontia or
Pieris rapae) is now established in North America; and the
march of the jigger, or foot-infesting flea (Sarcopsytta penetrans)
of tropical America, across Africa, has taken place in quite
recent years.

ACCOLADE— ACCOMMODATION

121

The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced
the edible snail (Helix pomatia) into England, and the common
garden snail and slugs (Helix aspersa, Limax agrestis and
Arion hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New
Zealand. In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe are
noticed to replace native forms as the ground is broken.

General Remarks. — A great deal has been said about the up-
setting of the balance of nature by naturalization, and as to the
ill-doing of exotic forms. But certain considerations should be
borne in mind in this connexion. In the first place, naturaliza-
tion experiments fail at least as often as they succeed, and often
quite inexplicably. Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed
to establish themselves in New Zealand. This may ultimately
throw some light on the disappearance of native forms; for
these have at times declined without any assignable cause.

Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing off
of the original forest or other vegetation, in which case their
recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, and the fauna which
has established itself in the presence of cultivation is needed to
replace them.

Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing ones
may often be due rather to the spread of disease and parasites
than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native birds have
been found suffering from a disease which attacks poultry. And
the recession of the New Zealand earthworms and flies before
exotic forms probably falls under this category. As man can-
not easily avoid introducing parasites, and must keep domestic
animals and till the land, a certain disturbance in aboriginal
faunas is absolutely unavoidable. Under certain circumstances,
however, the native animals may recover, for in some cases
they even profit by man's advent, and at times themselves
become pests, like the Kea parrot (Nestor notabilis), which
attacks sheep in New Zealand, and the bobolink or rice-bird
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus) in North America. Finally, it should
never be forgotten that the worst enemies of declining forms have
been collectors who have not given these species the chance of
recovering themselves. (F. FN.)

ACCOLADE (from Ital. accolala, derived from Lat. collum,
the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood;
but whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use of
the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on the
neck or cheek, is not agreed. Both these customs appear to be
of great antiquity. Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings
of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights
on the left cheek; and William the Conqueror is said to have
made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knighthood
on his son Henry. At first it was given with the naked fist, a
veritable box on the ear, but for this was substituted a gentle
stroke with the flat of the sword on the side of the neck, or on
either shoulder as well. In Great Britain the sovereign, in
conferring knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade.

" Accolade " is also a technical term in music-printing for a
sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture it
denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows.

ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO (1415-1466), Italian jurist and his-
torian, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, of a noble family, several
members of which were distinguished like himself for their attain-
ments in law. He was for some time professor of jurisprudence
in the university of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated
Poggio, in 1459, became chancellor of the Florentine republic.
He died at Florence. In conjunction with his brother Leonardo,
he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, entitled De
Bello a Christianis contra Barbaras gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et
Judaea recuperandis libri tres (Venice, 1432, translated into
Italian, 1543, and into French, 1620), which, though itself of
little interest, is said to have furnished Tasso with the historic
basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's —
De Praestantia Virorum sui Aevi — was published at Parma in
1689. His brother Francesco (1418-1483) was also a distin-
guished jurist, and was the author of Consilia sen responsa (Pisa,
1481); Commentaria super lib. ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481);
Commentaria (Pavia, 1493); de Balneis Puteolanis (1475).

ACCOLTI, BERNARDO (1465-1536), Italian poet, born at
Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti. Known in his own
day as /' Unico Aretino, he acquired great fame as a reciter of
impromptu verse. He was listened to by large crowds, com-
posed of the most learned men and the most distinguished
prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal Bembo has left
on record a testimony to his extraordinary talent. His high
reputation with his contemporaries seems scarcely justified by
the poems he published, though they give evidence of brilliant
fancy. It is probable that he succeeded better in his ex-
temporary productions than in those which were the fruit of
deliberation. His works, under the title Virginia, Comedia,
Capitoli e Strambotti di Messer Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were
published at Florence in 1513, and have been several times
reprinted.

ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455-1532), brother of the preceding,
known as the cardinal of Ancona, was born in Florence on the
i5th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the i2th of December
1532 (Ciaconi, Vitae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 295). He was made
bishop of Ancona, 1505, and cardinal on the i?th of March 1511,
by Julius II. He was abbreviator under Leo X., and in that
capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther (L. Cardella,
Memorie Storiche de' Cardinali, 1793, iii. 450). He held succes-
sively the suburban sees of Albano and Sabina, also the sees
of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, and was made arch-
bishop of Ravenna, 1524, by Clement VII.

F. Cristofori (Storia dei Cardinali, 1888) and others have
confused him with his nephew BENEDETTO (1497-1549), son of
Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, was
made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as a writer
in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet.

ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodarc, to make fit, from ad,
to, cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting,
adapting, adjusting or supplying with what is needed (e.g.
housing).

In theology the term " accommodation " is used rather loosely
to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or idea,
in a context other than that in which it originally occurred; the
actual wording of the quotation may be modified to a greater or
lesser extent. Such accommodation, though sometimes purely
literary or stylistic, generally has the definite purpose of instruc-
tion, and is frequently used both in the New Testament and
in pulpit utterances in all periods as a means of producing a
reasonably accurate impression of a complicated idea in the
minds of those who are for various reasons unlikely to compre-
hend it otherwise. There are roughly three main kinds, (i)
A later Biblical passage quotes from an earlier, partly as a
literary device, but also with a view to demonstration. Some-
times it is plain that the writer deliberately " accommodates "
a quotation (cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New
Testament quotations of Old Testament predictions are often
for us accommodations — striking or forced as the case may be
— while the New Testament writer, " following the exegetical
methods current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15,
18, xxvi. 31, xxvii. 9 " (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century
Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments. To say
that he is merely " describing a New Testament fact in Old
Testament phraseology " may be true of the result rather than
of his design. (2) Much besides in the Bible — parable, metaphor,
&c. — has been called an " accommodation," or divine conde-
scension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century rational-
ism (see APOLOGETICS) held that the Biblical writers made great
use of conscious accommodation — intending moral common-
places when they seemed to be enunciating Christian dogmas.
Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. Semler, is " econ-
omy," which also occurs in the kindred sense of " reserve " (or
of Disciplina Arcani—a, modern term for the supposed early
Catholic habit of reserving esoteric truths). Isaac Williams on
Reserve in Religious Teaching, No. 80 of Tracts for the Times,
made a great sensation; see R. W. Church's comments in The
Oxford Movement. Strictly, accommodation (2) or (3) modifies,
in form or in substance, the content of religious belief; reserve,

122

ACCOMMODATION BILL— ACCORSO

from prudence or cunning, withholds part. " Economy " is
used in both senses.

ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its
name implies, is a bill of exchange accepted and sometimes
endorsed without any receipt of value in order to afford tem-
porary pecuniary aid to the person accommodated. (See BILL
OF EXCHANGE.)

ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which "accompanies"), a
musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental compo-
sition added to support and heighten the principal vocal or
instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, single
instruments or the orchestra. The accompaniment may be
obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms an essential part
of the composition or not. The term obbligato or obbligato
accompaniment is also used for an independent instrumental
solo accompanying a vocal piece. Owing to the early custom
of only writing the accompaniment in outline, by means of a
" figured bass," to be filled in by the performer, and to the
changes in the number, quality and types of the instruments of
the orchestra, " additional " accompaniments have been written
for the works of the older masters; such are Mozart's " addi-
tional " accompaniments to Handel's Messiah or those to many of
the elder Bach's works by Robert Franz. In common parlance
any support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument
is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely
" vamped " by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise
to the dignity of an artistic composition. In the history of song
the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is important,
and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental parts practi-
cally constitute a duet, in which the instrumental part may be at
least as important as that of the voice.

ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex,
a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the ac- is
possibly due to confusion with " accomplish," to complete, Lat.
complere, to fill up), in law, one who is associated with another
or others in the commission of a crime, whether as principal
or accessory. The term is chiefly important where one of
those charged with a crime turns king's evidence in the expect-
ation of obtaining a pardon for himself. Accordingly, as his
evidence is tainted with self-interest, it is a rule of practice
to direct a jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice
is not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the
circumstances of the offence and the participation of the accused
in it. An accomplice who has turned king's evidence usually
receives a pardon, but has no legal right to exemption from
punishment till he has actually received it.

ACCORAMBONI, VITTORIA (1557-1585), an Italian lady
famous for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her
tragic history. She was born in Rome of a family belonging to
the minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a
view to bettering their fortunes. After refusing several offers of
marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to Francesco
Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew of Cardinal
Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become pope. Vittoria
was admired and worshipped by all the cleverest and most
brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious and extravagant
although poor, she and her husband were soon plunged in debt.
Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. Orsini, duke of
Bracciano, one of the most powerful men in Rome, and her
brother Marcello, wishing to see her the duke's wife, had Peretti
murdered (1581). The duke himself was suspected of complicity,
inasmuch as he was believed to have murdered his first wife,
Isabella de' Medici. Now that Vittoria was free he made her
an offer of marriage, which she willingly accepted, and they
were married shortly after. But her good fortune aroused much
jealousy, and attempts were made to annul the marriage; she
was even imprisoned, and only liberated through the interfer-
ence of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo. On the death of Gregory
XIII., Cardinal Montalto, her first husband's uncle, was elected
in his place as Sixtus V. (1585); he vowed vengeance on the
duke of Bracciano and Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first
to Venice and thence to Sal6 in Venetian territory. Here the

duke died in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal
property (the duchy of Bracciano he left to his son by his first
wife) to his widow. Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to
live in retirement at Padua, where she was followed by Lodovico
Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of the Vene-
tian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the pro-
perty. But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico
hired a band of bravos and had Vittoria assassinated (22nd of
December 1585). He himself and nearly all his accomplices
were afterwards put to death by order of the republic.

About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she has
been greatly maligned by some biographers. Her story formed
the basis of Webster's drama, The Tragedy of Paolo Giordano
Ursini (1612), and of Ludwig Tieck's novel, Vittoria Accoramboni
(1840); it is told more accurately in D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria
Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), and an excellent sketch of her life
is given in Countess E. Martinengo-Cesaresco's Lombard Studies
(London, 1902). (L. V.*)

ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree), in law, an agreement
between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against
the other, to give and accept in substitution for such right any
good legal consideration. Such an agreement when executed
discharges the cause of action and is called Accord and Satis-
faction.

ACCORDION (Fr. accordion; Ger. Handharmonica, Ziehhar-
monica), a small portable reed wind instrument with keyboard,
the smallest representative of the organ family, invented in
1829 by Damian, in Vienna.

The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which
is attached a keyboard with from 5 to 50 keys. The keys on
being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open
valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of narrow
tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the
lower board of the bellows, having their free ends bent, some
inwards, some outwards. Each key produces two notes, one
From the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are compressed,
the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in the
American organ; see HARMONIUM) when the bellows are ex-
panded. The pitch of the note is determined by the length and
thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending to sharpen
the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers it. The right
tiand plays the melody on the keyboard, while the left works
the bellows and manipulates the two or three bass harmony
ieys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic and dominant.
The archetype of the accordion is the cheng (q.v.), or Chinese
organ, between which and the harmonium it forms a connecting
link structurally, although not invented for some thirty years
after the harmonium. The timbre of the accordion is coarse
and devoid of beauty, but in the hands of a skilful performer
;he best instruments are not entirely without artistic merit.
Improvements in the construction of the accordion produced the
concertina (q.v.), melodion and melophone.

See Adolf Mueller, Accordion- Schule oder vollstandige Anleitung,
das Accordion in kurzer Zeit richtig spielen zu erlernen (Wien, 1834).
See also FREE REED VIBRATOR. (K. S.)

ACCORSO (ACCURSIUS), MARIANGELO (c. 1490-1 544), Italian
critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples. He was
a great favourite with Charles V., at whose court he resided for
:hirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various
"oreign missions. To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin
ic added an intimate acquaintance with several modern lan-
;uages. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for
which his travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he
displayed uncommon diligence. His work entitled Dialribae in
Ausonium, Solinum el Ovidium (1524) is a monument of erudi-
:ion and critical skill. He was the first editor of the Letters of
lassiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul (1538); and his edition
if Ammianus Marcellinus (1533) contains five books more than
any former one. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced
>y some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed
>y him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volscian and a
loman are introduced as interlocutors (1531). Accorso was
accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge which
most solemnly and energetically repudiated.

ACCOUNT— ACCOUNTANTS

123

ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, c'im-
putare, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially of moneys
paid and received, hence a statement made as to the receipt
and payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or con-
duct, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c. A
further sense-development is that of esteem, consideration.

As a stock-exchange term " account " is used in several senses,
(i) The periodical settlements occurring, in London, monthly
for British government and a few other first-class securities, and
fortnightly for all others. The settlement extends over four
days in mining shares and three days in other securities. The
first day is the carry-over, " contango," or making-up, day, on
which speculative commitments are carried over, or continued:
that is, the bulls, who have bought stock for the rise, arrange
the rate of interest that they have to give on their stock to a
moneylender, or bear, who will pay for it or take it in for them;
and the bears, who have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that
they receive from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold,
the backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of
the stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their
bargains. On the second day, called ticket-day or name day, a
ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate buyer and
the firm which will pay for the stock is passed through the
various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, so that the actual
transfer of the stock can be made directly. In the mining
market the passing of names takes two days. On the last day,
account day, pay day or settling day, cheques are paid to meet
speculative differences, or against the delivering of stock. (2)
The period between two settlements. A nineteen-day account
is one in which nineteen days elapse between one pay-day and
another. (3) The volume or condition of commitments. A
speculator is said to have a large account open when he has dealt
heavily either for the rise or fall. A bull account exists in a stock
or group of stocks when it or they have been bought for the rise
by a large number of opera tors; in the contrary case, when there
have been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed.

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, formerly an officer in the English
Court of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, and
by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed. The office
was abolished by the Chancery Funds Act 1872, and the duties
transferred to the paymaster-general (q.v.).

ACCOUNTANTS. The term "accountant" is one to which,
of late years, its original meaning has been more generally at-
tributed— that of an expert in the science of book-keeping. It
is sometimes adopted by book-keepers, but this is an erroneous
application of the term ; it properly describes those competent
to design and control the systems of accounts required for the
record of the multifarious and rapid transactions of trade and
finance. It assumes the possession of a wide knowledge of the
principles upon which accountancy is based, which may be
shortly described as constituting a science by means of which
all mercantile and financial transactions, whether in money or
in money's worth, including operations completed and engage-
ments undertaken to be fulfilled at once or in a future, however
remote, may be recorded; and this science comprises a know-
ledge of the methods of preparing statistics, whether relating
to finance or to any transactions or circumstances which can
be stated by numeration, and of ascertaining or estimating on
correct bases the cost of any operation whether in money, in
commodities, in time, in life or in any wasting property. Gener-
ally, accountancy may be described as being the science by means
of which all operations, as far as they are capable of being shown
in figures, are accurately recorded and their results ascertained
and stated.

The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain
is difficult to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally of very
History early existence, being mentioned as officers of im-
portance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of
Edward I. The art of accountancy on a scientific principle
must certainly have been understood in Italy before 1495,
when Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice his treatise on
book-keeping; but the first known English book on the science

was published in London by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is
described as A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke
to learn to knows the good order of the kepyng of the famouse recon-
ynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in Englyshe, Debitor
and Creditor. A short book of instruction was also published in
1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, " I am but
the renuer and reviver of an auncient old copie printed here in
London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and
set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth
by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, and this booke in
Saint Ollaves parish in Marke Lane." John Mellis refers to the
fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple
system of double entry) is " after the forme of Venice." The
very interesting and able book described as T he Mer chants Mirr our,
or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts;
framed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so tearmed) Italian
manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635,
contains many references to early books on the science of ac-
countancy. In a chapter in this book, headed " Opinion of
Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority
of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had
then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the
same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time
of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations
of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers
to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds:
" That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other
for Creditor, is manifest in a certaine place, Naturalis Historiae
Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus:

Huic Omnia Expensa.

Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola
Utramque Paginam facit."

An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-
entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks,
pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote
times.

There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book
printed — the second edition having been published in 1636,
the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book
is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was
beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the
numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly
appreciated in the 1 7th century. From this time there has been
a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the
authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art,
and thus proving that the professional accountant was then
known and employed. Very early in the i8th century the
services of an accountant practising in the city of London were
made use of in the course of an investigation into the trans-
actions of a director of the South Sea Company, who had been
dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the
accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two
firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made
upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles
Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London.

In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, West-
minster and Southwark was first published, n individuals and
firms were therein described as accountants; in the same direc-
tory, for the period 1809-1811, the number had risen to 24;
and in that for 1822-1824, there were 73 firms of practising
accountants recorded.

The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping
were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very
actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the
Italian merchants of the 14th, isth and i6th cen-
turies; but it was not until the beginning of the ipth
century that, in consequence of the adoption of
improved methods of manufacture and transit, resulting from
the application of water and steam power to manufactures and
methods of conveyance which largely increased the trade of
Great Britain, the profession of an accountant became one
which men of scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for

124

ACCOUN TANTS

their business career. Corporations and companies were formed
to carry out large operations previously either left to the state
or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and manu-
factures which were becoming less profitable when carried on by
hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, the services
of public accountants were necessarily required to devise systems
of accounts and methods of control, and to enable the results of
the various transactions carried on to be ascertained with the
least waste of power or chance of loss by negligence or fraud.
The large number of companies formed in 1843 and 1844, when
a great amount of capital was invested in railways and extensive
speculation resulted, also added to the demand for the services
of professional accountants. The Companies' Clauses Consoli-
dation Act 1845 made provision for the audit of the accounts
of companies regulated by act of parliament, and gave some
extensive powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large
extent, selected from among professional accountants. The
Companies Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business
of accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies;
and the acts relating to bankruptcy passed between the years
1831 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional
accountants. The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking
companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, and
it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint professional
accountants to this duty. The experience and professional
knowledge of trained accountants have, in fact, been utilized
by their appointment as auditors in the majority of joint-stock
companies, whether manufacturing, banking, trading or created
for any other purpose. Until the Companies Act 1900 was passed
there was no general obligation upon limited companies to have
auditors; this act not only requires that auditors shall be ap-
pointed in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and
to a limited extent defines their rights and duties. The legis-
lature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at all clearly
the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable to suppose that
any general definition will prove an impossibility, as the work
which auditors undertake must vary very widely, and depends
largely upon the scope of the operations the accounts of which
are to be examined.

The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area:
they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of
Duties businesses, the owners of which are in default or their

affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the
courts and by appointment of creditors and others; they are
largely engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differ-
ences relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare
the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary
statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms and
companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases of
fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon to
unravel and properly state the accounts of complicated trans-
actions. Their services are commonly required to certify the
profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately or to
companies by means of a published prospectus; and, in cases
of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway companies
and public bodies, the statements of the profits of the businesses
to be acquired are generally made by them. In a very large
number of financial operations they are called upon to give ad-
vice and prepare accounts, and in few business matters requiring
arithmetical calculations or involving the investigation of figures,
and particularly where a considerable acquaintanceship with
the principles of law is needed, are their services not utilized.
One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants
is the audit of accounts, and this duty has, of late years, been
widely extended. Originally, auditors were appointed to ex-
amine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; but the
provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to audit, and
the requirements of most articles of association of limited com-
Auditors. Ponies, put much graver responsibilities on auditors,

who are now generally required to certify to the
accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts,
the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge

of accounts than was once required. The efficiency, in most
cases, of audits conducted by skilled accountants has led the
public to attach exceptional value to their audit certificates,
and to demand extensive knowledge and ability in the conduct
of the audit of the accounts of public companies. One other
requirement which is generally regarded as indispensable, is
that the work of audit should be very expeditiously performed;
for it is easy to understand that, were the presentation of the
accounts of a company and the distribution of dividends materi-
ally delayed in consequence of the audit, much inconvenience
would result, while the value of the criticism of the accounts of
business operations would be much deteriorated if it could not
be made very shortly after the accounts were closed. In these
circumstances, in the cases of large concerns with wide ramifica-
tions and numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors
should have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal
examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large
extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially
reduced. This delegation of duty by auditors is generally well
understood, and is in accordance with the requirements of
those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late years
to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an extent which,
if persisted in, might render it dangerous for men of reputation
and means to accept the duties.

While the number of practising accountants has of late years
been steadily increasing and their services are correspondingly
appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exer-
cising the profession and for improving its status has
naturally become apparent. The first important steps
in this direction were taken by the accountants in Scotland —
the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated
by royal charter in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and
Aberdeen being also incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867.
The Institute of Accountants was formed in London in 1870,
but did not receive a royal charter until the nth May 1880,
when all the then existing accountants' societies and institutes
in England were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered
Accountants in England and Wales, and means were provided
by which all the then practising accountants in these countries
could claim membership thereof. In the year 1885 the Society
of Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained
no charter; this body, while numbering among its members
a considerable number of practising accountants in the United
Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to cities and
boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other
accountants. A large proportion of its members also consists
of accountants practising abroad. In 1888 an Institute of
Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great many
institutes and societies have been formed in the British colonies
and in the United States, some of which have local charters.
It is curious to note, however, that, outside the United Kingdom,
it was only in the British colonies that associations of practising
accountants existed, until, in 1895, an Institute of Accountants
(Nederlands Inslituut van Accountants) was founded in Utrecht
for Dutch accountants; when, although the principles of ac-
countancy have been well understood and practised in Holland
since the i6th century, and probably earlier, it was found
necessary to borrow the words " accountant " and " account-
ancy " from the English language to convey to the Dutch an
idea of the meaning of the terms. Three others have since been
formed, the N ' ederlandsche Academic van Accountants (1902);
the Nalionale Organisalie van Accountants (1903); and the
N ederlandsche Bond van Accountants (1902). Sweden has a
society, Svenska Revisorsamfundet, formed in 1899; Belgium,
the Chambre Syndicate des Experts ComptaUes, founded in 1903.
In South America, accountants have acquired a certain status
in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru.

In the United States the organization of professional account-
ants is of quite recent growth. The first society formed in
America was " The New York State Society of Certified Public
Accountants," and shortly afterwards (in 1896) the New York
state legislature passed an act authorizing the State university

ACCOUTREMENT— ACCUMULATION

to confer the degree of certified public accountant (C.P.A.) on
the members of the society, while requiring all subsequent
entrants to pass an examination. This degree, however, can
be obtained, like other university degrees, without being a
member of the society. Other states, notably Pennsylvania,
Maryland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey,
have followed the example of New York. In 1903 the various
state societies formed themselves into a federation. There is
also an independent society of practising accountants, the
American Association of Public Accountants, with objects
similar to those of the federation, but steps have been taken to
bring about an amalgamation between the two in order to form
one central society to look after their common interests, without,
however, interfering with the individual organization of the
various state societies.

See R. Brown, History of Accounting and Accountants (Edin-
burgh), 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the subject; also
G. W. Haskins, Accountancy, its Past and Present (U.S.A., 1900);
S. S. Dawson, Accountant's Compendium', G. Lisle, Accounting in
Theory and Practice (1899); F. W. Pixley, Auditors and their Lia-
bilities (1901). The professional periodicals, The Accountant (vol. i.,
1877); Accountant's Journal (vol. i., 1883-1884); The Accountants'
Magazine (vol. i., 1897); Incorporated Accountants' Journal (vol. i.,
1889-1890); Accountics (U.S.A., vol. i., 1897) may also be consulted,
and also the Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors,
and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. GR.)

ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from a
and coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has charge
of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; a term used
especially, in the plural, of the military equipment of a soldier
other than his arms and clothing.

ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5° 31' N., o° 12' W.,
since 1876 capital of the British Gold Coast colony. Population
about 20,000, including some 150 Europeans. Accra is about
80 m. E. of Cape Coast (q.i>.), the former capital of the colony.
The name is derived from the Fan ti word Nkran (an ant), by
which designation the tribe inhabiting the surrounding district
was formerly known. The town grew up around three forts
established in close proximity — St James (British), Crevecoeur
(Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish). The last named was
ceded to Britain in 1850, Crevecoeur not till 1871. Fort St
James is now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison.
Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher Town
and Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite origin. Ussher
Town represents Crevecoeur, the fort being renamed after H. T.
Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast (1867-1872). The sea
frontage extends about three miles; there is, however, no har-
bour, and steamers have to lie about a mile out, goods and
passengers being landed in surf boats. The streets formerly
consisted largely of mud hovels, but since a great fire in 1894,
which destroyed large parts of James Town and Ussher Town,
more substantial buildings have been erected. Christiansborg,
the finest of the three forts, is the official residence of the governor
of the colony. Westwards of the landing-place, where is the
customs house, lies James Town. Beyond the fort are various
public buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main thoroughfare,
which runs two miles in a straight line to Christiansborg. This
street contains a fine stone church built in 1895 for the use of
the Anglican community, a branch of the Bank of British West
Africa, telegraph offices and the establishments of the principal
trading firms. In Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are
the residences of the principal officials, and here a racecourse
has been laid out. (Accra is almost the only point along the
Gold Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town is rolling
grass land, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and
Akim. At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m. N. by E. of
Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens. •

Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be raised
(July i, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, is governed by a
town council with power to raise and spend money. The council
consists in equal proportions of nominated and elected members,
no racial distinctions being made. Accra is connected by cable
with Europe and South Africa, and is the sea terminus of a railway
serving the districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations.

ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow), an
addition to that which already exists; increase in any substance
by the addition of particles from the outside. In law, the term
is used for the increase of property caused by gradual natural
additions, as on a river bank or seashore.

ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England,
208 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 23 m. N. by W. from
Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
(1891)138,603; (1901) 43,122- It lies in a deep valley on the
Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder. Cotton spinning and printing
works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and chemical
manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain the industrial
population. The church of St James dates from 1763, and the
other numerous places of worship and public buildings are all
modern. The borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area 3427 acres.

Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted
by Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II. 's reign,
but came again into the hands of the Lacys, and was given by
them about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it
into a grange. It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1287,
was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became merged
in the duchy of Lancaster. In 1553 the commissioners of
chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be continued
as a place of divine service. In 1836 Old and New Accrington
were merely straggling villages with about 5000 inhabitants. By
1861 the population had grown to 17,688, chiefly owing to its
position as an important railway junction. A charter of in-
corporation was granted in 1878. The date of the original
chapel is unknown, but it was probably an oratory which was
an offshoot of Kirkstall Abbey. Ecclesiastically the place was
dependent on Altham till after the middle of the igth century.

ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up), strictly
a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous
adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the benefit
of some person or persons in the future. Previous to 1800,
this accumulation of property was not forbidden by English
law, provided the period during which it was to accumulate
did not exceed that forbidden by the law against perpetuities,
viz. the period of a life or lives in being, and twenty-one years
afterwards. In 1800, however, the law was amended in conse-
quence of the eccentric will of Peter Thellusson (1737-1797), an
English merchant, who directed the income of his property,
consisting of real estate of the annual value of about £5000 and
personal estate amounting to over £600,000, to be accumulated
during the lives of his children, grandchildren and great-grand-
children, living at the time of his death, and the survivor of them.
The property so accumulated, which, it is estimated, would have
amounted to over £14,000,000, was to be divided among such
descendants as might be alive on the death of the survivor of
those lives during which the accumulation was to continue.
The bequest was held valid (Thellusson •». Woodford, 1798, 4
Vesey, 237). In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who
were the actual heirs. It was decided by the House of Lords
(June 9, 1859) in favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles
Sabine Augustus Thellusson. Owing, however, to the heavy
expenses, the amount inherited was not much larger than that
originally bequeathed.

To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the
Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the "Thellusson Act")
was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should
be accumulated for any longer term than either (i) the life of
the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from his death;
or (3) during the minority of any person living or en ventre sa
mere at the time of the death of the grantor; or (4) during the
minority of any person who, if of full age, would be entitled to
the income directed to be accumulated. The act, however, did
not extend to any provision for payment of the debts of the
grantor or of any other person, nor to any provision for raising
portions for the children of the settlor, or any person interested
under the settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce

126

ACCUMULATOR

of timber or wood upon any lands or tenements. The act was
extended to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amend-
ment Act 1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland.
The act was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892,
which forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase
of land for any longer period than during the minority of any
person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to receive
the income. (See also TRUST and PERPETUITY.)

ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices
whose function is to store energy in one form or another, as, for
example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see
HYDRAULICS, § 179). In the present article the term is re-
stricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes
a special type of battery. The ordinary voltaic cell is made
by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction main-
tains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted,
such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials,
by a fresh " charge " of the original substances. But in some
cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials, because
they can be brought back to their original state by forcing a
reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses
the chemical action and re-establishes the original conditions,
thus enabling the cell to repeat its electrical work. Cells which
can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are
called accumulators because they " accumulate " the chemical
work of an electric current. An accumulator is also known as
a " reversible battery," " storage battery " or " secondary
battery." The last name dates from the early days of electro-
lysis. When a liquid like sulphuric acid was electrolysed for a
moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was found that
the electrodes could themselves produce a current when de-
tached from the primary battery. Such a current was attri-
buted to an " electric polarization " of the electrodes, and was
regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being
that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage of
electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored,
not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposi-
tion. Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are
used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the interpreta-
tion now put on them be kept in mind. "Reversible battery"
is an excellent name for accumulators.

Sir W. R. Grove first used "polarization" effects in his gas
battery, but R. L. G. Plante (1834-1889) laid the foundation of
modern methods. That he was clear as to the function of an
accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the lead-
sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long time, and
had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail chimique de la
pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be excelled.
Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization in 1859, his
object being to investigate the conditions under which its maxi-
mum effects can be produced. He found that the greatest storage
and the most useful electric effects were obtained by using lead
plates in dilute sulphuric acid. After some " forming " opera-
tions described below, he obtained a cell having a high electro-
motive force, a low resistance, a large capacity and almost
perfect freedom from polarization.

The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid cell
arises largely from the fact that not only are the active materials
(lead and lead peroxide, PbO2) insoluble in the dilute acid, but
that the sulphate of lead formed from them in the course of dis-
charge is also insoluble. Consequently, it remains fixed in the
place where it is formed; and on the passage of the charging
current, the original PbC"2 and lead are reproduced in the places
they originally occupied. Thus there is no material change in
the distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active
materials are in a porous, spongy condition, so that the acid is
within reach of all parts of them.

Plant6 carefully studied the changes which occur in the formation,
charge and discharge of the cell. In forming, he placed two sheets
w ^, of lead in sulphuric acid, separating them by narrow strips
flame Qf caoutchouc (fig. i). When a charging current is
sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated at one plate
escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the sur-

face film of oxide generally found on lead. Some of the oxygen is
always fixed on the other (positive) plate, forming a surface film of
peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so that
the first plate is peroxidized, and the peroxide previously formed
on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a spongy
state. By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate is alter-
nately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In successive
oxidations, the action pene-
trates farther into the plate,
furnishing each time a larger
quantity of spongy PbO2 on
one plate and of spongy lead
on the other. It follows that
the duration of the successive
charging currents also in-
creases. At the beginning, a
few minutes suffice; at the_i
end, many hours are required.
After the first six or eight pjG j.

cycles, Plante allowed a period

of repose before reversing. He claimed that the PbO2 formed by
reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more
crystalline than if no repose were allowed. The following figures
show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in
successive charges (between one charge and the next the plate stood
in repose for the time stated, then was reduced, and again charged
as anode) : —

Separate Periods of
Repose.

Charge.

Relative Amount of
Peroxide formed.

1 8 hours
2 days
4 "

2 "

First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth

I-O

1-57
1-71
2-14
2-43

and so on for many days (Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of
Secondary Batteries). Seeing that each plate is in turn oxidized and
then reduced, it is evident that the spongy lead will increase at the
same rate on the other plate of the cell. The process of " forming "
thus briefly described was not continued indefinitely, but only till
a fair proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted into
the spongy material, PbO2 and Pb respectively. After this, reversal
was not permitted, the cell being put into use and always charged in
a given direction. If the process of forming by reversal be continued ,
the positive plate is ultimately all converted into PbO2 and falls to
pieces.

Plant6 made excellent cells by this method, yet three objections
were urged against them. They required too much time to " form ";
the spongy masses (PbO2 more especially) fell off for want of me-
chanical support, and the separating strips of caoutchouc were not
likely to have a long life. The first advance was made by C. A. Faure
(1881), who greatly short-
ened the time required for
"forming" by giving the
plates a preliminary coat-'
ing of red lead, whereby
the slow process of biting
into the metal was avoided.
At the first charging, the
red lead on the + electrode
is changed to PbO2, while
that on the — electrode is
reduced to spongy lead.
Thus one continuous opera-
tion, lasting perhaps sixty
hours, takes the place of
many reversals, which, with
periods of repose, last as
much as three months.
Faure used felt as a sepa-
rating membrane, but its

thWods "SP 'SUM
due to E. Volckmar, J. S. Sellon, J. W. Swan and others. These
inventors put the paste not on to plates of lead, but into the holes
of a grid, which, when carefully designed, affords good mechanical
support to the spongy masses, and does away with the necessity
[or felt, &c. They are more satisfactory, however, as supporters of
spongy lead than of the peroxide, since at the point of contact in
the latter case the acid gives rise to a local action, which slowly
destroys the grid. Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the
best makers are able to defer the failure for a fairly long time.
Efforts have been made by A. Tribe, D. G. Fitzgerald and others
to dispense with a supporting grid for the positive plate, but these
attempts have not yet been successful enough to enable them to
compete with the other forms.

For many years the battle between the " Plant6 " type and

ACCUMULATOR

127

Chloride
cell.

the Faure or " pasted " type has been one in which the issue
was doubtful, but the general tendency is towards a mixed type
at the present time. There are many good cells, the value of
all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and
also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is
laid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by
evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The
following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice.
The " chloride cell " has a Plante positive with a pasted
negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0-4
inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about
half an inch in diameter. Into each of these holes
is thrust a roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has
been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the

plate), then ribbed or
gimped, and finally coiled
into a rosette. The
rosettes have sufficient
spring to fix themselves
in the holes of the lead
plate, but are keyed in
position by a hydraulic
-press. The plates are
then " formed " by pass-
ing a current for a long
time. In a later pattern
a kind of discontinuous
longitudinal rib is put in
the ribbon, and increases
the capacity and life by
strengthening the mass
without interfering with
the diffusion of acid.

The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles
of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is
made by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, connected
horizontally by small bars of triangular section. The bars on
the two faces are " staggered, " that is, those on one face are
not opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead
oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the
" exide " negative.

The larger sizes of negative plate are of a " box " type, formed
by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space

FIG. 3. — Tudor negative plate.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

FIG. 6.

with paste. A feature of the " chloride " cells is the use of
separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared wood.
These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material
or from the formation of " trees " of lead which sometimes
grow across in certain forms of battery.

The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one
piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at
Tudor cell intervals by horizontal ribs to give the plates strength
to withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2). The
thickness of the plates is about 0-4 inch, and the developed
surface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same
size. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of
peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved

Plante process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two
grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces
are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space
between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting).
Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by the Electrical Power
Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the
Plante formation is used for the positives of two
kinds of cell. The paste for the positive plates is a
mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the
negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. Figs. 4 and

B.P.S.
cell.

Hart cell.

FIG. 7.

5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and
positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting. Fig. 6
is the cross section of the casting used for the Plante positive
of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the
side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a complete cell.

The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the Plante
and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on glass
slats, and are separated by three rows of glass tubes
| inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved
teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes.
The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the
same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of
course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the acid.
A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned bolt draws
the lug ends of adjacent cells
together, fitting in a corresponding
tapered hole in the lugs, and thus
increasing the contact area. The
positive and negative tapers being
different, a cell cannot be con-
nected up in the wrong way.

In America, in addition to some
of the cells already described, there
are types which are not
found in England. Two
may be described. The Gould cell
is of the Plante type. A special
effort is made to reduce local and
other deleterious action by starting
with perfectly homogeneous plates.
They are formed from sheet lead
blanks by suitable machines, which
gradually raise the surface into a

series of ribs and grooves. The sides and middle of the blank are
left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over
the surface of the plate. The grooves are very fine, and when the
active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action,
they hold it very securely.

The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope. A
very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is filled with

Gould cell.

FIG. 8. — Hart Accumulator.

128

ACCUMULATOR

red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its

surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled

„ with paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen-

natch celt.

ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from
one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active
material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held
between two positive " boxes," the outsides of which have pro-
jecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material
on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the
same time, the clearance between the ribs allows room for acid
to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face
of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this
envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than ^j inch
thick.

Traction Cells, — Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators
have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed for
electric broughams and light vehicles for use in towns. There
are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed
by limited space, weight and vibration. The plates are gener-
ally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive
is not used so much as in lighting types. The acid is generally
a little stronger in order to get a higher electromotive force
(E.M.F.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out
of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are
placed between the plates. The " chloride " traction cell uses
a special variety of wood separator: the " exide " type of
plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now
made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming useless. The
specific output can be made as high as 10 or n watt-hours per
pound of cell, but this involves a chance of shorter life. The
average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50
watt-hours per 1000 Ib per mile.

Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as
traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a rule two cells are
put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to
give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are
generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere-
hours, and the current for a single cylinder engine will average
one to one and a half amperes during the running intervals.

General Features. — The tendency in stationary cells is to allow
plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material
which falls from the plates may collect there without risk of
short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates,
which means that (a) there is more acid within reach, and (b)
a slight buckling is not so dangerous, arid indeed is not so likely
to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than
formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the
same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials
in as porous a state as possible.

The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to
classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the
form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to
compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures are
impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in-
stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are
more important than specific output. Except in the case of
traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce
weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight
of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours.

TABLE I.

Type of Cell.

Capaci
9hrs.

ty in an
dischar
6hrs.

ipere-hc
ged in
3hrs.

ursif
i hr.

Weight of Cell.

Ordinary light-

ing ....

200

182

153

101

ico pounds.

*i ,»

420

380

300

2IO

200

1 200

1080

880

6OO

670

Central station

and High Rate

3500

3100

2500

I7OO

2000

ii it

6000

5400

4400

3000

3200

Traction . . .

220

185

155

125

40

...

440

90

Influence of Temperature on Capacity. — These figures are true
only at ordinary temperatures. In winter the capacity is
diminished, in summer it is increased. The differences are due
partly to change of liquid resistance but more especially to the
difference in the rate at which acid can diffuse into or out of the
pores: obviously this is greater at higher temperatures. The
increase in capacity on warming is appreciable, and may amount
to as much as 3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and
Hibbert, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxi. 441; Heim, Electrician,
Nov. 1901, p. 55; Liagre, L'Eclairage electrique, 1901, xxix. 150).
Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to warm
accumulators appreciably. At higher temperatures, local action
is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more rapid. It
is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures.

Working of Accumulators. — Whatever the type of cell may be, it is
important to attend to the following working requirements: — (i)
The cells must be fully equal to the maximum demand, both in dis-
charge rate and capacity. (2) All the cells in one series ought to be
equal in discharge rate and capacity. This involves similarity of
treatment. (3) The cells are erected on strong wooden stands.
Where floor space is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers; but,
if possible, this should be avoided. They ought to lie in rows, so ar-
ranged that it is easy to get to one side (at least) of every cell, for
examination and testing, and if need be to detach and remove it or
its plates. Where a second tier is placed over the first, sufficient
clearance space must be allowed for the plates to be lifted out of the
lower boxes. The cells are insulated by supporting them on glass
or mushroom-shaped oil insulators. If the containing vessels are
made of glass, it is desirable to put them in wooden trays which dis-
tribute the weight between the vessel and insulators. To prevent
acid spray from filling the air of the room, a glass plate is arranged
over each cell. The positive and negative sections are fixed in posi-
tion with insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one
cell is joined to the negative of the next by burning or bolting. If
the latter method is adopted, the surfaces ought to be very clean and
well pressed home. The joint ought to be covered by vaseline or
varnish. When this has been done, examination ought to be made
of each cell to see that the plates are evenly spaced, that the
separators (glass tubes or ebonite forks between the plates) are in
position and vertical, and that there are no scales or other adventi-
tious matter connecting the plates. The floor of the cell ought to be
quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) To mix
the solution a gentle stream of sulphuric acid must be poured into the
water (not the other way, lest too great heating cause an accident).
It is necessary to stir the whole as the mixing proceeds and to arrange
that the density is about 1 190, or according to the recommendation
of the maker. About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one
volume of acid. After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours.
The strong acid ought to be free from arsenic, copper and other
similar impurities. The water ought to be as pure as can be obtained,
distilled water being best ; rain water is also good. If potable water
be employed, it will generally be improved by boiling, which removes
some of the lime heldin solution. The impurity in ordinary drinking
water is very slight; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require
additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency for it to
increase. The acid must not be put into the cells till everything is
ready for charging. (5) A shunt-wound or separately-excited dynamo
being ready and running so as to give at will 2-6 or 2-7 volts
per cell, the acid is run into the cells. As soon as this is done, the
dynamo must be switched on and charging commenced. The positive
terminal of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the
battery. If necessary, the + end of the machine must be found by
a trial cell made of two plain lead sheets in dilute acid. It is im-
portant also to maintain this first charging operation for a long time
without a break. Twelve hours is a minimum time, twenty-four not
too much. The charging is not even then complete, though a short
interval is not so injurious as in the earlier stage. The full charge
required varies with the cells, but in all types a full and practically
continuous first charge is imperatively necessary. During the early
part of this charge the density of the acid may fall; but after a time
ought to increase, and finally reach the value desired for permanent
working. Towards the end of the "formation " vigilant observation
must be exercised. It is important to notice whether any cells are
appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing. Such
cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged and tended
till their condition is like that of the others. They ought not to go
on the discharge circuit till this is assured. The examination of
the cells before passing them as ready for discharge includes: — (a)
Density of acid as shown by the hydrometer, (ft) Voltage. This
may be taken when charging or when idle. In the first case it ought
to be from 2-4 to 2-6 volts, according to conditions. In the second
case it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that the observation
is not taken too soon after switching off the charging current. For
about half an hour after that is done, the E.M.F. has a transient high
value, so that, if it be desired to get the proper E.M.F. of the cell, the
observation must be taken thirty minutes after the charging ceases.

ACCUMULATOR

129

(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The
positive plates ought to show a rich dark brown colour, the negatives
a dull slate-blue, and the space between ought to be quite clear and
free from anything like solid matter. All the positives ought to be
alike, and similarly all the negatives. If the cells show similarity in
these respects they will probably be in good working order.

As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple rules,
of which these are the chief : — (i ) Never discharge below a potential
difference of 1-85 (or in rapid discharge, 1-8) volt. (2) Never leave
the cells discharged, if it be avoidable. (3) Give the cells a special
full charging once a month. (4) Make a periodic examination of each
cell, determining its E.M.F., density of acid, the condition of its plates
and freedom from growth. Any incipient growth, however small,
must be carefully watched. (5) If any cell shows signs of weakness,
keep it off discharge till it has been brought back to full condition.
See that it is free from any connexion between the plates which would
cause short-circuiting; the frame or support which carries the plates
sometimes gets covered by a conducting layer. To restore the cell,
two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may be dis-
connected and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose ;
or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order
put in parallel with it. This acts as a " milking " cell, not only pre-
venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied
with a charging current till its potential difference (P.D.) is normal.
Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and
a voltmeter. The former enables him to determine from time to
time the density of the acid in the cells; instruments specially con-
structed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desir-
able that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter
should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable con-
nector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell.
A portable glow lamp should also be available, so that a full light
can be thrown into any cell ; a frosted bulb is rather better than a
clear one for this purpose. He must also have some form of wooden
scraper to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping must
be done gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the
ordinary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the
plates become detached. It is important that these should fall
below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore suffi-
cient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and
the floor of the cell for these " scalings " to accumulate without
touching the plates. _ It is desirable that they be disturbed as little
as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the free space.
It sometimes happens that brass nuts or bolts, &c., are dropped
into a cell ; these should be removed at once, as their partial solu-
tion would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the
liquid must be kept above the top of the plates. Experience shows
the advisability of using distilled water for this purpose. It may
sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute
acid, but strong acid must never be added.

The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and disintegra-
tion. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge,
caused by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At
such times asymmetry in the cell is apt to make some part of the
plate take much more than its share of the current. That part then
expands unduiy, as explained later, and curvature is produced. The
only remedy is to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as
gently as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one
part falling on some other — say, on the negative. In the next charg-
ing the scale is reduced to a projecting bit of lead, which grows still
further because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to
scrape off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a
white hard surface on the active material, is due to neglect or exces-
sive discharge. It often yields if a small quantity of sulphate of soda
be added to the liquid in the cell. Disintegration is due to local
action, and there is no ultimate remedy. The end can be deferred
by care in working, and by avoiding strains and excessive discharge
as much as possible.

Accumulators in Repose. — Accumulators contain only three
active substances — spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy
lead peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric acid between

TABLE II.

' Substance.

Colour.

Density.

Specific Resistance.

Lead ....
Peroxide of lead
Sulphuric acid
after charge
Sulphuric acid
after discharge
Sulphuric acid
in pores . . .
Sulphate of lead

slate blue
dark brown

clear liquid

>i ii

»' M

white

"•3

9-28

I-2IO
I-I7O

below
1-03
6-3

0-0000195 °hm
5-6 to 6-8 „
1-37

1-28 „

8-0
non-conductor.

them. Sulphate of lead is formed on both plates during dis-
charge and brought back to lead and lead peroxide again during

charge, and there is a consequent change in the strength of acid
during every cycle. The chief properties of these substances
are shown in Table II.

The curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (reciprocal
of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric acid solutions,
and by its aid and the

figures in the preceding **" '

table, the specific resist-
ance of any given strength *
can be determined.

The lead accumulator
is subject to three kinds woo
of local action. First and
chiefly, local action on sooo
the positive plate, because
of the contact between »°oo
lead peroxide and the lead
grid which supports it. '<x>°
In carelessly made or
roughly handled cells this ,
may be a very serious
matter. It would be so

10 20 30 *O

FIG. 9.

in all circumstances if the lead sulphate formed on the exposed
lead grid did not act as a covering for it. It explains why Plante
found "repose" a useful help in "forming," and also why
positive plates slowly disintegrate; the lead support is gradu-
ally eaten through. Secondly, local action on the negative plate
when a more electro-negative metal settles on the lead. This
often arises when the original paste or acid contains metallic
impurities. Similar impurity is also introduced by scraping copper
wire, &c., near a battery. Thirdly, local action due to the acid
varying in strength in different parts of a plate. This may arise
on either plate and is set up because two specimens of either the
same lead or the same peroxide give an E.M.F. when placed in acids
of different strengths. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found
that the E.M.F. depends on the difference of strength. With two
lead plates, a maximum of about quarter volt was obtained,
the lead in the weaker acid being positive. With two peroxide
plates the maximum voltage was about 0-64, the plate in stronger
acid being positive to that in weaker. The electromotive force

25

'2-4
23
22

20 30 +0 £0 60

FIG. 10.

of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the acid, as may be
seen from fig. 10 taken from Gladstone and Hibbert's paper
(Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). The observations with very
strong acid were difficult to obtain, though even that with
98% acid marked X is believed to be trustworthy. C. Heim
(Elek. Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz (Ann. Phys. Chem. xlvi. p. 449)
and F. Dolezalek (Theory of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have
also given tables.

It is only necessary to add to these results the facts illustrated
by the following diffusion curves, in order to get a complete
clue to the behaviour of an accumulator in active work. Fig.
ii shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked in 1-175 ac'd
and then placed in distilled water. It is from a paper by L.
Duncan and H. Wiegand (Elec. World, N.Y., 1889), who were

130

ACCUMULATOR

the first to show the importance of diffusion. About one half
the acid diffused out in 30 minutes, a good illustration of the
slowness of this process. The rate of diffusion is much the same
for both positive and negative plates; but slower for discharged
plates than for charged ones. Discharge affects the rate of
diffusion on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate.
This is in accordance with the density values given in Table I.
For while lead .sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates,
the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different;
100 volumes of lead form 290 volumes of sulphate (a threefold

10 IS 20 25

Time in m/nuAjs
FIG. 11.

expansion), and 100 volumes of peroxide form 186 volumes of
sulphate (a twofold expansion). The influence of diffusion on
the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A cell was
prepared with 20% acid. It also held a porous pot contain-
ing stronger acid, and into this the positive plate was suddenly
transferred from the general body of liquid. The E.M.F. rose
by diffusion of stronger acid into the pores. Curve I. in fig. 12
shows the rate of rise when the porous pot contained 34 % acid ;
curve II. was obtained with the stronger (58%) acid (Gladstone
and Hibbert, Phtt. Mag., 1890). Of these two curves the first
is more useful, because its conditions are nearer those which
occur in practice.

At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates
to be standing in 25% acid, while inside the pores the acid may
not exceed 8% or 10%. If the discharge be stopped, we have
conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the E.M.F. begins to rise.
In one minute it has gone up by about 0-08 volt, &c.

Charge and Discharge. — The most important practical ques-
tions concerning an accumulator are: — its maximum rate of
working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its efficiency;
and its length of life. Apart from mechanical injury all these

depend primarily on the
way the cell is made, and
then on the method of
charging and discharging.
For each type and size
of cell there is a normal
maximum discharging cur-
rent. Up to this limit any
current may be taken;
beyond it, the cell may
suffer if discharge be con-
tinued for any appreciable
time. The most important

FlG. 12.

point to attend to is the voltage at which discharge shall
cease. The potential difference at terminals must not fall
below i -80 volt during discharge at ordinary rates (10
hours) or 1-75 to 1-70 volt for i or 2 hour rate. The reason
underlying the figures is simple. These voltages indicate that
the acid in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, and
that if the discharge continue the chemical action will change:
sulphate will not be formed in situ for want of acid. Any such
change in action is fatal to reversibility and therefore to life
and constancy in capacity. To illustrate: when at slow dis-
charge rates the voltage is 1-80 volt, the acid in the pores has
weakened to a mean value of about 2-5% (see fig. n),
which is quite consistent with some part of the interior being
practically pure water. With high discharge rates, something

like o-i volt may be lost in the cells, by ordinary ohmic fall, so
that a voltage reading of 1-75 means an E.M.F. of a little over
1-8 volt, and a very weak density of the acid inside the pores.
Guided by these figures, an engineer can determine what ought
to be the permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working
conditions. Messrs W. E. Ayrton, C. G. Lamb, E. W. Smith
and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the working of a cell
through varied conditions (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1890), and a
brief rtsumi of their results is given below.

They began by charging and discharging between the limits of 2-4
and i -6 volts.

Fig. 13 shows a typical discharge curve. Noteworthy points
are : — (i) At the beginning and at the end there is a rapid fall in P.D.,
with an intermediate period of fairly uniform value. (2) When the

21

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FIG. 13.

P.D. reaches i -6 volt the fall is so rapid that there is no advantage
in continuing the action. When the P.D. had fallen to 1-6 volt the
cell was automatically switched into a charging circuit, and with a
current of 9 amperes yielded the curve in fig. 14. Here again there
is a rapid variation in P.D. (in these cases a rise) at the beginning and
end of the operation. The cells were now carried through the same
cycle several times, giving almost identical values for each cycle.
After some days, however, they became more and more difficult to
charge, and the return on discharge was proportionately less. It
became impossible to charge up to a P.D. of 2-4 volts, and finally the
capacity fell away to half its first value. Examination showed that
the plates were badly scaled, and that some of the scales had partially
connected the plates. These scales were cleared away and the ex-
periments resumed, limiting the fall of P.D. to 1-8 volt. The diffi-

Curr

At TfK

FIG. 14.

culties then disappeared, showing that discharge to 1-6 volt caused
injury that did not arise at a limit of 1-8. Before describing the new
results it will be useful to examine these two cases in the light of the
theory of E.M.F. already given.

(a) Fall in E.M.F. at beginning of discharge. — At the moment when
previous charging ceases the pores of the positive plate contain strong
acid, brought there by the charging current. There is consequently
a high E.M.F. But the strong acid begins to diffuse away at once
and the E.M.F. falls rapidly. Even if the cell were not discharged this
fall would occur, and if it were allowed to rest for thirty minutes or
so the discharge would have begun with the dotted line (fig. 13).
(b) Final rapid fall. — The pores being clogged by sulphate the plugs
cannot get acid by diffusion, and when 5% is reached the fall
in E.M.F. is disproportionately large (see fig. 10). If discharge be
stopped, there is an almost instantaneous diffusion inwards and a
rapid rise in E.M.F. {c)The rise in E.M.F. at beginning and end of the
charging is due to acid in the pores being strengthened, partly by
diffusion, partly by formation of sulphuric acid from sulphate, and
partly by electrolytic carrying of strong acid to the positive plate.
The injurious results at 1-6 volt arise because then the pores contain
water. The chemical reaction is altered, oxide or hydrate is formed,
which will partially dissolve, to be changed to sulphate when the
sulphuric acid subsequently diffuses in. But formed in this way it
will not appear mixed with the active masses in the electrolytic
paths, but more or less alone in the pores. In this position it will
more or less block the passage and isolate some of the peroxide.

ACCUMULATOR

Further, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive action
will tend to force off the outer layers. It is evident that limitation
of P.O. to 1-8 volt ought to prevent these injuries, because it pre-
vents exhaustion of acid in the plugs.

Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by study of successive periods
of rest, the observations being taken between the limits of 2-4 and I -8
volts. Curves A and B show the state and capacity at the beginning.
After a 10 days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles

2-4

2.2
2.Q
1-8

Disc/targes with W amperes. Charges with Q amperes.

2-4
2-2

B

--|

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ft,

2-0

/**

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2-0
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01*23456789 10 11 O 1 23458789 1O 11

Time in hours from beginning of discharge. Time la hours from beginning of charge.

FIG. 15.

of work brought it back to C and D. A second rest (10 days), followed
by many cycles, then gave E and F. After a third rest(i6 days) and
many cycles, G and H were obtained. After a fourth rest (16 days)
the first discharge gave I and the first charge J. Repeated cycles
brought the cells back to K and L. Curves M and N show first cycle
after a fifth rest (16 days); O and P show the final restoration
brought about by repeated cycles of work. The numbers given by
the integration of some of these curves are stated in Table III.

TABLE III.

Capacity and Efficiency under Various
Conditions of Working.

Discharge.

Charge.

Efficiency.

Experiment.

Am-
pere
Hours.

Watt
Hours.

Am-
pere
Hours.

Watt
Hours.

Quan-
tity.

Energy.

Normal cycle.

1 02

201-7

104-5.

230-7

97-2

87-4

Restoration

after 1st rest

IOO

179

103-8

228-2

96-8

85-8

Ditto, after

2nd rest . .

9i

176-7

96-8

213-2

94-1

82-8

Ditto, after

3rd rest . .

82-6

161-3

86-2

190-5

95-8

84-7

Discharge )
immediately f

56-5

110-5

86-2

190-5

65-5

58'

after rest )

56-5

1 10-5

71-1

I58-3

79-6

69-6

Restoration

after 8 cycles

80

156-9

83-8

184-6

95-5

85

The table shows that the efficiency in a normal cycle may be as
high as 87-4%; that during a rest of sixteen days the charged

'This discharge is here compared with the charge that preceded
the rest; in the next line the same discharge is compared with the
charge following the rest.

accumulator is so affected that about 30% of its charge is not
available, and in subsequent cycles it shows a diminished capacity
and efficiency; and that by repeated charges and discharges the
capacity may be partially restored and the efficiency more completely
so. These changes might be due to — (a) leakage or short-circuit, (6)
some of the active material having fallen to the bottom of the cell or
(c) some change in the active materials, (a) is excluded by the fact
that the subsequent charge is smaller, and (6) by the continued in-
crease of capacity during the cycles that follow the rest. Hence the

I

in th

e active materials has already been given. The formation of

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FIG. 1 6.

sulphate by local action on the peroxide plate and by direct
n~of acid on spongy metal on the lead plate explains the loss of
y shown in curve M, fig. 15, while the fact that it is probably
;d, not in the path of the regular currents, but on the wall of the
[remote.from the ordinary action), gives a probable explanation
e subsequent slow recovery. The action of the acid on the lead
ig rest must not be overlooked.
; have seen that capacity diminishes as the discharge rate
ases; that is, the available output increases as the current
lishes. R. E. B. Crompton's diagram illustrating this fact is
in fig. 16. At the higher rates the consumption of acid is too
, diffusion cannot maintain its strength in the pores, and the
omes so much earlier,
e resistance varies with the condition of the cell, as shown by the
:s in fig. 1 7. It may be unduly increased by long or narrow lugs,
especially by dirty joints between the lugs. It is interesting
te that it increases at the end of both charge and discharge, and

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FIG. 17.

much more for the first than the second. Now the composition of the
active materials near the end of charge is almost exactly the same
as at the beginning of discharge, and at first sight there seems
nothing to account for the great fall in resistance from 0-0115 to
0-004 or>m ! that is, to about one-third the value. There is, however,
one difference between charging and discharging — namely, that due
to the strong acid near the positive, with a corresponding weaker acid
near the negative electrode. The curve of conductivity for sulphuric
acid shows that both strong and weak acid have much higher resist-
ances than the liquid usually employed in accumulators, and it is
therefore reasonable to suppose that local variations in strength of
acid cause the changes in resistance. That these are not due to the
constitution of the plugs is shown by the fact that, while the plugs

132

ACCUMULATOR

are almost identical at end of discharge and beginning of charge, the
resistance falls from 0-0055 to 0-0033 ohm.

While a current flows through a cell, heat is produced at the rate
of CRXo-24 calories (water-gram-degree) per second. As a conse-
quence the temperature tends to rise. But the change of tempera-
ture actually observed is much greater during charge, and much less

during discharge, than the
foregoing expression would
suggest; and it is evident
that, besides the heat pro-
duced according to Joule's
law, there are other actions
which warm the cell during
charge and cool it during
discharge. Duncan and
Wiegand (loc. cit.), who
first observed the thermal
changes, ascribe the chief
influence to the electro-
chemical addition of H2SO4
to the liquid during charge
and its removal during dis-
charge. Fig. 1 8 gives some
results obtained by Ayrton,
Lamb, &c. This elevation
PIG. 18. of temperature (due to

electrolytic strengthening

of acid and local action) is a measure of the energy lost in a cycle, and
ought to be minimized as much as possible.

Chemistry. — The chemical theory adopted in the foregoing pages
is very simple. It declares that sulphate of lead is formed on both
plates during discharge, the chemical action being reversed in charg-
ing. The following equations express the experimental results.
Condition before discharge: —

Liquid
[y. H2SO,
L n. I

*-2

•s .
J310

Ij •

•

1 7

$ I •«

11

i

1

N,

s-

"v

/

§

s

/

*

w

s

/

N

,

N,

/

t">

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/

e?

s

\

/

/

"*!

/

•,

>

\

/

\

^s,

s^

/^

) 1 ft * * ft « 7 «

Titng in Hours from beginning of C/ijrya

+plate
x. PbOi +

H2S04
H20 J

—plate
+ z. Pb

After discharge : —
+ plate

Liquid

f(*-/>). PbO2~] , r(y-2p). H2SO4"1
p. PbSOj ' l_(n+2p). H2O J

— plate

z-p). Pbl
.. PbSO4 J

During charge, the substances are restored to their original con-
dition: the equation is therefore reversed. An equation of this
general nature was published by Gladstone and Tribe in 1882, when
they first suggested the " sulphate " theory, which was based on very
numerous analyses. Confirmation was given by E.Frankland in 1883 ,
E. Reynier 1884, A. P. P. Crova and P. Garbe 1885, C. Heim and
W. F. Kohlrausch 1889, W. E. Ayrton, &c., with G. H Robertson
1890, C. H. J. B. Liebenow 1897, F. Dolezalek 1897, and M. Mugdan
1899. Yet there has been, as Dolezalek says, an incomprehensible
unwillingness to accept the theory, though no suggested alternative
could offer good verifiable experimental foundation. Those who
seek a full discussion will find it in Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead
Accumulator. We shall take it that the sulphate theory is proved,
and apply it to the conditions of charge and discharge.

From the chemical theory it will be obvious that the acid in the
pores of both plates will be stronger during charge than that outside.
During discharge the reverse will be the case. Fig. 19 shows a curve

FIG. 19.

of potential difference during charge, with others showing the con-
current changes in the percentage of PbO2 and the density of acid.
These increase almost in proportion to the duration of the current,
and indicate the decomposition of sulphate and liberation of sul-
phuric acid. There are breaks in the P.D. curve at A, B, C, D where
the current was stopped to extract samples for analysis, &c. The
fall in E.M.F. in this sh'ort interval is noteworthy; it arises from the
diffusion of stronger acid out of the pores. The final rise of pressure
is due to increase in resistance and the effect of stronger acid in the
pores, this last arising partly from reduced sulphate and partly from
the electrolytic convection of SO4 (see also Dolezalek, Theory, p. 1 1 3) .
Fig. 20 gives the data for discharge. The percentage of PbO2.and

the density here fall almost in proportion to the duration of the
current. The special feature is the rapid fall of voltage at the end.
Several suggestions have been made about this phenomenon.
The writer holds that it is due to the exhaustion of the acid in the
pores. Plante, and afterwards Gladstone and Tribe, found a possible
cause in the formation of a film of peroxide on the spongy lead.
E. J. Wade has suggested a sudden readjustment of the spongy mass
into a complex sulphate. To rebut these hypotheses it is only neces-
sary to say that the fall can be deferred for a long time by pressing
fresh acid into the pores hydrostatically (see Liebenow, Zeits. fur
Elektrochem., 1897, iv. 61), or by working at a higher temperature.
This increases the diffusion inwards of strong acid, and like the
increase due to hydrostatic pressure maintains the E.M.F. The other
suggested causes of the fall therefore fail. Fig. 20 also shows that
when the discharge current was stopped at points A, B, C, D to
extract samples, the voltage immediately rose, owing to inward
diffusion of stronger acid. The inward diffusion of fresh acid also
accounts for the recuperation found after a rest which follows either
a complete discharge or a partial discharge at a very rapid rate. If
the discharge be complete the recuperation refers only to the electro-
motive force; the pressure falls at once on closed circuit. If dis-
charge has been rapid, a rest will enable the cell to resume work
because it brings fresh acid into the active regions.

FIG. 20.

As to the effect of repose on a charged cell, Gladstone and Tribe's
experiments showed that peroxide of lead lying on its lead support
suffers from a local action, which reduces one molecule of PbO2 to
sulphate at the same time that an atom of the grid below it is also
changed to sulphate. There is thus not only a loss of the available
peroxide, but a corrosion of the grid or plate. It is through this
action that the supports gradually give way. On the negative plate
an action arises between the finely divided lead and the sulphuric
acid, with the result that hydrogen is set free: —

Pb+H2S04 = PbS04+H2.

This involvesa diminution of available spongy lead, or lossof capacity,
occasionally with serious consequences. The capacity of the lead
plate is reduced absolutely, of course, but its relative value is more
seriously affected. In the discharge it gets sulphated too much,
because the better positive keeps up the E.M.F. too long. In the
succeeding charge, the positive is fully charged before the negative,
and the differences between them tend to increase in each cycle.

Kelvin and Helmholtz have shown that the E.M.F. of a voltaic cell
can be calculated from the energy developed by the chemical action.
For a dyad gram equivalent ( = 2 grams of hydrogen, 207 grams of
lead, &c.), the equation connecting them is

EH . -j-dE
- ~r 1 JT*
46000 "• i

where E is the E.M.F. in volts, H is the heat developed by a dyad
equivalent of the reacting substances, T is the absolute tempera-
ture, and dE/df is the temperature coefficient of the E.M.F. _ If the
E.M.F. does not change with temperature, the second term is zero.
The thermal values for the various substances formed and decom-
posed are:— For PbO2, 62400; for PbSO4, 216210; for HSSO.,
192920; and for H2O, 68400 calories. Writing the equation in
its simplest form for strong acid, and ignoring the temperature co-
efficient term,

-62440-385840 +432420+136720

leaving a balance of 120860 calories. Dividing by 46000 gives
2-627 volts. The experimental value in strong acid, according to
Gladstone and Hibbert, is 2-607 volts, a very close approximation.
For other strengths of acid, the energy will be less by the quantity
of heat evolved by dilution of the acid, because the chemical action
must take tfye H2SO4 from the diluted liquid. The dotted curve
in fig. 10 indicates the calculated E.M.F. at various points when
this is taken into account. The difference between it and the con-
tinuous curve must, if the chemical theory be correct, depend on the
second term in the equation. The figure shows that the observed
E.M.F. is above the theoretical for all strengths from 100 down to 5 %.
Below 5 the position is reversed. The question remains, Can the
temperature coefficient be obtained? This is difficult, because the

ACCUMULATOR

133

value is so small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of obser-

vations. Streintz has given the following values: —

E 1-9223

1-9828

2-0031

2-0084

2-0105

2-078

2-2070

— . io6 140

228

335

285

255

130

73

Unpublished experiments by the writer give -==.. io6 = 35o for

acid of density 1-156. With stronger acid, a true cycle could not
be obtained. Taking Streintz's value, 335 for 25% acid, the second

term of the equation is T^± = 290X^000335= 0-0971 volt. The first

term gives 88800 calories = I -9304 volt.

The observed value is 2-030 volts

Adding the second term,

1-9304+0-0971 =2-2075 volts. The observed value is 2-030 volts
(see fig. io), a remarkably good agreement. This calculation and
the general relation shown in fig. io render it highly probable that,
if the temperature coefficient were known for all strengths of acid,
the result would be equally good. It is worth observing that the
reversal of relationship between the observed and calculated curves,
which takes place at 5% or 6%, suggests that the chemistry must
be on the point of altering as the acid gets weak, a conclusion which
has been already arrived at on purely chemical grounds. The
thermodynamical relations are thus seen to confirm very strongly
the chemical and physical analyses.1

Accumulators in Central Stations. — As the efficiency of ac-
cumulators is not generally higher than 75%, and machines
must be used to charge them, it is hot directly economical to
use cells alone for public supply. Yet they play an important
and an increasing part in public work, because they help to
maintain a constant voltage on the mains, and can be used to
distribute the load on the running machinery over a much
greater fraction of the day. Used in parallel with the dynamo,
they quickly yield current when the load increases, and immedi-
ately begin to charge when the load diminishes, thus largely
reducing the fluctuating stress on dynamo and engine for sudden
variations in load. Their use is advantageous if they can be
charged and discharged at a time when the steam plant would
otherwise be working at an uneconomical load.

Regulation of the potential difference is managed in various
ways. More cells may be thrown in as the discharge proceeds,

and taken out during
charge; but this method
often leads to trouble, as
some cells get unduly dis-
charged, and the unity of
the battery is disturbed.
Sometimes the number of
cells is kept fixed for
supply, but the P.O. they
put on the mains is re-
duced during charge by
em ploying regulating cells
in opposition. Both these
plans have proved unsatis-
factory, and the battery
is now preferably joined
across the mains in parallel
with the dynamo. The
cells take the peaks of the
load and thus relieve the
dynamo and engine of
sudden changes, as shown
in fig. 21. Here the line
"20 current (shown by the
erratic curve) varied spas-
modically from o to 375
amperes, yet the dynamo current varied from 100 to 150
amperes only (see line A). At the same time the line voltage
(S3S volts normal) was kept nearly constant. In the late
evening the cells became exhausted and the dynamo charged
them. Extra voltage was required at the end of a " charge "
and was provided by a " booster." Originally a booster
was an auxiliary dynamo worked in series with the chief
nachine, and driven in any convenient way. It has de-

1 For the discussion of later electrolytic theories as applied to
— umulators, see Dolezalek, Theory of the Lead Accumulator.

FIG. 21.

f" '_ Lint

. 5BSC-: •-

— i

fail*

n

J

o

FIG. 22.

veloped into a machine with two or more exciting coils, and
having its armature in series with the cells (see fig. 22). The
exciting coils act in opposition; the one carrying the main
current sets up an E.M.F. in the same direction as that of the
cells, and helps the cells to discharge as the load rises. When
the load is small, the voltage on the mains is highest and the
shunt exciting current greatest. The booster E.M.F. now acts
with the dynamo and against the cells, and causes them to take
a full charge. Even this arrangement did not suffice to keep
the line voltage as constant as seemed desirable in some cases,
as where lighting and traction work were put on the same
plant. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a complex booster which gives
very good regulation. The booster B has its armature in series
with the accumulators A,
and is kept running in a
given direction at a con-
stant speed by means of
a shunt-wound motor
(not shown), so that the
E.M.F. induced in the
armature depends on the
excitation. This is made
to vary in value and in
direction by means of

four independent exciting coils, Ci, Cz, €3, €4. The last is not
essential, as it merely compensates for the small voltage drop
in the armature. It is obvious that the excitation Ca will be
proportionate to the difference in voltage between the battery
and the mains, and it is arranged that battery volts and booster
volts shall equal the volts on the mains. Under this excitation
there is no tendency for the battery to charge or discharge. But
any additional excitation leads to strong currents one way or
the other. Excitation Ci rises with the load on the line, and
gives an E.M.F. helping the battery to discharge most when the
load is greatest. €2 is dependent on the bus-bar voltage, and is
greatest when the generator load is small: it opposes Ci and
therefore excites the booster to charge the battery. The exact
generator load at which the booster shall reverse its E.M.F. from
a charging to a discharging value is adjusted by the resistance
R2 in series with €2. A similar resistance RS allows the excita-
tion of Cs to be adjusted. Very remarkable regulation can be
obtained by reversible boosters of this type. In traction and
lighting stations it is quite possible to keep the variation of
bus-bar pressure within 2% of the normal value, although the
load may momentarily vary from a few amperes up to 200 or
300.

J. B. Entz has introduced an auxiliary device which enables
him to use a much more simple booster. The Entz booster has
no series coil and only one shunt coil, the direction and value
of excitation due to this being
controlled by a carbon regulator,
having two arms, the resistance
of each of which can be varied
by pressure due to the magnet-
izing action of a solenoid. The
main current from the generator
passes through the solenoid and
causes one or other of the two
carbon arms to have the less
resistance. This change in resist-
ance determines the direction

FIG. 23.

of the exciter field current, and therefore the direction of the
boost. A photograph of the switchboard at Greenock where
this booster is in use shows the voltmeter needle as if it had been
held rigid, although the exposure lasted 90 minutes. On the
same photograph the ammeter needle does not appear, its in-
cessant and large movements preventing any picture from being
formed.

Alkaline Accumulators. — Owing to the high electro-chemical
equivalent of lead, a great saving in weight would be secured
by using almost any other metal. Unfortunately no other
metal and its compounds can resist the acid. Hence inventors

134

ACCURSIUS— ACENAPHTHENE

have been incited to try alkaline liquids as electrolytes. Many
attempts have been made to construct accumulators in this way,
though with only moderate success. The Lalande-Chaperon,
Desmazures, Waddell-Entz and Edison are the chief cells.
T. A. Edison's cell has been most developed, and is intended for
traction work. He made the plates of very thin sheets of nickel-
plated steel, in each of which 24 rectangular holes were stamped,
leaving a mere framework of the metal. Shallow rectangular
pockets of perforated nickel-steel were fitted in the holes and
then burred over the framework by high pressures. The pockets
contained the active material. On the positive plate this con-
sisted of nickel peroxide mixed with flake graphite, and on the
negative plate of finely divided iron mixed with graphite. Both
kinds of active material were prepared in a special way. The

graphite gives greater con-
ductivity. The liquid was
a 20% solution of caustic
potash. During discharge
the iron was oxidized,
and the nickel reduced to
a lower state of oxidation.
This change was reversed
during charge. Fig. 24 shows
the general features.

The chief results obtained
by European experts showed
that the E.M.F. was 1-33
volt, with a transient higher
value following charge. A

cell weighing 17-8 Ib had
FIG. 24.-Ed.son Accumulator. a resistance of ^^ ohnl;

and an output at 60 amperes of 210 watt-hours, or at
1 20 amperes of 177 watt-hours. Another and improved cell
weighing 12-7 ft gave 14-6 watt-hours per. pound of cell
at a 2O-ampere rate, and 13-5 watt-hours per pound at a 60-
ampere rate. The cell could be charged and discharged at
almost any rate. A full charge could be given in i hour, and
it would stand a discharge rate of 200 amperes (Journ. Inst.
Elec. Eng., 1904, pp. 1-36).

Subsequently Edison found some degree of falling-off in capa-
city, due to an enlargement of the positive pockets by pressure
of gas. Most of the faults have been overcome by altering the
form of the pocket and replacing the graphite by a metallic
conductor in the form of flakes.

REFERENCES. — G. Plant6, Recherches sur I'Slectricite (Paris, 1879);
Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of Secondary Batteries (London,
1884); Reynier, L' Accumulateur voltaique (Paris, 1888); Heirn,
Die Akkumulatoren (Berlin, 1889); Hoppe, Die Akk. fiir Elektricitat
(Berlin, 1892); Schoop, Handbuch fiir Akk. (Stuttgart, 1898); Sir
E. Frankland, " Chemistry of Storage Batteries," Proc. Roy. Soc.,
1883; Reynier, Jour. Soc. Franc, de Phys., 1884.; Heim, "tX d.
Einfluss der Sauredichte auf die Kapazitat der Akk.," Elek. Zeits.,
1889; Kohlrausch and Heim, " Ergebnisse von Versuchen an Akk.
fur Stationsbetrieb," Elek. Zeits., 1889; Darrieus, Bull. Soc. In-
tern, des Elect., 1892; F. Dolezalek, The Theory of the Lead Accumu-
lator (London, 1906); Sir D. Salomons, Management of Accumulators
(London, 1906); E. J. Wade, Secondary Batteries (London, 1001);
L. Jumau, Les Accumulateurs electriques (Paris, 1904). (W. Hr.)

ACCURSIUS (Ilal. ACCORSO) , FRANCISCUS (i 182-1 260) , Italian
jurist, was born at Florence about 1182. A pupil of Azo,
he first practised law in his native city, and was afterwards
appointed professor at Bologna, where he had great success as
a teacher. He undertook the great work of arranging into
one body the almost innumerable comments and remarks upon
the Code, the Institutes -and Digests, the confused dispersion
of which among the works of different writers caused much
obscurity and contradiction. This compilation, bearing the title
Glossa ordinaria or magistrates, but usually known as the Great
Gloss, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method
than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The best
edition of it is that «f Denis Godefroi (1549-1621), published at
Lyons in 1589, in 6 vols. folio. When Accursius was employed
in this work, it is said that, hearing of a similar one proposed
and begun by Odofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned

indisposition, interrupted his public lectures, and shut himself
up, till with the utmost expedition he had accomplished his
design. Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers of his
own and the immediately succeeding age, and he was even called
the idol of jurisconsults, but those of later times formed a much
lower estimate of his merits. There can be no doubt that he
disentangled the sense of many laws with much skill, but it is
equally undeniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities
ofteji led him into absurdities, and was the cause of many defects
in his explanations and commentaries. He died at Bologna in
1260. His eldest son Franciscus (1225-1293), who also filled
the chair of law at Bologna, was invited to Oxford by King
Edward I., and in 1275 or 1276 read lectures on law in the
university.

ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a
causa, a suit or trial at law), a legal term signifying the charging
of another with wrong-doing, criminal or otherwise. An accusa-
tion which is made in a court of justice during legal proceedings
is privileged (see PRIVILEGE), though, should the accused have
been maliciously prosecuted, he will have a right to bring an
action for malicious prosecution. An accusation made outside a
court of justice would, if the accusation were false, render the
accuser liable to an action for defamation of character, while,
if the accusation be committed to writing, the writer of it is
liable to indictment, whether the accusation be made only to
the party accused or to a third.person. A threat or conspiracy
to accuse another of a crime or of misconduct which does not
amount to a crime for the purpose of extortion is in itself
indictable.

ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusalivus, sc. casus, a translation of
the Gr. amem/ci) irrSxris, the case concerned with cause and
effect, from curio, a cause), in grammar, a case of the noun,
denoting primarily the object of verbal action or the destination
of motion.

ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form
of the Gr. els), the number one at dice, or the single point
on a die or card; also a point in the score of racquets, lawn-
tennis, tennis and other court games.

ACELDAMA (according to Acts i. 19, " the field of blood "),
the name given to the field purchased by Judas Iscariot with the
money he received for the betrayal of Jesus Christ. A different
version is given in Matthew xxvii. 8, where Judas is said to have
cast down the money in the Temple, and the priests who had paid
it to have recovered the pieces, with which they bought " the
potter's field, to bury strangers in." The MS. evidence is greatly
in favour of a form Aceldamach. This would seem to mean
" the field of thy blood," which is unsuitable. Since, however,
we find elsewhere one name appearing as both Sirach and Sira
(ch = «), Aceldamach may be another form of an original
Aceldama (tayi S^ti), the " field of blood." A. Klostermann,
however, takes the ch to be part of the Aramaic root demach,
" to sleep "; the word would then mean " field of sleep " or
cemetery (Probleme im Aposteltexte, 1-8, 1883), an explanation
which fits in well with the account in Matthew xxvii. The
traditional site (now Hak el-Dum), S. of Jerusalem on the N.E.
slope of the "Hill of Evil Counsel" (Jebel Deir Abu Tor), was
used as a burial-place for Christian pilgrims from the 6th
century A.D. till as late, apparently, as 1697, and especially in the
time of the Crusades. Near it there is a very ancient charnel-
house, partly rock-cut, partly of masonry, said to be the work of
Crusaders. . ".

ACENAPHTHENE, Ci2Hio, a hydrocarbon isolated from the
fraction of coal-tar boiling at 26o°-27O° by M. P. E. Berthelot,
who, in conjunction with Bardy, afterwards synthesized it from
a-ethyl naphthalene (Ann. Chem. Phys., 1873, vol. xxix.). It
forms white needles (from alcohol), melts at 95° and boils at
278°. Oxidation gives naphthalic acid (1-8 naphthalene
dicarboxylic acid).

Acenaphthalene, CM Hg, a hydrocarbon crystallizing in yellow
tables and obtained by passing the vapour of acenaphthene
over heated litharge. Sodium amalgam reduces it to acenaph-
thene ; chromic acid oxidizes it to naphthalic acid.

ACEPHALI— ACETO-ACETIC ESTER

ACEPHALI (from &-, privative, and Kf<f>a\ri, head), a term
applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in
particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself,
in the end of the sth century, from the rule of the patriarch of
Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained " without king or
bishop " till they were reconciled by Mark I. (799-Sig).1 The
term is also used to denote clerici iiagrantes, i.e. clergy without
title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow (cf. Hinschius i.
p. 64). Certain persons in England during the reign of King
Henry I. were called Acephali because they had no lands by

tue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The
name is also given to certain legendary races described by
ancient naturalists and geographers as having no heads, their
mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified
with Pliny's Blemmyae.

ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically,
leaderless. The word is used literally in biology; and meta-
phorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence with
a beginning wanting. In zoology, the mollusca are divided into
cephalous and acephalous (Acephala), according as they have
or have not an organized part of their anatomy as the seat of the
brain and special senses. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata
(q.v.), are commonly known as bivalve shell-fish. In botany
the word is used for ovaries not terminating in a stigma.
Acephalocyst is the name given by R. T. H. Laennec to the
hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm.

ACERENZA (anc. Acerunlia), a town of the province of
Potenza, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 155 m. N.E. of the
station of Pietragalla, which is 9 m. N.W. of Potenza by rail,
2730 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4499. Its situation is
one of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the
south. It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of the
Republic, and its importance as a fortress was specially ap-
preciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th cen-
turies. It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of which
is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate.

ACEROSE (from Lat. acus, needle, or acer, sharp), needle-
shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as descriptive of
the leaves, e.g., of pines. From Lat. acus, chaff, comes also the
distinct meaning of " mixed with chaff."

ACERRA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 9 m. N.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1901)
16,443. The town lies on the right bank of the Agno, which
divides the province of Naples from that of Caserta, 90 ft. above
the sea, in a fertile but somewhat marshy district, which in the
middle ages was very malarious. The ancient name (Acerrae)
was also borne by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia
Transpadana (the latter now Pizzighettone on the Adda, 13 m.
W.N.W. of Cremona). It became a city with Latin rights in
332 B.C. and later a municipium. It was destroyed by Hannibal
in 216 B.C., but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the
Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully held
against the insurgents. It received a colony under Augustus, but
appears to have suffered much from floods of the river Clanis.
Under the Empire we hear no more of it, and no traces of
antiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain.

ACERRA, in Roman antiquity, a small box or pot for holding
incense, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or censer in
which incense was burned. The name was also given by the
Romans to a little altar placed near the dead, on which incense
was offered every day till the burial. In ecclesiastical Latin the
term acerra is still applied to the incense boats used in the
Roman ritual.

ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient
ioman vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about half a

11) ; it is also a word used technically in zoology, by analogy
or certain cup-shaped parts, e.g. the suckers of a mollusc, the

cket of the thigh-bone, &c. ; and in botany for the receptacle

' Fungi.

ACETIC ACID (acidum aceticum), CH3-C02H, one of the most

aportant organic acids. It occurs naturally in the juice of
1 See Gibbon, ch. xlvii. (vol. v. p. 129 in Bury's ed.).

| many plants, and as the esters of n-hexyl and n-octyl alcohols
in the seeds of Heracleum giganteum, and in the fruit of Hera-
cleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, on the large scale,
from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the destructive
distillation of wood. In the former process it is obtained in the
form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which also the colouring
matters of the wine, salts, &c., are dissolved; and this impure
acetic acid is what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic
acid (in the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who
obtained it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood-
vinegar was discovered in the middle ages. Towards the close
of the i Sth century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary
to the formation of vinegar from alcohol. In 1830 J. B. A.
Dumas converted acetic acid into trichloracetic acid, and in

1842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative into the original
acetic acid by reduction with sodium amalgam. The synthesis
of trichloracetic acid from its elements was accomplished in

1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken in conjunction with Melsens's
observation provided the first synthesis of acetic acid. An-
hydrous acetic acid — glacial acetic acid — is a leafy crystalline
mass melting at 16-7° C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent
smell. It boils at 118°, giving a vapour of abnormal specific
gravity. It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first
a contraction and afterwards an increase in volume. It is
detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric acid,
which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized
by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide,
which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide. It is a
monobasic acid, forming one normal and two acid potassium
salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper.
Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal lead
acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.); basic
copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.).

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Glacial acetic acid is occa-
sionally used as a caustic for corns. The dilute acid, or vinegar,
may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting as a pleasant
refrigerant. Acetic acid has no valuable properties for internal
administration. Vinegar, however, which contains about 5 %
acetic acid, is frequently taken as a cure for obesity, but there
is no warrant for this application. Its continued employment
may, indeed, so injure the mucous membrane of the stomach
as to interfere with digestion and so cause a morbid and
dangerous reduction in weight.

The acetates constitute a valuable group of medicinal agents,
the potassium salt being most frequently employed. After
absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to car-
bonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are administered
whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity of the blood
or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without exerting the dis-
turbing influence of alkalies upon the digestive tract. The
citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be substituted.
They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive.

ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, C6H10O3 or CH3-CO-CH2-COOC2H6, a
chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who
showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl
acetate was a sodium compound of composition CeHgOjNa,
which on treatment with acids gave a colourless, somewhat oily
liquid of composition CeHioOs. E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa in
1865 examined the reaction and concluded that Geuther's sodium
salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester of acetone carboxylic
acid and possessed the constitution CH3CO-CHNa-COOC2Hj.
This view was not accepted by Geuther, who looked upon
his compound CeHioOs as being an acid. J. Wislicenus also
investigated the reaction very thoroughly and accepted the
Frankland-Duppa formula (Annalen, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877,
190, p. 257).

The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over
calcium chloride and treating it with sodium wire, which is
best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and is then
heated on a water bath for some hours, until the sodium all
dissolves. After the reaction is completed, the liquid is
acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:5) and then shaken

136

ACETONE— ACETOPHENONE

with salt solution, separated from the salt solution, washed,
dried and fractionated. The portion boiling between 175° and
i8s°C. is redistilled. The yield amounts to about 30% of that
required by theory.

A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl
acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce
aceto-acetic ester. L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted,
studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that if
sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above re-
action the same result is obtained. He explains the reactions
thus- /O /ONa

CHs-C\nr H +NaOC2H6=CH3-C(f OC2H6,
)C»Hs \OC2H6

this reaction being followed by
/ONa IT

CH3-CCK>C2H6+ ">CH-COOC2 H5 = 2C2H5OH+

XOC2HS CH8-C(ONa):CH-COOC2H6;

and on acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic ester.
Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at i8i°C.; it
is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled undergoes
some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid CsHgQi. It
undoubtedly contains a keto-group, for it reacts with hydro-
cyanic acid, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine and ammonia;
sodium bisulphite also combines with it to form a crystalline
compound, hence it contains the grouping CH3-CO-. J. Wis-
licenus found that only one hydrogen atom in the -CH2 - group
is directly replaceable by sodium, and that if the sodium be
then replaced by an alkyl group, the second hydrogen atom
in the group can be replaced in the same manner. These alkyl
substitution products are important, for they lead to the syn-
thesis of many organic compounds, on account of the fact
that they can be hydrolysed in two different ways, barium
hydroxide or dilute sodium hydroxide solution giving the so-
called ketone hydrolysis, whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide
gives the acid hydrolysis.

Ketone hydrolysis; —

CH3-CO-C(XY)-C02C2H6^CH3-CO-CH(XY)+C2H6OH+CO2;

Acid hydrolysis: —

CH3-CO-C(XY)-C02C2H6->CH3-CO2H+C2H6OH+CH(XY)-COOH;
(where X and Y = alkyl groups).

Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Aceto-
acetic ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been
used in the production of pyridines (q.v.), quinolines (q.v.},
pyrazolones, furfurane (q.v.), pyrrols (q.v.), uric acid (q.v.), and
many complex acids and ketones.

For a discussion as to the composition, and whether it is to
be regarded as possessing the " keto " form CH3-COCH2-COOC2H6
or the "enol" form CH,-C(OH) : CH-COOC2H6l see ISOMERISM, and
also papers by J. Wislicenus (Ann., 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, IQO, p.
257), A. Michael (Journ. Prak. Chent., 1887, [2] 37, p. 473), L. Knorr
(Ann., 1886, 238, p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of Chem. Soc.,
1892, 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1891, 266, p. 70; 1892, 270,
PP- 289, 333; 1893, 276, p. 212).

ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE, CH3-CO-CHs, in chemistry,
the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones. It is present
in very small quantity in normal urine, in the blood, and in
larger quantities in diabetic patients. It is found among the
products formed in the destructive distillation of wood, sugar,
cellulose, &c., and for this reason it is always present in crude
wood spirit, from which the greater portion of it may be re-
covered by fractional distillation. On the large scale it is pre-
pared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate (CH(CO2)2Ca =
CaCO3+CH3COCH3. E. R. Squibb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
1895, 17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic
acid through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture of
pumice and precipitated barium carbonate, and kept at a
temperature of from 500° C. to 600° C. The mixed vapours of
acetone, acetic acid and water are then led through a condensing
apparatus so that the acetic acid and water are first condensed,
and then the acetone is condensed in a second vessel. The
barium carbonate used in the process acts as a contact substance,
since the temperature at which the operation is carried out
is always above the decomposition point of barium acetate.

Crude acetone may be purified by converting it into the crystal-
line sodium bisulphite compound, which is separated by filtration
and then distilled with sodium carbonate.

v!ix<c

OH

+Na2C03=2

CH3\

,/

o+2Na2S03+C02+H20.

It is then dehydrated and redistilled.

Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite (q.v.).
For this purpose the crude distillate is redistilled over sulphuric
acid and then fractionated.

Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, boiling
at 56- 53°C.,and-has a specific gravity o-8i9(o°/4°C.). It is readily
soluble in water, alcohol, ether, &c. In addition to its applica-
tion in the cordite industry, it is used in the manufacture of
chloroform (q.v.) and sulphonal, and as a solvent. It forms a
hydrazone with phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxyl-
amine. Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into iso-
propyl alcohol; oxidation by chromic acid gives carbon dioxide
and acetic acid. With ammonia it reacts to form di- and tri-
acetoneamines. It also unites directly with hydrocyanic acid
to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric acid.

By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash,
hydrochloric acid, &c., acetone is converted into condensation
products, mesityl oxide C6H10O, phorone C9H14O, &c., being
formed. On distillation with sulphuric acid, it is converted
into mesitylene CgH^symmetrical trimethyl benzene). Acetone
has also been used in the artificial production of indigo. In
the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives iodoform. Acetone
has been employed medicinally in cases of dyspnoea. With
potassium iodide, glycerin and water, it forms the preparation
spirone, which has been used as a spray inhalation in paroxysmal
sneezing and asthma.

ACETOPHENONE, or PHENYL-METHYL KETONE, C8H8O or
C6H6CO-CH3, in chemistry, the simplest representative of the
class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones. It can be prepared
by distilling a mixture of dry calcium benzoate and acetate,
Ca(O2CC6H5)2-KCH3CO2)2Ca = 2CaCO,+2C,H6CO-CHjl or by
condensing benzene with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhy-
drous aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts), C6H6+
CH,COCl = Ha+CeHlCOCHj. It crystallizes in colourless
plates melting at 2o°C. and boiling at 2O2°C.; it is insoluble in
water, but readily dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents.
It is reduced by nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol
C6H5-CH-OH-CH3 phenyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation
forms benzoic acid. On the addition of phenylhydrazine it
gives a phenylhydrazone, and with hydroxylamine furnishes an

oxime ^jj'>C-N-OH melting at S9°C. This oxime under-
goes a peculiar rearrangement when it is dissolved in ether and
phosphorus pentachloride is added to the ethereal solution,
the excess of ether distilled off and water added to the residue
being converted into the isomeric substance acetanilide,
CeHsNHCOCHs, a behaviour shown by many ketoximes and
known as the Beckmann change (see Berichte, 1886, 19, p. 988).
With sodium ethylate in ethyl acetate solution it forms the
sodium derivative of benzoyl acetone, from which benzoyl
acetone, CsHs-CO-CHrCO-CH^ can be obtained by acidification
with acetic acid. When heated with the halogens, acetophenone is
substituted in the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine
gives phenacyl bromide, CeHsCO-CHjBr. Numerous derivatives
of acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most import-
ant being orthoaminoacetophenone, NH2-C6H4-CO-CH3, which is
obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic acid with water.
It is a thick yellowish oil boiling between 242° C. and 250° C.
It condenses with acetone in the presence of caustic soda to
aquinoline. Acetonyl-acelophenone, CeHs-CO-CHz-CHrCO-CHs,
is produced by condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium aceto-
acetate with subsequent elimination of carbon dioxide, and on
dehydration gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane. Oxazoles (q.v.)
are produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with acid-amides
(M. Lewy, Berichte, 1887, 20, p. 2578). K. L. Paal has also ob-
tained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto-
acetic-ester with substances of the type NH2R.

ACETYLENE

137

n

ACETYLENE, klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of
carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula C2H2. It is
a colourless gas, having a density of 0-02. When
PrePared by the action of water upon calcium carbide,
it has a very strong and penetrating odour, but when
it is thoroughly purified from sulphuretted and phosphuretted
hydrogen, which are invariably present with it in minute traces,
this extremely pungent odour disappears, and the pure gas has
a not unpleasant ethereal smell. It can be condensed into the
liquid state by cold or by pressure, and experiments by G.
Ansdell show that if the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21-53
atmospheres at a temperature of o° C., it is converted into the
liquid state, the pressure needed increasing with the rise of
temperature, and decreasing with the lowering of the tempera-
ture, until at —82° C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmo-
spheric pressure. The critical point of the gas is 37° C., at which
temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for lique-
faction. The properties of liquid and solid acetylene have been
investigated by D. Mclntosh (Jour. Chem. Soe., Abs., 1907, i.
458). A great future was expected from its use in the liquid
state, since a cylinder fitted with the necessary reducing valves
would supply the gas to light a house for a considerable period,
the liquid occupying about -j-J^ the volume of the gas, but in the
United States and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied
acetylene was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents
occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained con-
ditions. As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot and
L. J. G. Vieille made a series of valuable researches upon the
explosion of acetylene under various conditions. They found
that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be heated at one point
by a platinum wire raised to a red heat, the whole mass decom-
poses and gives rise to such tremendous pressures that no cylinder
would be able to withstand them. These pressures varied from
71,000 to 100,000 Ib. per square inch. They, moreover, tried the
effect of shock upon the liquid, and found that the repeated
dropping of the cylinder from a height of nearly 20 feet upon a
large steel anvil.gave no explosion, but that when the cylinder
was crushed under a heavy blow the impact was followed, after
a short interval of time, by an explosion which was manifestly
due to the fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escap-
ing gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of
the metal. A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking
in the same way of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high
pressure. Continuing these experiments, they found that in
acetylene gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition
brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the
firing in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond the
point at which the decomposition started, while if the acetylene
was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 Ib on the square
inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the mass and
became in reality detonation. These results showed clearly that
liquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for general introduction
for domestic purposes, since, although the occasions would be
rare in which the requisite temperature to bring about detonation
would be reached, still, if this point were attained, the results
would be of a most disastrous character. The fact that several
accidents had already happened accentuated the risk, and in
Great Britain the storage and use of liquefied acetylene are
prohibited.

When liquefied acetylene is allowed to escape from the cylinder
in which it is contained into ordinary atmospheric pressure,
some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such
rapidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature of
— 90° C., and convert it into a solid snow-like mass.

Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal tem-

perature and pressure takes up a little more than its own volume

of the gas, and yields a solution giving a purple-red

Solubility precipitate with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and

acetylene. a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipi-

tates consisting of acetylides of the metals. The

solubility of the gas in various liquids, as given by different

observers, is —

100 Volumes of
Brine
Water
Alcohol
Paraffin

Carbon disulphide
Fusel oil
Benzene
Chloroform
Acetic acid
Acetone

Volumes of Acetylene,
absorb 5

no
600

150
100

100

400
400
600
2500

It will be seen from this table that where it is desired to collect
and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. water saturated
with salt, is the best for the purpose, but in practice it is found
that, unless water is agitated with acetylene, or the gas bubbled
through, the top layer soon gets saturated, and the gas then
dissolves but slowly. The great solubility of acetylene in acetone
was pointed out by G. Claude and A. Hess, who showed that
acetone will absorb twenty-five times its own volume of acety-
lene at a temperature of 15° C. under atmospheric pressure,
and that, providing the temperature is kept constant, the liquid
acetone will go on absorbing acetylene at the rate of twenty-
five times its own volume for every atmosphere of pressure to
which the gas is subjected.

At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with all
the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene under
pressure, but it was soon found that there were serious diffi-
culties still to be overcome. The chief trouble was that acetone
expands a small percentage of its own volume while it is absorb-
ing acetylene ; therefore it is impossible to fill a cylinder with
acetone and then force in acetylene, and still more impracticable
only partly to fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the
space above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high
pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder
containing compressed acetylene only. This difficulty was
overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous briquettes
and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of acetone, so
that after allowing for the space taken up by the bricks the
quantity of acetone soaked into the brick will absorb ten times
the normal volume of the cylinder in acetylene for every atmo-
sphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected, whilst all danger
of explosion is eliminated.

This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved
in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and conse-
quently upon this exemption a large business has grown up in
the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting
motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses,
buoys, yachts, &c., for which it is particularly adapted.

Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous
gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having
apparently shown that it acts upon the blood in the
same way as carbon monoxide to form a stable com-
pound. Very extensive experiments, however, made by
Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. Crismer, and others, all con-,
clusively show that acetylene is much less toxic than carbon
monoxide, and indeed than coal gas.

When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale
grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being repre-
sented that it had the power of combining with
certain metals, more especially copper and silver, to
form acetylides of a highly explosive character, and
that even with coal gas, which contains less than i%, such
copper compounds had been known to be formed in cases where
the gas-distributing mains were composed of copper, and
that accidents had happened from this cause. It was there-
fore predicted that the introduction of acetylene on a large scale
would be followed by numerous accidents unless copper and
its alloys were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas.
These fears have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded,
and ordinary gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with
this gas.

Acetylene has the property of inflaming spontaneously when
brought in contact with chlorine. If a few pieces of carbide be
dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of gas take

138

ACETYLENE

fire as they reach the surface, and if a jet of acetylene be passed
up into a bottle of chlorine it takes fire and burns with a heavy
red flame, depositing its carbon in the form of soot. If chlorine
be bubbled up into a jar of acetylene standing over water,
a violent explosion, attended with a flash of intense light and
the deposition of carbon, at once takes place. When the gas is
kept in a small glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the sur-
face of the glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has
shown that when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it
undergoes certain polymerization changes which lead to the
deposition of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the
tube. It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later by
P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence of water
at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed. Acetylene is
The poly- readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under its
merization influence to form an enormous number of organic
ot compounds; indeed the gas, which can itself be directly

acetylene. prepare(j from jts constituents, carbon and hydrogen,
under the influence of the electric arc, can be made the starting-
point for the construction of an enormous number of different
organic compounds of a complex character. In contact with
nascent hydrogen it builds up ethylene; ethylene acted upon by
sulphuric acid yields ethyl sulphuric acid; this can again be
decomposed in the presence of water to yield alcohol, and it
has also been proposed to manufacture sugar from this body.
Picric acid can also be obtained from it by first treating acety-
lene with sulphuric acid, converting the product into phenol by
solution in potash and then treating the phenol with fuming
nitric acid.

Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is
attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this reason
Endo- termed an " endo thermic " compound, in contradis-
thermic tinction to those bodies which evolve heat in their
nature of formation, and which are called " exothermic." Such
acetylene. en(jothermic bodies are nearly always found to show con-
siderable violence in their decomposition, as the heat of formation
stored up within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it is
undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its easy
detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion of ful-
minating mercury when in contact with it under pressure. The
observation that acetylene can be resolved into its constituents
by detonation is due to Berthelot, who started an explosive
wave in it by firing a charge of o-i gram of mercury fulminate.
It has since been shown, however, that unless the gas is at a
pressure of more than two atmospheres this wave soon dies out,
and the decomposition is only propagated a few inches from the
detonator. Heated in contact with air to a temperature of
480° C., acetylene ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance
of which varies with the way in which it is brought in contact
with the air. With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting
dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out in a
sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of intense brilliancy
and almost perfect whiteness, by the light of which colours can
be judged as well as they can by daylight. Having its ignition
point below that of ordinary gas, it can be ignited by any red-
hot carbonaceous matter, such as the brightly glowing end of a
cigar. For its complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs
approximately twelve volumes of air, forming as products of
combustion carbon dioxide and water vapour. When, however,
the air is present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incom-
plete, and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
and water vapour are produced. This is well shown by taking a
cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on apply-
ing a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the cylinder
and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also being thickly
coated with it, and often containing a ball of carbon. If now,
after a few moments' interval to allow some air to diffuse into
the cylinder, a taper again be applied, an explosion takes place,
due to a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. It is probable
that when a flame is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon
monoxide are being produced, but when an acetylene flame
burns properly the products are as harmless as those of coal

gas, and, light for light, less in amount. Mixed with air, like
every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive
mixture. F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of ex-
plosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the other
combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as follows: —

Acetylene . . 3 to 82

51072

Hydrogen .
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene .
Methane .

13 to 75

4 to 22

5 to 13

The methods which can be and have been employed from time
to time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are
exceedingly numerous. Before the commercial pro-
duction of calcium carbide made it one of the most
easily obtainable gases, the processes which were most auction.
largely adopted for its preparation in laboratories
were: — first, the decomposition of ethylene bromide by dropping
it slowly into a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying
the evolved gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it
through a second flask containing a boiling solution of alcoholic
potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime;
and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing the
products of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, the
flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal solution
of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide was produced.
This on being washed and decomposed with hydrochloric acid
yielded a stream of acetylene gas. This second method of pro-
duction has the great drawback that, unless proper precautions
are taken to purify the gas obtained from the copper acetylide,
it is always contaminated with certain chlorine derivatives of
acetylene. Edmund Davy first made acetylene in 1836 from a
compound produced during the manufacture of potassium from
potassium tartrate and charcoal, which under certain conditions
yielded a black compound decomposed by water with consider-
able violence and the evolution of acetylene. This compound
was afterwards fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed
it to be potassium carbide. He also made the corresponding
sodium compound and showed that it evolved the same gas,
whilst in 1862 F. Wohler first made calcium carbide, and found
that water decomposed it into lime and acetylene. It was not,
however, until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was
made by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France
that if lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of
the electric furnace, the lime is reduced to calcium, which unites
with the excess of carbon present to form calcium carbide.
The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation
by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of com-
mercial importance. In the manufacture of calcium carbide
in the electric furnace, lime and anthracite of the Maauhc-
highest possible degree of purity are employed. A hire of
good working mixture of these materials may be taken "'^^
as being 100 parts by weight of lime with 68 parts
by weight of carbonaceous material. About 1-8 ft of this is
used up for each pound of carbide produced. The two principal
processes utilized in making calcium carbide by electrical
power are the ingot process and the tapping process. In
the former, the anthracite and lime are ground and carefully
mixed in the right proportions to suit the chemical actions
involved. The arc is struck in a crucible into which the mixture
is allowed to flow, partially filling it. An ingot gradually builds
up from the bottom of the crucible, the carbon electrode being
raised from time to time automatically or by hand to suit the
diminution of resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the
rising ingot. The crucible is of metal and considerably larger
than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of un-
reduced material which protects the crucible from the intense
heat. When the ingot has been made and the crucible is full,
the latter is withdrawn and another substituted. The process
is not continuous, but a change of crucibles only takes two or
three minutes under the best conditions, and only occurs every
ten or fifteen hours. The essence of this process is that the coke
and lime are only heated to the point of combination, and are not

ACETYLENE

" boiled " after being formed. It is found that the ingot of
calcium carbide formed in the furnace, although itself consisting
of pure crystalline calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded
by a crust which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly
converted constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of
acetylene than the carbide itself. In breaking up and sending
out the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums,
the crust is removed by a sand blast. A statement of the amount
made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a certain
amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this process. For
instance, in practical working it has been found that a furnace
return of 0-504 Ib per kilowatt hour is brought down to 0-406
Ib per kilowatt hour when the material has been broken up,
sorted and packed in air-tight drums. In the tapping process a
fixed crucible is used, lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly
as big as the crucible and a much higher current density is used.
The carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at
short intervals. There is no unreduced material, and the process
is considerably simplified, while less expensive plant is required.
The run carbide, however, is never so rich as the ingot carbide,
since an excess of lime is nearly always used in the mixture to
act as a flux, and this remaining in the carbide lowers its gas-
yielding power. Many attempts have-been made to produce the
substance without electricity, but have met with no commercial
success.

Calcium carbide, as formed in the electric furnace, is a beauti-
ful crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density of 2-22, and

showing a fracture which is often shot with iridescent

colours- II can ^e kept unaltered in dry air, but the
carbide. smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads to

the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and
gives it a distinctive odour. It is infusible at temperatures up to
2000° C., but can be fused in the electric arc. When heated to
a temperature of 245° C. in a stream of chlorine gas it becomes
incandescent, forming calcium chloride and liberating carbon,
and it can also be made to burn in oxygen at a dull red heat,
leaving behind a residue of calcium carbonate. Under the same
conditions it becomes incandescent in the vapour of sulphur,
yielding calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide; the vapour of
phosphorus will also unite with it at a red heat. Acted upon by
water it is at once decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium
hydrate. Pure crystalline calcium carbide yields 5-8 cubic feet
of acetylene per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide
as sold commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline
material with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds
the ingot, yields at the best 5 cubic feet of gas per pound under
proper conditions of generation. The volume of gas obtained,
however, depends very largely upon the form of apparatus used,
and while some will give the full volume, other apparatus will
only yield, with the same carbide, 3! feet. The purity of the
carbide entirely depends on the purity of the material used in
its manufacture, and before this fact had been fully grasped by
manufacturers, and only the purest material obtainable em-
ployed, it contained notable quantities of compounds which
during its decomposition by water yielded a somewhat high pro-
impurities Porti°n of impurities in the acetylene generated from

it. Although at the present time a marvellous im-
provement has taken place all round in the quality of the
carbide produced, the acetylene nearly always contains minute
traces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phos-
phuretted hydrogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and oxygen, and
sometimes minute traces of carbon monoxide and dioxide. The
formation of hydrogen is caused by small traces of metallic
calcium occasionally found free in the carbide, and cases have
been known where this was present in such quantities that the
evolved gas contained nearly 20 % of hydrogen. This takes
place when in the manufacture of the carbide the material is
kept too long in contact with the arc, since this overheating
causes the dissociation of some of the calcium carbide and the
solution of metallic calcium in the remainder. The presence
of free hydrogen is nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride
formed by the combination of the nascent hydrogen with the

silicon in the carbide. The ammonia found in the acetylene is
probably partly due to the presence of magnesium nitride in
the carbide.

On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action
of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity
formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which
the carbide is decomposed. The formation of nitrides and
cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion
into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen of the
atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial purposes.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present in com-
mercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of aluminium
sulphide. A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium sulphide, zinc
sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only sulphur compounds
which can resist the heat of the electric furnace without decom-
position or volatilization, and of these aluminium sulphide is
the only one which is decomposed by water with the evolu-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the early samples of carbide
this compound used to be present in considerable quantity, but
now rarely more than -fa % is to be found. Phosphuretted
hydrogen, one of the most important impurities, which has been
blamed for the haze formed by the combustion of acetylene
under certain conditions, is produced by the action of water upon
traces of calcium phosphide found in carbide. Although at first
it was no uncommon thing to find 5 % of phosphuretted
hydrogen present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced
by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely above
0-1 5 %> ar>d it is often not one-fifth of that amount.

In the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and
water, all that has to be done is to bring these two aeaen-
compounds into contact, when they mutually react tionot
upon each other with the formation of lime and acety- acetylene
lene, while, if there be sufficient water present, the lime
combines with it to form calcium hydrate.

Calcium carbide. Water. Acetylene. Lime.
CaC2 + H20 = C2H2 + CaO

Lime. Water. Calcium hydrate.
CaO + H2O = Ca(HO)2

The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought
about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with an
excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an excess of
water, and these two main operations again may be varied by
innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity of the
contact may be modified or even eventually stopped. The result
is that although the forms of apparatus utilized for this purpose
are all based on the one fundamental principle of bringing about
the contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter into
double decomposition with it, they have been multiplied in
number to a very large extent by the methods employed in order
to ensure control in working, and to get away from the dangers
and inconveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid
generation.

In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authori-
ties have divided them into as many as six different
classes, but this is hardly necessary, as they may be
divided into two main classes — first, those in which
water is brought in contact with the carbide, the carbide being in
excess during the first portion of the operation; and, second, those
in which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water
present being always in excess. The first class may again be
subdivided into generators in which the water rises in contact
with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, and in which
a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water and again with-
drawn as generation becomes excessive. Some of these generators
are constructed to make the gas only as fast as it is consumed
at the burner, with the object of saving the expense and room
which would be involved by a storage-holder. Generators with
devices for regulating and stopping at will the action going on
are generally termed " automatic." Another set merely aims at
developing the gas from the carbide and putting it into a storage-
holder with as little loss as possible, and these are termed

Genera-
tors.

140

ACHAEA

"non-automatic." The points to be attained in a good
generator are : —

1. Low temperature of generation.

2. Complete decomposition of the carbide.

3. Maximum evolution of the gas.

4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus.

5. Ease in charging and removal of residues.

6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of
the gas.

When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat is
evolved; indeed, the action develops about one- twentieth of
the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon. As, however,
the temperature developed is a function of the time needed to
complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies with
every form of generator, and while the water in one form may
never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another may become
red-hot and give a temperature of over 800° C. Heating in a
generator is not only a source of danger, but also lessens the
yield of gas and deteriorates its quality. The best forms of
generator are either those in which water rises slowly in contact
with the carbide, or the second main division in which the car-
bide falls into excess of water.

It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large scale as
a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes of purifica-
tion as will render it harmless and innocuous to health
and Pr°Perty > and the sooner it is recognized as ab-
solutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming
it the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves.
The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty in
removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen. There are three sub-
stances which can be relied on more or less to remove this com-
pound, and the gas to be purified may be passed either through
acid copper salts, through bleaching powder or through chromic
acid. In experiments with these various bodies it is found
that they are all of them effective in also ridding the acetylene
of the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, provided only that
the surface area presented to the gas is sufficiently large. The
method of washing the gas with acid solutions of copper has
been patented by A. Frank of Charlottenburg, who finds that a
concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in an acid, the liquid
being made into a paste with kieselguhr, is the most effective.
Where the production of acetylene is going on on a small scale
this method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient
one, as the acid present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper
salt converts the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen
into phosphates and sulphides. The vessel, however, which
contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain or
enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the gas
must be washed after purification to remove traces of hydro-
chloric acid, and care must be taken to prevent the complete
neutralization of the acid by the ammonia present in the gas.
The second process is one patented by Fritz Ullmann of Geneva,
who utilizes chromic acid to oxidize the phosphuretted and
sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the ammonia, and this method
of purification has proved the most successful in practice, the
chromic acid being absorbed by kieselgiihr and the material
sold under the name of "Heratol."

The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who recom-
mends the use of bleaching powder. Dr P. Wolff has found that
when this is used on the large scale there is a risk of the ammonia
present in the acetylene forming traces of chloride of nitrogen
in the purifying-boxes, and as this is a compound which deton-
ates with considerable local force, it occasionally gives rise to
explosions in the purifying apparatus. If, however, the gas be
first passed through a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia
this danger is avoided. Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which
the gas is washed with water containing calcium chloride, and
then passed through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing
material.

When acetylene is burnt from a coo union jet burner, at all
ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the pres-
sure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame results, free
from smoke, and developing an illuminating value of 240 candles

per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have
been obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value under
these conditions. When acetylene was first introduced as a
commercial illuminant in England, very small union jet nipples
were utilized for its consumption, but after burning
for a short time these nipples began to carbonize,
the flame being distorted, and then smoking occurred with the
formation of a heavy deposit of soot. While these troubles
were being experienced in England, attempts had been made in
America to use acetylene diluted with a certain proportion of
air which permitted it to be burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples;
but the danger of such admixture being recognized, nipples of
the same class as those used in England were employed, and the
same troubles ensued. In France, single jets made of glass
were first employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot
and others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming
from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged and
splayed each other out into a butterfly flame. Soon afterwards,
J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking air into the flame
at or just below the burner tip, and at this juncture the Naphey
or Dolan burner was introduced in America, the principle em-
ployed being to use two small and widely separated jets instead
of the two openings of the union jet burner, and to make each
a minute bunsen, the acetylene dragging in from the base of
the nipple enough air to surround and protect it while burning
from contact with the steatite. This class of burner forms a
basis on which all the later constructions of burner have been
founded, but had the drawback that if the flame was turned
low, insufficient air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips
was drawn in, owing to the reduced flow of gas. This fault has
now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner tip,
which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition.

When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale
attempts were made to utilize its great heat of combustion by
using it in conjunction with oxygen in the oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe. It was found, however, that when ^^t~ leae
using acetylene under low pressures, the burner tip blowpipe.
became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some
of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by the
carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the use of
acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred inches of
water was prohibited, no advance was made in this direction.
The introduction of acetylene dissolved under pressure in
acetone contained in cylinders filled with porous material drew
attention again to this use of the gas, and by using a special
construction of blowpipe an oxy-acetylene flame is produced,
which is far hotter than the oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the
same time is so reducing in its character that it can be used
for the direct autogenous welding of steel and many minor
metallurgical processes.

REFERENCES. — F. H. Leeds and W. A. Butterfield, Calcium
Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, L' Acetylene et ses appli-
cations (1896); V. B. Lewes, Acetylene (1900); F. Liebetanz,
Calcium-carbid und Acetylen (1899); G. Pelissier, L'Eclairage a
V acetylene (1897) ; C. de Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et I' acetylene
(1897). For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on
Acetylene, see A. Ludwig's Fiihrer durch die gesammte Calcium-
carbid-und-Acetylen-Literatur, Berlin. (V. B. L.)

ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Peloponnese,
stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and Cyllene
on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the N., border-
ing the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain Panachaicus
projects. Achaea is bounded on the W. by the territory of Elis,
on the E. by that of Srcyon, which, however, was sometimes
included in it. The origin of the name has given rise to
much speculation; the current theory is that the Achaeans
(q.v.) were driven back into this region by the Dorian invaders
of the Peloponnese. Another Achaea, in the south of Thessaly,
called sometimes Achaea Phthiotis, has been supposed to be
the cradle of the race. In Roman times the name of the province
of Achaea was given to the whole of Greece, except Thessaly,
Epirus, and Acarnania. Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve
cities of Achaea ; these met as a religious confederacy in the

ACHAEAN LEAGUE— ACHAEANS

141

temple of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history
see ACHAEAN LEAGUE. During the middle ages, after the Latin
conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin princi-
pality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 1209).
It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, when
the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant of it to
his son-in-law, Theodorus II., despot of Mistra. In 1460 it was
conquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the Turks. In modern
times the coast of Achaea is mainly given up to the currant
industry; the currants are shipped from Patras, the second town
of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza).

ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of
Achaea. Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, these
towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates issuing from
the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf. It was no
doubt as a protection against such dangers that the earliest
league of twelve Achaean cities arose, though we are nowhere
explicitly informed of its functions other than the common
worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitra-
tion between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the
t4th century, when we find it fighting in the Theban wars (368-
362 B.C.), against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). About 288
Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league, which had furnished
a useful base for pretenders against Cassander's regency; but
by 280 four towns combined again, and before long the ten
surviving cities of Achaea had renewed their federation. Anti-
gonus' preoccupation during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's
prostration after the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth
amassed by Achaean adventurers abroad and the subsidies of
Egypt, the standing foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's
importance. Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of
Aratus (q.v.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 228 it
comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina.

Aratus probably also organized the new federal constitution,
the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat
perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately
determine. The league embraced an indefinite number of city-
states which maintained their internal independence practically
undiminished, and through their several magistrates, assemblies
and law-courts exercised all traditional powers of self-govern-
ment. Only in matters of foreign politics and war was their
competence restricted.

The central government, like that of the constituent cities, was
of a democratic cast. The chief legislative powers resided in a
popular assembly in which every member of the league over
thirty years of age could speak and vote. This body met for
three days in spring and autumn at Aegium to discuss the league's
policy and elect the federal magistrates. Whatever the number
of its attendant burgesses, each city counted but one on a
division. Extraordinary assemblies could be convoked at any
time or place on special emergencies. A council of 1 20 unpaid
delegates, selected from the local councils, served partly as a
committee for preparing the assembly's programme, partly as
an administrative board which received embassies, arbitrated
between contending cities and exercised penal jurisdiction over
offenders against the constitution. But perhaps some of these
duties concerned the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are

P nowhere described. The chief magistracy was the strategia
(tenable every second year), which combined with an unre-
stricted command in the field a large measure of civil authority.
Besides being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general)
had practically the sole power of introducing measures before
the assembly. The ten elective demiurgi, who presided over
this body, formed a kind of cabinet, and perhaps acted as
departmental chiefs. We also hear of an under-strategus, a
secretary, a cavalry commander and an admiral. All these higher
officers were unpaid. Philopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of
assembly from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent
communities on an equal footing with their former suzerains.

The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage;
it summoned contingents, imposed taxes and fined or coerced
refractory members.

The first federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 266-
263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 243-241
against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 and 229
with Aetolia against Demetrius. A greater danger arose (227-223)
from the attacks of Cleomenes III. (q.v.). Owing to Aratus's
irresolute generalship, the indolence of the rich burghers and
the inadequate provision for levying troops and paying mercen-
aries, the league lost several battles and much of its territory;
but rather than compromise with the Spartan Gracchus the
assembly negotiated with Antigonus Doson, who recovered the
lost districts but retained Corinth for himself1 (223-221). Simi-
larly the Achaeans could not check the incursions of Aetolian
adventurers in 220-218, and when Philip V. came to the rescue
he made them tributary and annexed much of the Peloponnese.
Under Philopoemen the league with a reorganized army routed
the Aetolians (210) and Spartans (207, 201). After their bene-
volent neutrality during the Macedonian war the Roman general,
T. Quinctius Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and
sanctioned the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus
bringing the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control. The
league even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (190).
The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was forbidden by
Rome. Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained un-
willing members. After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats
initiated a strongly philo-Roman policy, declared war against
King Perseus and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia.
This agitation induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent
Achaeans, and, failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain
them seventeen years. These hostages, when restored in 150,
swelled the ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders,
to cover their maladministration at home, precipitated a war
by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome. The federal troops
were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus Mc.-e-
donicus, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus (146).
The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not in name),
and took measures to isolate the communities (see POLYBIUS).
Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising the dependent
cities of Peloponnese and central Greece; this body sat at Argos
and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment.

The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper provision
for securing efficient armies and regular payment of imposts,
and for dealing with disaffected members. Moreover, owing to
difficulties of travel, the assembly and magistracies. were practi-
cally monopolized by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in
their own interest. But their rule was mostly judicious, and when
at last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the
country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean
league to have combined city autonomy with an organized
central administration, and in this way to have postponed the
entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century.

CHIEF SOURCES. — Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii., xxviii.),who
is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., xxxviii., &c.) ; Pausanias vii.
9-24; Strabo viii. 384; E. Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893,
London), chs. v.-ix. ; M. Dubois, Les ligues Hlolienne et Acheenne
(Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G% Hertzberg, Ge-
schichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig, 1866) ; L.
Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863) ; E. Hicks, Greek
Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 169, 187, 198, 201; W.

(M. O. B. C.)

ACHAEANS ('Axaioi, Lat. Achivi), one of the four chief
divisions of the ancient Greek peoples, descended, according
to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. This
Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely with the
lonians, but historically they approach nearer to the Aeolians.
Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of Achaeus. In the
Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans are the master race in
Greece; they are represented both in Homer and in all later
traditions as having come into Greece about three generations
before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.), i.e. about 1300 B.C. They
found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as
Pelasgians, who continued down to classical times the main

142

ACHAEMENES— ACHENWALL

element in the population even in the states under Achaean
and later under Dorian rule. In some cases it formed a serf
class, e.g. the Penestae in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and
the Gymnesii at Argos, whilst it practically composed the whole
population of Arcadia and Attica, which never came under
either Achaean or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the
Aegean from the Stone Age, and, though still in the Bronze .Age
at the Achaean conquest, had made great advances in the useful
and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark
hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres
were at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each
being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus built
Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the lead until
the Achaean conquest. All the ancient dynasties traced their
descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achaean conquest
was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands. The
Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European language adopted
by their conquerors with slight modifications. (See further
PELASGIANS for a discussion of other views.)

The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, who
with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity.
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into
Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops,
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master of
Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship of
Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia. They
brought with them iron, which they used for their long swords
and for their cutting implements; the costume of both sexes
was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used round
shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped or rectangular
shields of the latter; they fastened their garments with brooches,
a.n'3 burned their dead instead of burying them as did the Pelas-
gians. They introduced a special style of ornament (" geo-
metric ") instead of that of the Bronze Age, characterized by
spirals and marine animals and plants. The Achaeans, or
Hellenes, as they were later termed, were on this hypothesis
one of the fair-haired tribes of upper Europe known to the
ancients as Keltoi (Celts), who from time to time have pressed
down over the Alps into the southern lands, successively as
Achaeans, Gauls, Goths and Franks, and after the conquest of
the indigenous small dark race in no long time died out under
climatic conditions fatal to their physique and morale. The
culture of the Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent
with that of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hallstatt)
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova) .

See W. Ridge way, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a detailed
discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway and J. L. Myres
in the Classical Review, vol. xvi., 1902, pp. 68-93, '35- See also
J. B. Bury's History of Greece (1902), and art. in Journal of Hellenic
Studies, xv., 1895, pp. 217 foil.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek
Epic (1907), chap. li. ; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906);
G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. B. Monro's
ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. Ri.)

ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI), the eponymous ancestor of
the royal house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, " a clan <j>pfiTpt]
of the Pasargadae " (Herod, i. 125), the leading Persian tribe.
According to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod,
iii. 75, vii. u, he was the father of Teispes, the great-grandfather
of Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name.
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely the
mythical ancestor of the family, cannot be decided. According
to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an eagle. We
leam from Cyrus's proclamation that Teispes and his successors
had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of Elam (Susiana),
where they ruled as vassals of the Median kings, until Cyrus
the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian empire. After the
death of Cambyses, the younger line of the Achaemenidae came
to the throne with Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who was, like
Cyrus, the great-grandson of Teispes. Cyrus, Darius and all the
later kings of Persia call themselves Achaemenides (Hakha-
manishiya). With Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became

extinct and the Persian empire came to an end (330). The ad-
jective Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent
of " Persian " (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See PERSIA.

The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother
of Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became satrap
of Egypt (484 B.C.) ; he commanded the Persian fleet at Salamis,
and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain by Inarus, the leader of
the second rebellion of Egypt.

ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753-1821), Prussian chemist, was
bom at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern,
in Silesia, on the 2oth of April 1821. He was a pioneer in turn-
ing to practical account A. S. Marggraf 's discovery of the presence
of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of the i8th century he was
producing considerable quantities of beet-sugar, though by a very
imperfect process, at Kunern, on an estate which was granted
him about 1800 by the king of Prussia. There too he carried
on a school of instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an
international reputation. For a time he was director of the
physics class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published
several volumes of chemical and physical researches, discovering
among other things a method of working platinum.

ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born
on the roth of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala Uni-
versity, where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D.
at Lund in 1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany
at Wadstena Academy. He devoted himself to the study of
lichens, and all his publications were connected with that class
of plants, his Lichenographia, Universalis (Gottingen, 1804)
being the most important. He died at Wadstena on the i3th of
August 1819.

ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid. The
expression " fidus Achates " has become proverbial for a loyal
and devoted companion.

ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, " white river "), the largest
river in Greece (130 m.). It rises in Mt. Pindus, and, dividing
Aetolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. In the lower
part of its course the river winds through fertile, marshy plains.
Its water is charged with fine mud, which is deposited along its
banks and at its mouth, where a number of small islands (Echi-
naxles) have been formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its
impetuosity; and its upper portion was called by some Inachus,
the name Achelous being restricted to the shorter eastern
branch. Achelous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (II. xxi.
193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several other
rivers in Greece. The name appears in cult and in mythology
as that of the typical river-god; a familiar legend is that of his
contest with Heracles for Deianira.

ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815- ), German landscape
painter, was born at Cassel in 1815. He began his art education
in 1827 in Dusseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy.
In his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German
romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the stronger
influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new channels, and
he became the founder of the German realistic school. Although
his landscapes evince too much of his aim at picture-making and
lack personal temperament, he is a master of technique, and is
historically important as a reformer. A number of his finest
works are to be found at the Berlin National Gallery, the New
Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at Dresden, Darmstadt,
Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg.

His brother, OSWALD ACHENBACH (1827-1905), was born at
Diisseldorf and received his art education from Andreas. His
landscapes generally dwell on the rich and glowing effects of
colour which drew him to the Bay of Naples and the neighbour-
hood of Rome. He is represented at most of the important
German galleries of modern art.

ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1710-1772), German statistician,
was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719. He
studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at the
last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1 746, where
for two years he read lectures on history and on the law of
nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced those inquiries

ACHERON— ACHILLES

in statistics by which his name became known. In 1 748 he was
given a professorship at Gottingen, where he resided till his
death in 1772. His chief works were connected with statistics.
The Staatsverfassung der heutigen vornehmslen europaischen
Reiche appeared first in 1749, and revised editions were pub-
lished in 1762 and 1768.

ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter.
As a punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their
contest with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over
which departed souls were ferried by Charon. The name (mean-
ing the river of " woe ") was eventually used to designate the
whole of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ed. Phys. i. 41, §§ 50, 54).

ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i.
21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the court of
Esarhaddon at Nineveh. There are references in Rumanian,
Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic and Syriac literature to a legend, of
which the hero is Ahikar (for Armenian, Arabic and Syriac, see
The Story of Ahikar, F. C. Conybeare, Rendel Harris and Agnes
Lewis, Camb. 1898), and it was pointed out by George Hoffmann
in 1880 that this Ahikar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are iden-
tical. It has been contended that there are traces of the legend
even in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity
between it and the Life of Aesop by Maximus Planudes (ch.
xxiii.-xxxii.). An eastern sage Achaiicarus is mentioned by
Strabo. It would seem, therefore, that the legend was un-
doubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship of the
various versions can scarcely be recovered.

See the Jewish Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia Biblica;
also M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. 2, 1898, p. 163 f.

ACHILL ("Eagle"), the largest island off Ireland, separated
from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow
Achill Sound. Pop. (1901) 4929. It is included in the county
Mayo, in the western parliamentary division. Its shape is
triangular, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and 12 from
N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m. The. island is mountainous, the
highest points being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the west, and
Slievemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme western point
is the bold and rugged promontory of Achill Head, and the north-
western and south-western coasts consist of ranges of magnifi-
cent cliffs, reaching a height of 800 ft. in the cliffs of Minaun,
near the village of Keel on the south. The seaward slope of
Croaghaun is abrupt and in parts precipitous, and its jagged
flanks, together with the serrated ridge of the Head and the view
over the broken coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and
Galway, attract many visitors to the island during summer.
Desolate bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the
mountains; and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by
fishing and tillage, or by seeking employment in England and
Scotland during the harvesting. The Congested Districts
Board, however, have made efforts to improve the condition of
the people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway
to Achill Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the sound,
improved communications and make for prosperity. Dugort,
the principal village, contains several hotels. Here is a Protest-
ant colony, known as " the Settlement " and founded in 1834.
There are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, stone circles and the
like) at Slievemore and elsewhere.

ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus), one of the most famous of the
legendary heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure of
Homer's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of Peleus,
king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, by Thetis, one of
the Nereids. His grandfather Aeacus was, according to the
legend, the son of Zeus himself. The story of the childhood of
Achilles in Homer differs from that given by later writers. Ac-
cording to Homer, he was brought up by his mother at Phthia with
his cousin and intimate friend Patroclus, and learned the arts
of war and eloquence from Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron
taught him music and medicine. When summoned to the war
against Troy, he set sail at once with his Myrmidones in fifty
ships.

Post-Homeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque
details which bear all the evidence of their primitive origin, and

which in some cases belong to the common stock of Indo-Ger-
manic myths. According to one of these stories Thetis used to
lay the infant Achilles every night under live coals, anointing
him by day with ambrosia, in order to make him immortal.
Peleus, having surprised her in the act, in alarm snatched the
boy from the flames; whereupon Thetis fled back to the sea
in anger (Apollodorus in. 13; Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869).
According to another story Thetis dipped the child in the waters
of the river Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable,
except that part of his heel by which she held him; whence the
proverbial " heel of Achilles " (Statius, Achilleis, i. 269). With
this may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero
Sigurd. The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron,
who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him with
the entrails of lions and the marrow of bears and wild boars. To
prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis disguised him in
female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of
King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, coming to the island
in the disguise of a pedlar, spread his wares, including a spear
and shield, before the king's daughters, among whom was
Achilles. Then he caused an alarm to be sounded; whereupon
the girls fled, but Achilles seized the arms, and so revealed him-
self, and was easily persuaded to follow the Greeks (Hyginus,
Fab. 96; Statius, Ach. i.; Apollodorus, I.e.}. This story may
be compared with the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur
or Perceval.

During the first nine years of the war as described in the Iliad,
Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took twelve cities.
In the tenth year occurred the quarrel with Agamemnon. In
order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had visited the camp
with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored Chryseis, his prize
of war, to her father, a priest of the god, but as a compensation
deprived Achilles, who had openly demanded this restoration,
of his favourite slave Briseis. Achilles withdrew in wrath to his
tent, where he consoled himself with music and singing, and
refused to take any further part in the war. During his absence
the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed his
anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate him, lending
him his chariot and armour. The slaying of Patroclus by the
Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his indifference; eager
to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied forth, equipped with
new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, slew Hector, and, after
dragging his body round the walls of Troy, restored it to the aged
King Priam at his earnest entreaty. The Iliad concludes with
the funeral rites of Hector. It makes no mention of the death
of Achilles, but hints at its taking place "before the Scaean
gates." In the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have
been buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus,
at a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his
memory; his soul dwells in the lower world, where it is seen by
Odysseus. The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms
is also mentioned. The Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus took up
the story of the Iliad. It told how Achilles, having slain the
Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, who
had come to the assistance of the Trojans, was himself slain by
Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was guided by Apollo to his
vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vi. 57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600).
Again, it is said that Achilles, enamoured of Polyxena, the
daughter of Priam, offered to join the Trojans on condition that
he received her hand in marriage. This was agreed to; Achilles
went unarmed to the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was
slain by Paris (Dictys iv. n). According to some, he was slain
by Apollo himself (Quint. Smyrn. iii. 61; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3).
Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris.

Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the
pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the
Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his wife; or that
he was carried to the Elysian fields, where his wife was Medea
or Helen. He was worshipped in many places: at Leuke, where
he was honoured with offerings and games; in Sparta, Elis, and
especially Sigeum on the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus
was erected.

144

ACHILLES TATIUS— ACHIN

Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated
for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and grief, at
the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, full of affection
for his mother and respect for the gods. In works of art he is
represented, like Ares, as a young man of splendid physical pro-
portions, with bristling hair like a horse's mane and a slender
neck. Although the figure of the hero frequently occurs in
groups — such as the work of Scopas showing his removal to the
island of Leuke by Poseidon and Thetis, escorted by Nereids
and Tritons, and the combat over his dead body in the Aeginetan
sculptures — no isolated statue or bust can with certainty be
identified with him; the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa
Borghese), which was thought to have the best claim, is generally
taken for Ares or possibly Alexander. There are many vase and
wall paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his life.
Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: " with-
out a lip " (a, xeiXos), Achilles being regarded as a river-god, a
stream which overflows its banks, or, referring to the story that,
when Thetis laid him in the fire, one of his lips, which he had
licked, was consumed (Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); " restrainer
of the people" (ex^-Xaos); "healer of sorrow" (dxe-Xutos) ;
"the obscure" (connected with dxXus, "mist"); "snake-
born " (ex<-s), the snake being one of the chief forms taken
by Thetis. The most generally received view makes him a god
of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning.

See E. H. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen, ii., Achille'is, 1887;
F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cydus, 1865-1882; articles in Pauly-
Wissowa, Real-Encydopddie der dassischen Altertumswissenschaft,
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites and Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; see also T. W. Allen in Classical Review,
May 1906; A. E. Crawley, J. G. Frazer, A. Lang, Ibid., June, July
1893, on Achilles in Scyros. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 12 re-
presents the conflict over the dead body of Achilles.

ACHILLES TATIUS, of Alexandria, Greek rhetorician, author
of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and Cleitophon,
flourished about A.D. 450, perhaps later. Suidas, who alone calls
him Statius, says that he became a Christian and eventually
a bishop — like Heliodorus, whom he imitated — but there is no
evidence of this. Photius, while severely criticizing his lapses
into indecency, highly praises the conciseness and clearness of
his style, which, however, is artificial and laboured. Many of the
incidents of the romance are highly improbable, and the char-
acters, except the heroine, fail to enlist sympathy. The descrip-
tive passages and digressions, although tedious and introduced
without adequate reasons, are the best part of the work. The
large number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Ediiio
princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by Jacobs, 1821;
later editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858. There are
translations in many languages; in English by Anthony H[odges],
1638, and R.. Smith, 1855. See also ROMANCE.)

Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a Miscel-
laneous History of Famous Men, and a treatise On the Sphere.
Part of the last is extant under the title of An Introduction to the
Phaenomena of Aratus. But if the writer is the prudentissimus
Achilles referred to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his
Matheseos libri, iv. 10, 17 (ed. Kroll), he must have lived long
before the author of Leucippe. The fragment was first pub-
lished in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petavius, with a Latin
translation, 1630. Nothing definite is known as to the author-
ship of the other works, which are lost.

ACHILLINI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1512), Italian philosopher,
born on the zgth of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as
a lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and
Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle. His philosophical
works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and
reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551 and 1568.
He was ako distinguished as an anatomist (see ANATOMY),
among his writings being Corporis humani Anatomia (Venice,
1516-1524), and Analomicae Annotationes (Bologna, 1520). He
died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512.

His brother, GIOVANNI PILOTED ACHILLINI (1466-1533), was
the author of // Viridario and other writings, verse and prose, and
his grand-nephew, CLAUDIO ACHILLINI (1574-1640), was a lawyer

who achieved some notoriety as a versifier of the school of the
Secentisti.

ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. axat/iews, an Indian
plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order Gesneraceae
(to which belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), natives of
tropical America, and well known in cultivation as stove or
warm greenhouse plants. They are herbaceous perennials,
generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome flowers.
The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and varies widely
in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, scarlet, blue or
purple. A large number of hybrids exist in cultivation. The
plants are grown in the stove till the flowering period, when they
may be removed to the greenhouse. They are propagated by
cuttings, or from the leaves, which are cut off and pricked in well-
drained pots of sandy soil, or by the scales from the underground
tubes, which are rubbed off and sown like seeds, or by the seeds,
which are very small.

ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a Dutch government forming the
northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an esti-
mated area of 20,544 sq. m. The government is divided into
three assistant-residencies — the east coast, the west coast and
Great Achin. The physical geography (see SUMATRA) is imper-
fectly understood. Ranges of mountains, roughly parallel to
the long axis of the island, and characteristic of the whole of it,
appear to occupy the interior, and reach an extreme height of
about 1 2 ,000 ft. in the south-west of the government. The coasts
are low and the rivers insignificant, rising in the coast ranges
and flowing through the coast states (the chief of which are
Pedir, Gighen and Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak'and
Langsar on the E.; Kluwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W.).
The chief ports are Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin
(formerly Kraton, now the seat of the Dutch government),
Segli on the N., Edi on the E., and Analabu or Melabuh on
the W. Kotaraja lies near the northern extremity of the island,
and consists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered
in enclosed groups called kampongs, and buried in a forest of
fruit-trees. It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in the
valley of the Achin river, which in its upper part, near Seli-
mun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. and a
depth of 1 5 ft.; but in its lower course, north of its junction
with the Krung Daru, the valley broadens to 125 m. The
marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on higher ground by
kampongs full of trees. The river at its mouth is 327 ft. broad
and 20-33 ft- deep, but before it lies a sandbank covered at low
water by a depth of only 4 ft. The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja
occupies the old Achinese citadel. The town is connected by
rail with Olehleh, and the line also extends up the valley. The
construction of another railway has been undertaken along the
east coast. The following industries are of some importance
— gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of
pottery, fishing and coasting trade. The annual value of the
exports (chiefly pepper) is about £58,000; of the imports, from
£165,000 to £250,000. The population of Achin in 1898 was
estimated at 535,432, of whom 328 were Europeans, 3933 Chinese,
30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics.

The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, some-
what taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true Malays,
regard themselves as distinct from the other Sumatrans. Their
nobles claim Arab descent. They were at one time Hinduized,
as is evident from their traditions, the many Sanskrit words in
their language, and their general appearance, which suggests
Hindu as well as Arab blood. They are Mahommedans, and
although Arab influence has declined, their nobles still wear the
Moslem flowing robe and turban (though the women go un-
veiled), and they use Arabic script. The chief characteristic is
their love of fighting; every man is a soldier and ever^ village
has its army. They are industrious and skilful agriculturists,
metal-workers and weavers. They build excellent ships. Their
chief amusements are gambling and opium-smoking. Their
social organization is communal. They live in kampongs, which
combine to form mukims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest
English term), which again combine to form sagis, of which

ACHOLI— ACID

there are three. Achin literature, unlike the language, is en-
tirely Malay; it includes poetry, a good deal of theology and
several chronicles. Northern Sumatra was visited by several
European travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo,
Friar Odorico and Nicolo Conti. Some of these as well as
Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly
occupied the position of Achin. But the first voyager to visit
Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan
d'Acunha's fleet, in 1 506. It was then a mere dependency of the
adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the
only states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of sultan.
Yet before twenty years had passed Achin had not only gained
independence, but had swallowed up all other states of northern
Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in the time of Sultan
Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under whom the subject coast
extended from Am opposite Malacca round by the north to
Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board of not less than noo
miles; and besides this, the king's supremacy was owned by
the large island of Nias, and by the continental Malay states of
Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak.

The chief attraction of Achin to traders in the i7th century
must have been gold. No place in the East, unless Japan, was
so abundantly supplied with gold. The great repute of Achin
as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to this port the
first Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures
to the Indies were directed. Sir James Lancaster, the English
commodore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king
of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reigning,
Alauddin Shah. Another exchange of letters took place be-
tween King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 1613. But native
caprice and jealousy of the growing force of the European nations
in these seas, and the rivalries between those nations themselves,
were destructive of sound trade; and the English factory,
though several times set up, was never long maintained. The
French made one great effort (1621) to establish relations with
Achin, but nothing came of it. Still the foreign trade of Achin,
though subject to interruptions, was important. William
Dampier (c. 1688) and others speak of the number of foreign
merchants settled there — English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese,
Chinese, &c. Dampier says the anchorage was rarely without
ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing vast quantities
of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium. Besides
the Chinese merchants settled at Achin, others used to come
annually with the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived
in June. A regular fair was then established, which lasted two
months, and was known as the China camp, a great resort of
foreigners.

Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of the
first independent king of Achin; and they had little remission
till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of Malacca (1641).
Not less than ten times before that event were armaments
despatched from Achin to reduce Malacca, and more than once
its garrison was hard pressed. One of these armadas, equipped
by Iskandar Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources.
It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and among
these a hundred were greater than any then used in Europe.
Sixty thousand men were embarked.

On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow was
placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured the
oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more queens
were allowed to reign successively. In 1699 the Arab or fana-
tical party suppressed female government, and put a chief of
Arab blood on the throne. The remaining history of Achin was
one of rapid decay.

After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816,
a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring British
colonies to the maintenance of influence in Achin; and in 1819
a treaty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta govern-
ment which excluded other European nationalities from fixed
residence in Achin. When the British government, in 1824,
made a treaty with the Netherlands, surrendering the remaining
British settlements in Sumatra in exchange for certain posses-

sions on the continent of Asia, no reference was made in the
articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was
exchanged that it should be modified, while no proceedings
hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch.

This reservation was formally abandoned by the British
government in a convention signed at the Hague on the 2nd
of November 1871; and in March 1873 the government of
Batavia declared war upon Achin. Doubtless there was provo-
cation, for the sultan of Achin had not kept to the understanding
that he was to guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign
traders; but the necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in
Holland. A Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, and
attacked the palace. It was defeated with considerable loss,
including that of the general (Kohler). The approach of the
south-west monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the
attempt; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January
1874. The natives, however, maintained themselves in the
interior, inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a
guerilla warfare. General van der Heyden appeared to have
subdued them in 1878-81, but they broke out again in 1896
under the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with
the Dutch. He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was
not ended. General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign
in 1898 seq., but in 1901, the principal Achinese chiefs on the
north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to
the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people. Several expeditions
involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4,
and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender
escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued.

See P. J. Veth, Atchin en zijne betrekkingen tot Nederland
(Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjeh en de Atjehers (Leyden, 1877);
Kielstra, Beschrijving van den Atjeh-oorlog (The Hague, 1885);
Van Langen, Atjeh's Wesskust, Tijdschrift Aardrijko, Genotktsch.
(Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; Renaud, Jaarboek van het Mynwezen
(1882); J. Jacobs, Het famille-en Kampongleven op Croat Atjeh
(Leyden, 1894); C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia, 1894).

ACHOLI, a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on
the east bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, about a hundred miles north
of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Shilluks of the White
Nile. They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with
wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some
pierce the ears. Their dwelling-places are circular huts with a
high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of
grain and a sunk fireplace. The interior walls are daubed with
mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs
in red, white or grey. The Acholi are good hunters, using nets
and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle. In war they use
spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide. Their
dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, Lango and Ja-Luo
tribes, all four being practically pure Nilotic. Their religion is
a vague fetishism. By early explorers the Acholi were called
Shuli, a name now obsolete.

ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, XP^MO., colour), in optics,
the property of transmitting white light, without decomposing
it into the colours of the spectrum; "achromatic lenses-" are
lenses which possess this property, (See LENS, ABERRATION
and PHOTOGRAPHY.)

ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour), the
name loosely applied to any sour substance; in chemistry it has
a more precise meaning,denoting a substance containing hydrogen
which may be replaced by metals with the formation of salts.
An acid may therefore be regarded as a salt of hydrogen. Of
the general characters of acids we may here notice that they
dissolve alkaline substances, certain metals, &c., neutralize
alkalies and redden many blue and violet vegetable colouring
matters.

The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of
acids. Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced when
wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the Greeks and
Romans, who considered it to be typical of acid substances;
this is philologically illustrated by the words 6%vs, acidus, sour,
and 6£os, acetus, vinegar. Other acids became known during
the alchemistic period; and the first attempt at a generalized

146

ACID

conception of these substances was made by Paracelsus,
who supposed them to contain a principle which conferred the
properties of sourness and solubility. Somewhat similar views
were promoted by Becher, who named the principle acidum
primogenium, and held that it was composed of the Para-
celsian elements " earth " and " water." At about the same time
Boyle investigated several acids; he established their general
reddening of litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic
substances, and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with
alkalies. Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who
held that acids were the fundamentals of all salts, and the
erroneous idea that sulphuric acid was the principle of all acids.

The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and com-
bustion necessitated the view that many acids, such as those
produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, carbonic,
&c., should be regarded as elementary substances. This prin-
ciple more or less prevailed until it was overthrown by Lavoisier's
doctrine that oxygen was the acid-producing element; Lavoisier
being led to this conclusion by the almost general observation
that acids were produced when non-metallic elements were
burnt. The existence of acids not containing oxygen was, in
itself, sufficient to overthrow this idea, but, although Berthollet
had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted hydrogen (or hydro-
sulphuric acid) contained no oxygen, Lavoisier's theory held its
own until the researches of Davy, Gay-Lussac and Thenard on
hydrochloric acid and chlorine, and of Gay-Lussac on hydro-
cyanic acid, established beyond all cavil that oxygen was not
essential to acidic properties.

In the Lavoisierian nomenclature acids were regarded as
binary oxygenated compounds, the associated water being
relegated to the position of a mere solvent. Somewhat similar
views were held by Berzelius, when developing his dualistic
conception of the composition of substances. In later years
Berzelius renounced the " oxygen acid " theory, but not before
Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had submitted that
hydrogen and not oxygen was the acidifying principle. Oppo-
sition to the " hydrogen-acid " theory centred mainly about the
hypothetical radicals which it postulated; moreover, the electro-
chemical theory of Berzelius exerted a stultifying influence on

the correct views of Davy and Dulong. In Berzelius' system

+ -

potassium sulphate is to be regarded as K2O.SO3; electrolysis
should simply effect the disruption of the positive and negative
components, potash passing with the current, and sulphuric acid
against the current. Experiment showed, however, that instead
of only potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is
also liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but
readily explained by the " hydrogen-acid " theory. By this
theory potassium is liberated at the negative electrode and
combines immediately with water to form potash and hydrogen.
Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig
promoted his doctrine of polybasic acids. Dalton's idea that
elements preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions
had as an immediate inference that metallic oxides contained
one atom of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple ex-
pansion of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined
with one atom of acid to form one atom of a neutral salt. This
view, which was specially supported by GayjLussac and Leopold
Gmelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all acids
were monobasic. The untenability of this theory was proved
by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric acids; for
he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- and meta-
phosphoric acids contained respectively 3, 2 and i molecules of
" basic water " (which were replaceable by metallic oxides) and
one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P2 OB. Graham's work was
developed by Liebig, who called into service many organic
acids — citric, tartaric, cyanuric, comenic and meconic — and
showed that these resembled phosphoric acid; and he estab-
lished as the criterion of polybasicity the existence of com-
pound salts with different metallic oxides. In formulating these
facts Liebig at first retained the dualistic conception of the
structure of acids; but he shortly afterwards perceived that

this view lacked generality since the halogen acids, which con-
tained no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in prop-
erties to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded.
This and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic hypo-
thesis and the adoption, on -the ground of probability, and much
more from convenience, of the tenet that " acids are parti-
cular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter can be re-
placed by metals " ; while, on the constitution of salts, he held
that " neutral salts are those compounds of the same class in
which the hydrogen is replaced by its equivalent in metal. The
substances which we at present term anhydrous acids (acid
oxides) only become, for the most part, capable of forming salts
with metallic oxides after the addition of water, or they are
compounds which decompose these oxides at somewhat high
temperatures."

The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasicity as
enunciated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of the
modern theory. A polybasic acid contains more than one atom
of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in such
an acid the replacement may be entire with the formation of
normal salts, partial with the formation of acid salts, or by two
or more different metals with the formation of compound salts
(see SALTS). These facts may be illustrated with the aid of
orthophosphoric acid, which is tribasic: —

Acid. Normal salt. Acid salts.

HaPO,. Ag,PO4. NasHPO4; NaH,PO4.

Phosphoric Silver phosphate. Acid sodium

acid. phosphates.

Compound salts.

Mg(NH4)PO4; Na(NH4)HPO4.

Magnesium ammonium Microcosmic

phosphate ; salt.

Reference should be made to the articles CHEMICAL ACTION,
THERMOCHEMISTRY and SOLUTIONS, for the theory of the
strength or avidity of acids.

Organic Acids. — Organic acids are characterized by the
presence of the monovalent group— CO -OH, termed the carboxyl
group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals
with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the
formation of esters. The basicity of an organic acid, as above
defined, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups present.
Oxy-acids are carboxyh'c acids which also contain a hydroxyl
group; similarly we may have aldehyde-acids, ketone-acids, &c.
Since the more important acids are treated under their own
headings, or under substances closely allied to them, we shall
here confine ourselves to general relations.

Classification. — It is convenient to distinguish between ali-
phatic and aromatic acids; the first named being derived from
open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon
nuclei. Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided according
to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon. Methane and its
homologues give origin to the "paraffin" or "fatty series" of
the general formula C,,H2n+iCOOH, ethylene gives origin to the
acrylic acid series, CnH2n-iCOOH, and soon. Dibasic acids of
the paraffin series of hydrocarbons have the general formula
CnH2(COOH)2"; malonic and succinic acids are important
members. The isomerism which occurs as soon as the molecule
contains a few carbon atoms renders any classification based on
empirical molecular formulae somewhat ineffective; on the other
hand, a scheme based on molecular structure would involve
more detail than it is here possible to give. For further informa-
tion, the reader is referred to any standard work on organic
chemistry. A list of the acids present in fats and oils is given
in the article OILS.

Syntheses of Organic Acids. — The simplest syntheses are un-
doubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained directly
from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
The simplest of all include: (i) the synthesis of sodium oxalate
by passing carbon dioxide over metallic sodium heated to 35°°~
360°; (2) the synthesis of potassium formate from moist carbon
dioxide and potassium, potassium carbonate being obtained
simultaneously; (3) the synthesis of potassium acetate and
propionate from carbon dioxide and sodium methide and sodium

ACIDALIUS— ACINACES

147

ethide; (4) the synthesis of aromatic acids by the interaction of
carbon dioxide, sodium and a bromine substitution derivative;
and (5) the synthesis of aromatic oxy-acids by the interaction of
carbon dioxide and sodium phenolates (see SALICYLIC ACID).
Carbon monoxide takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate
from sodium hydrate, or soda lime (at 2oo°-22o°), and of sodium
acetate and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium
ethylate at i6o°-2oo°. Other reactions which introduce carb-
oxyl groups into aromatic groups are: the action of carbonyl
chloride on aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium
chloride, acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decom-
posed by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride
C1-CO-NH2, cyanuric acid (CONH)3, nascent cyanic acid, or
carbanile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride,
acid-amides being obtained which are readily decomposed to
give the acid. An important nucleus-synthetic reaction is the
saponification of nitriles, which may be obtained by the interac-
tion of potassium cyanide with a halogen substitution derivative
or a sulphonic acid.

Acids frequently result as oxidation products, being almost
invariably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation. There are
certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be success-
fully applied to the synthesis of acids. Thus primary alcohols
and aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series, readily
yield on oxidation acids containing the same number of carbon
atoms. These reactions may be shown thus: —

R-CH2OH -» R-CHO -> R-CO-OH.

In the case of aromatic aldehydes, acids are also obtained by
means of " Cannizzaro's reaction " (see BENZALDEHYDE). An
important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is from hydro-
carbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, or methyl-
benzene, yields benzoic acid, the xylenes, or dimethyl-benzene,
yield methyl-benzoic acids and phthalic acids. Ketones,
secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols yield a mixture of
acids on oxidation. We may also notice the disruption of un-
saturated acids at the double linkage into a mixture of two acids,
when fused with potash.

In the preceding instances the carboxyl group has been
synthesized or introduced into a molecule; we have now to
consider syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl
groups. Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the
malonic acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are
discussed under their own headings. The electrosyntheses call
for mention here. It is apparent that metallic salts of organic
acids would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, the positive ion being
the metal, and the negative ion the acid residue. Esters, how-
ever, are not ionized. It is therefore apparent that a mixed salt
and ester, for example KO2C-CH2-CH2-CO2C2H5, would give only
two ions, viz. potassium and the rest of the molecule. If a solu-
tion of potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane,
carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner,
normal potassium succinate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide,
potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented: —

CHs-CO2|K CH3 CO2 K- CH2-CO2]K CH2 CO2 K'

! -> I + + I f -» ii + +

CH3-CO2|K CH3 CO2 K- CHz-COjK CH2 CO2 K'

By electrolysing a solution of potassium ethyl succinate,
K02C-(CH2)2CO2C2H6, the KO2C- groups are split off and
the two residues -(CH2)2CO2C2H5 combine to form the ester
(CH2)4(CO2C2H6)2. In the same way, by electrolysing a mix-
ture of a metallic salt and an ester, other nuclei may be con-
densed; thus potassium acetate and potassium ethyl succinate
yield CHs-CH.-CHrC^CjHs.

Reactions. — Organic acids yield metallic salts with bases,
and ethereal salts or esters (q.v.), R-CO-OR', with alcohols.
Phosphorus chlorides give acid chlorides, R-CO-C1, the hy-
droxyl group being replaced by chlorine, and acid anhydrides,
(R-CO)20, a molecule of water being split off between two
carboxyl groups. The ammonium salts when heated lose one
molecule of water and are converted into acid-amides, R-CO-NH2,
which by further dehydration yield nitriles, R- CN. The calcium

salts distilled with calcium formate yield aldehydes (q.v.);
distilled with soda-lime, ketones (q.v.) result.

ACIDALIUS, VALENS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic,
was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg. After studying at
Rostock, Greifswald and Helmstedt, and residing about three
years in Italy, he settled at Breslau, where he is said to have
embraced the Roman Catholic religion. Early in 1595 he ac-
cepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty miles from Breslau,
where he died of brain fever on the 25th of May, at the age
of twenty-eight. His excessive application to study, and the
attacks made upon him in connexion with a pamphlet of which
he was reputed the author, doubtless hastened his premature end.
Acidalius wrote notes on Velleius Paterculus (1590), Curtius
(1594), the panegyrists, Tacitus and Plautus, published after his
death.

See Leuschner, Commentatio de A. V. Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis
(!757); F. Adam, " Der Neisser Rektor," in Bericht der Philomathie
in Neisse (1872).

ACID-AMIDES, chemical compounds which may be considered
as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with
acidyl residues, the substances produced being known as
primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the number
of hydrogen atoms replaced. Of these compounds, the primary
amides of the type R-CO-NH2 are the most important. They
may be prepared by the dry distillation of the ammonium salts
of the acids (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 977), by the partial
hydrolysis of the nitriles, by the action of ammonia or ammonium
carbonate on acid chlorides or anhydrides, or by heating the
esters (q.v.) with ammonia. They are solid crystalline compounds
(formamide excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the
solubility, however, decreasing as the carbon content of the
molecule increases. They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up
into their components when boiled with acids or alkalies. They
form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is passed
into their ethereal solution; these compounds, however, are
very unstable, being readily decomposed by water. On the
other hand, they show faintly acid properties since the hydrogen
of the amido group can be replaced by metals to give such com-
pounds as mercury acetamide (CHsCONH)2Hg. Nitrous acid
decomposes them, with elimination of nitrogen and the formation
of the corresponding acid,

RCO-NH2+ONOH = R-COOH + N2-|-H2O.

When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yield nitriles.
By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on the amides,
they are converted into amines containing one carbon atom
less than the original amide, a reaction which possesses great
theoretical importance (A. W. Hofmann),

R-CONH2 -^ R-CONHBr -> R-NH2+K2CO3+KBr+H2O.
Formamide, H-CONH2, is a h'quid readily soluble in water,
boiling at about 195° C. with partial decomposition. Acetamide,
CHa-CONHj, is a white deliquescent crystalline solid, which
melts at 82-83° C. and boils at 222° C. It is usually prepared
by distilling ammonium acetate. It is readily soluble in water
and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Benzamide, C6H6-CONH2,
crystallizes in leaflets which melt at 130° C. It is prepared by
the action of ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride. It
yields a silver salt which with ethyl iodide forms benzimido-
ethyl ether, C6H6C : (NH)-OC2H6, a behaviour which points to
the silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imido-
benzoic acid, C6H5C : (NH)-OH (J. Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 104).
On the preparation of the substituted amides from the corre-
sponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1901,
59, p. 391). The secondary and tertiary amides of the types
(RCO)2NH and (RCO)3N may be prepared by heating the
primary amides or the nitriles with acids or acid anhydrides to
200° C. Thiamides of the type R-CSNH2 are known, and result
by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen to the nitriles, or
by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on the. acid-amides.
They readily decompose on heating, and are easily hydrolysed
by alkalies; they possess a somewhat more acid character than
the acid-amides.

ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short

148

ACINET A— ACKNOWLEDGMENT

and straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in the
bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian nobility
it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a badge of dis-
tinction. The acinaces was an object of religious worship with
the Scythians and others (Herod, iv. 62).

ACINET A (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial
Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and cup-
shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous budding.
O. Biitschli has separated off the genus Metacineta-(f.or A. mysta-
cina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission.

ACINUS (Lat. for a berry), a term in botany applied to such
fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small seed-
like berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to grape-
stones. By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy to similar
granules or glands, or lobules of a gland.

ACIREALE, a town and episcopal see of the province of
Catania, Sicily; from the town of the same name it is distant
9 m. N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418. It has some importance as
a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans.
It takes its name from the river Acis, into which, according to
the legend, Acis, the lover of Galatea, was changed after he had
been slain by Polyphemus. The rocks which Polyphemus hurled
at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de' Ciclopi, or
Faraglioni, a little to the south of Acireale.

ACIS, in Greek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the
nymph Symaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, was the lover
of the Nereid Galatea. His rival the Cyclops Polyphemus sur-
prised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock.
His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by
Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jaci),
which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, Met.
xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punica, xiv. 221).

ACKERMAN, FRANCIS (c. 1335-1387), Flemish soldier and
diplomatist, was born at Ghent, and about 1380 became promi-
nent during the struggle between the burghers of that town and
Louis II. (de Male), count of Flanders. He was partly respon- .
sible for inducing Philip van Artevelde to become first captain
of the city of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of some troops
scoured the surrounding country for provisions and thus saved
Ghent from being starved into submission. By his diplomatic
abilities he secured the assistance of the citizens of Brussels,
Louvain and Liege, and, having been made admiral of the
Flemish fleet, visited England and obtained a promise of help
from King Richard II. After Artevelde's death in November
1382, he acted as leader of the Flemings, gained several victories
and increased his fame by skilfully conducting a retreat from
Damme to Ghent in August 1385. He took part in the conclu-
sion of the treaty of peace between Ghent and Philip the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, the successor of Count Louis, in December
1385. Trusting in Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his
friends, Ackerman remained in Flanders, and was murdered at
Ghent on the 22nd of July 1387, leaving a memory of chivalry
and generosity.

See Jean Froissart, Chronigues, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, Chronodromon, edited by
K. de Lettenhove in the Chronigues relatives a I'histoire de la Belgigue
sous la domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870).

ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801),
German physician, was born at Zeulenroda, in Upper Saxony, on
the I7th of February 1756, and died at Altdorf on the gth of March
1801. At the age of fifteen he became a student of medicine
at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom he followed to Gottingen
in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle.
A few years' practice at Stendal (1778-1799), where there were
numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable original
observations to his translation (1780-1783) of Bernardino
Ramazzini's (1633-1714) treatise on diseases of artificers. In 1786
he became professor of medicine at the university of Altdorf, in
Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, and then, from
1794 till his death in 1801, that of pathology and therapeutics.
He wrote Instilutiones Historiae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792)

and Instilutiones Therapiae Generalis (Nuremberg and Altdorf,
1784-1795), besides various handbooks and translations.

ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINE CHOQUET (1813-1890),
French poet, was born in Paris on the 3Oth of November 1813.
Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists,
Victorine Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and
there married in 1843 Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist.
After little more than two years of happy married life her
husband died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice
with a favourite sister. In 1855 she published Contes en vers, and
in 1862 Contes et poesies. Very different from these simple and
charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's real
reputation rests. She published in 1874 Poesies, premieres poesies,
poesies philosophiques, a volume of sombre and powerful verse,
expressing her revolt against human suffering. The volume
was enthusiastically reviewed in the Revue des deux mondes for
May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though he deprecated the impiele
dtsesperee of the verses, did full justice to their vigour and the
excellence of their form. Soon after the publication of this
volume Madame Ackermann removed to Paris, where she gathered
round her a circle of friends, but published nothing further
except a prose volume, the Pensees d'un solitaire (1883), to which
she prefixed a short autobiography. She died at Nice on the
2nd of August 1890.

See also Anatole France, La vie lilteraire, 4th series (1892) ; the
comte d'Haussonville, Mme. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoleux, La
poesie philosophique au XlXe. siecle (vol. i., Mme. Ackermann d'apres
de nombreux documents inedits, Paris, 1906).

ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German in-
ventor and publisher, was born on the 2oth of April 1764 at
Schneeberg, in Saxony. He had been a saddler and coach-
builder in different German cities, Paris and London for ten years
before, in 1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school
in the Strand. Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and
applied it in 1817 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts,
Literature, Fashions,' &c. (monthly until 1828 when forty volumes
had appeared). Rowlandson and other distinguished artists
were regular contributors. He also introduced the fashion of
the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 1825 with
Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated volumes of
topography and travel, The Microcosm of London (3 vols., 1808-
1811), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), The Rhine (1820), The
World in Miniature (43 vols., 1821-1826), &c. Ackermann was
an enterprising man ; he patented (1801) a method for rendering
paper and cloth waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the
purpose and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises
with gas. Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed
much to him. After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected
nearly a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers.
He died at Finchley, near London, on 'the 3Oth of March 1834.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of
on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the
forms oknow, aknow and acknow, acknowledge is formed on
analogy of "knowledge"), an admission that something has
been given or done, a term used in law in various connexions.
The acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor
or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of Limita-
tions. The signature to a will by a testator, if not made in the
presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards acknowledged in
their presence. The acknowledgment by a woman married before
1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real property not her separate
property, requires to be made by her before a judge of the High
Court or of a county court or before a perpetual or special
commissioner. Before such an acknowledgment can be received,
the judge or commissioner is required to examine her apart
from her husband, touching her knowledge of the deed, and to
ascertain whether she freely and voluntarily consents to it. An
acknowledgment to the right of the production of deeds of
conveyance is an obligation on the vendor, when he retains any
portion of the property to which the deeds relate, and is entitled
to retain the deeds, to produce them from time to time at the
request of the person to whom the acknowledgment is given,

ACLAND— ACNE

149

to allow copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe
custody (Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9). The term "acknow-
ledgment " is, in the United States, applied to the certificate
of a public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before
him to be the deed or act of the person who executed it.

" Acknowledgment money " is the sum paid in some parts
of England by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the
manor.

ACLAND, CHRISTIAN HENRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815),
usually called Lady Harriet Acland, was born on the 3rd of
January 1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester. In
1770 she married John Dyke Acland, who as a member of parlia-
ment became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy
towards the American colonies, and, entering the British army
in 1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the 2oth
regiment of foot. Lady Harriet accompanied her husband, and,
when he was wounded at Ticonderoga, nursed him in his tent at
the front. In the second battle of Saratoga Major Acland was
again badly wounded and subsequently taken prisoner. Lady
Harriet was determined to be with him, and underwent great
hardship to accomplish her object, proving herself a courageous
and devoted wife. A story has been told that being provided
with a letter from General Burgoyne .to the American general
Gates, she went up the Hudson river in an open boat to the
enemy's lines, arriving late in the evening. The American out-
posts threatened to fire into the boat if its occupants stirred,
and Lady Harriet had to wait eight " dark and cold hours,"
until the sun rose, when she at last received permission to join
her husband. Major Acland died in 1778, and Lady Harriet on
the 2ist of July 1815.

ACLAND, SIR HENRY WENTWORTH, BART. (1815-1900),
English physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on
the 23rd of August 1815, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas
Dyke Acland (1787-1871). Educated at Harrow and at Christ
Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and
then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh. Returning
to Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ
Church in 1845, and in 1851 Radcliffe librarian and physician to
the Radcliffe infirmary. Seven years later he became regius
professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 1894. He
was also a curator of the university galleries and of the Bodleian
Library, and from 1858 to 1887 he represented his university
on the General Medical Council, of which he served as president
from 1874 to 1887. He was created a baronet in 1890, and ten
years later, on the i6th of October 1900, he died at his house in
Broad Street, Oxford. Acland took a leading part in the revival
of the Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of
natural science into the university. As Lee's reader he began
to form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations
on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the Oxford
University museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for the en-
couragement of the study of science, especially in relation to
medicine, was largely due to his efforts. " To Henry Acland,"
said his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, " physiology was an en-
trusted gospel of which he was the solitary preacher to the
heathen," but on the other hand his thorough classical training
preserved science at Oxford from too abrupt a severance from
the humanities. In conjunction with Dean Liddell, he revolu-
tionized the study of art and archaeology, so that the cultivation
of these subjects, for which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford
cared before that time, began to flourish in the university.
Acland was also interested in questions of public health. He
served on the royal commission on sanitary laws in England
and Wales in 1869, and published a study of the outbreak of
cholera at Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on
sanitary matters. His memoir on the topography of the Troad,
with panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise
which he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health.

ACME (Gr. 61^17, point), the highest point attainable; first
used as an English word by Ben Jonson.

ACMITE, or AEGIRITE, a mineral of the pyroxene (q.v.} group,
which may be described as a soda-pyroxene, being essentially a

sodium and ferric metasilicate, NaFe(SiOs)2. In its crystallo-
graphic characters it is close to ordinary pyroxene (augite and
diopside), being monoclinic and having nearly the same angle
between the prismatic cleavages. There are, however, important
differences in the optical characters: the birefringence of acmite
is negative, the pleochroism is strong and the extinction angle
on the plane of symmetry measured to the vertical axis is small
(3°-5°). The hardness is 6-65, and the specific gravity 3-55.
Crystals are elongated in the direction of the vertical axis, and
are blackish green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour.
Being isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in com-
position between augite or diopside and aegirite are not un-
common, and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine-
diopside.

Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks rich in
soda, such as nepheline-syenites, phonolites, &c. It was first
discovered as slender crystals, sometimes a foot in length, in
the pegmatite veins of the granite of Rundemyr, near Kongsberg
in Norway, and was named by F. Stromeyer in 1821 from the
Gr. aK//i7, a point, in allusion to the pointed terminations of
the crystals. Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian
sea -god) was described in 1835 fr°m tne elaeolite-syenite of
southern Norway. Although exhibiting certain varietal differ-
ences, the essential identity of acmite and aegirite has long been
established, but the latter and more recent name is perhaps in
more general use, especially among petrologists.

ACNE, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the
sebaceous glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the
disease being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous
follicles by a " comedo," familiarly known as " blackhead." It
is now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is
the organism known as bacillus acnes. It shows itself in the
form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and
be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the
skin. This affection is likewise most common in early adult life,
and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the face, where it
may, when of much extent, produce considerable disfigurement.
It is apt to persist for months or even years, but usually in time
disappears entirely, although slight traces may remain in the
form of scars or stains upon the skin. Eruptions of this kind
are sometimes produced by the continued internal use of certain
drugs, such as the iodide or bromide of potassium. In treating
this condition the face should first of all be held over steaming
water for several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed. The
blackheads should next be removed, not with the finger-nail,
but with an inexpensive little instrument known as the " comedo
expressor." When the more noticeable of the blackheads have
been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for three or
four minutes with a lather made from a special soap composed
of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru. Any lather remaining
on the face at the end of this time should be wiped off with a
soft handkerchief. As this treatment might give rise to some
irritation of the skin, it should be replaced every fourth night
by a simple application of cold cream. Of drugs used internally
sulphate of calcium, in pill, 5 grain three times a day, is a very
useful adjunct to the preceding. The patient should take plenty
of exercise in the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet,
and, if present, constipation and anaemia must be suitably treated.

Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more severe
and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with no relation to
the foregoing, and in most cases secondary to seborrhea of the
scalp. It is characterized by great redness of the nose and
cheeks, accompanied by pustular enlargements on the surface
of the skin, which produce marked disfigurement. Although
often seen in persons who live too freely, it is by no means con-
fined to such, but may arise in connexion with disturbances of
the general health, especially of the function of digestion, and
in females with menstrual disorders. It is apt to be exceed-
ingly intractable to treatment, which is here too, as in the pre-
ceding form, partly local and partly constitutional. Of internal
remedies preparations of iodine and of arsenic are sometimes
found of service.

150

ACOEMETI— ACOMINATUS

ACOEMETI (Gr. eucoi/uTjTOS, sleepless), an order of Eastern
monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission
day or night. This was done by dividing the communities into
choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. Their
first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in the begin-
ning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in
Constantinople. Here also, c. 460, was founded by the consular
Studius the famous monastery of the Studium, which was put
in the hands of the Acoemeti and became their chief house, so
that they were sometimes called Studites. At Agaunum (St
Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Bur-
gundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office
was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion
with the Eastern Acoemeti.

The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part in
the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries, at
first strenuously opposing Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople,
in his attempted compromise with the monophysites; but after-
wards, in Justinian's reign, falling under ecclesiastical censure
for Nestorian tendencies.

See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetzer und
Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.); and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie (3rd ed.) ; also the general histories of the time. (E. C. B.)

ACOLYTE (Gr.ciKoXouflos, follower), the last of the four minor
orders in the Roman Church. As an office it appears to be of
local origin, and is entirely unknown in the Eastern Church, with
the exception of the Armenians who borrowed it from the West.
Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was only to be found at
Rome and Carthage. When in 251 Pope Cornelius, in a letter to
Fabius of Antioch, mentions among the Roman clergy forty-two
acolytes, placing them after the subdeacons and before the other
minor officials (see Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives
no hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as hold-
ing an already established position. Their institution has there-
fore to be sought for at an earlier date than his pontificate. It
is possible that the Liber Pontificalis refers to the office under
the Lathi synonym, when it says of Pope Victor (186-197) that
he made sequentes cleros, a term — sequens — which Pope Gaius
(283-293) uses in the sense of acolyte. While the office was well
known hi Rome, there is nothing to prove that it was also an
order through which, as to-day, every candidate to the priest-
hood must pass. The contrary is a fact proved by many monu-
mental inscriptions and authentic statements. Though the
office is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (2007-258) makes
many references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters,
this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were known.
Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, says nothing
about acolytes; neither does St Augustine. The Irish Church
did not know them; and in Spain the council of Toledo (400)
makes no mention either of the office or of the order. The
Statuta Ecclesiae Anliqua (falsely called the Canons of the Fourth
Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican collection, originating in
the province of Aries at the beginning of the 6th century,
mentions the acolyte, but does not give, as in the case of the
other orders, any form for the ordination. The Roman books are
silent, and there is no mention of it in the collection known as
the Leonine Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Mass-
book, which, as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to
St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in one MS.
of the loth century given by Muratori we find a form for the
ordination of an acolyte. While there is frequent mention of
the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it is only in the Ordo
VIII. (which is not earlier than the 7th century) that we find the
very simple form for admitting an acolyte to his office. At the
end of the mass the cleric, clad in chasuble and stole and bearing
a linen bag on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and
receives a blessing. There is no collation of power or order but
a simple admission to an office. The evidence available, there-
fore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a local office
and was not a necessary step or order for every candidate.
In England, though the ecclesiastical organization came from
Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace of such

an office or order until the time of Ecgbert of York (767), the
friend of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican influence. The
Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it was then in use both
as an office and as an order, and Aelfric (1006) in both his pastoral
epistle and canons mentions the acolyte. The conclusion, then,
which seems warranted by the evidence, is that the acolyte was
an office only at Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican
Church, found its way as such into the Roman books at some
period before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne.

The duties of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical,
are identical with those mentioned in the Staluta Ecclesiae
Antiqua of Aries: " It is the duty of acolytes to carry the candle-
sticks, to light the lamps of the church, to administer wine and
water for the Eucharist." It might seem, from the number forty-
two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, that at Rome the acolytes
were divided among the seven ecclesiastical regions of the city;
but we have no proof that, at that date, there were six acolytes
attached to each region. From the ancient division of the Roman
acolytes into Palatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the
Lateran palace, Stationarii, or those who served at the churches
where there was a " station," and Regionarii, or those attached
directly to the regions, it would seem that the number forty-two
was only the actual number then existing and not an official
number. We get a glimpse of their duties from the Ordines
Romani. When the pope rode in procession to the station an
acolyte, on foot, preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and
at the church seven regionary acolytes with candles went before
him in the procession to the altar, while two others, bearing the
vessel that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his
adoration. During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible (Ordo
VI.) and three assisted at the washing of the hands. At the
moment of communion the acolytes received in linen bags the
consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting priests. This office
of bearing the sacrament is an ancient one, and is mentioned in
the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman acolyte, who was martyred
on the Appian Way while carrying the Hosts from the cata-
combs. The official dress of the acolyte, according to Ordo V.,
was a close-fitting linen garment (camisia) girt about him, a
napkin hanging from the left side, a white tunic, a stole (orarium)
and a chasuble (planeta) which he took off when he sang on the
steps of the ambone.

At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council of
Trent (Sess. xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while remaining an
order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical office, since the duties
are now performed, almost everywhere, by laymen. The office
has been revived, though unofficially, in the Church of England,
as a result of the Tractarian movement.

See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecclesiae ordinationibus
(Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 152; Martene, De Antiquis Ec-
clesiae ritibus (Antwerp, 1739), ii. pp. 47 and 86; Mabillon, Musaeum
Italicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, Liturgia Romana
Vetus; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d' archeologie chrelienne et de liturgie,
vol. i. col. 348-536. (E. TN.)

ACOMINATUS (AKOMJNATOS), . MICHAEL (c. 1140-1220),
Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was born at Chonae (the
ancient Colossae) . At an early age he studied at Constantinople,
and about 1175 was appointed archbishop of Athens. After the
capture of Constantinople by the Franks and the establishment
of the Latin empire (1204), he retired to the island of Ceos, where
he died. He was a versatile writer, and composed homilies,
speeches and poems, which, with his correspondence, throw
considerable light upon the miserable condition of Attica and
Athens at the time. His memorial to Alexis III. Angelus on the
abuses of Byzantine administration, the poetical lament over the
degeneracy of Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas
and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special
mention.

Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1879-1880) ; Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellissen, Michael Akominatos (1846), con-
taining several pieces with German translation; F. Gregorovius,
Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, i. (1889); G. Finlay,
History of Greece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877).

His younger brother NICETAS (Niketas), sometimes called
CHONIATES, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up

ACONCAGUA— ACONITE

politics as a career. He held several appointments under the
Angelus emperors (amongst them that of " great logothete " or
chancellor) and was governor of the " theme " of Philippopolis
at a critical period. After the fall of Constantinople he fled to
Nicaea, where he settled at the court of the emperor Theodorus
Lascaris, and devoted himself to literature. He died between
1 2 10 and 1 2 20. His chief work is his History, in 2 1 books, of the
period from 1180 to 1206. In spite of its florid and bombastic
style, it is of considerable value as a record (on the whole im-
partial) of events of which he was either an eye-witness or had
heard at first hand. Its most interesting portion is the de-
scription of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read
with Villehardouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same
subject. The little treatise On the Statues destroyed by the
Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is of
special interest to the archaeologist. His dogmatic work(67j(rai;p6s
'OpOodo^ias, Thesaurus Orthodoxae Fidei), although it is extant in
a complete form in MS., has only been published in part. It is
one of the chief authorities for the heresies and heretical writers
of the 1 2th century.

Editions: History, editio princeps, H. Wolf (1557); and in the
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., 1st ed.,Bekker (1835) ; Rhetorical
Pieces in C. Sathas, tJitaauavLiai Bi(3\io0ijK7), i. (1872); Thesaurus in
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxix., cxl. ; see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
" Geoffrey de Villehardouin " in Causeries du Lundi, ix. ; S. Reinach,
" La fin de 1'empire grec " in Esquisses Archeologiques (1888); C.
Neumann, Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888);
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. Ix. ; and (for both Michael and Nicetas)
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

ACONCAGUA, a small northern province of central Chile,
bounded N. by Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and
Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific. Its area is officially com-
puted at 5487 sq. m. Pop. (1895) I13t1(>5'> (rpo2, official esti-
mate based on civil registry returns) 131,255. The province is
very mountainous, and is traversed from east to west by the broad
valley of the Aconcagua river. The climate is hot and dry, the
rainfall being too small to influence climatic conditions. The
valleys are highly fertile, and where irrigation is employed large
crops are easily raised. Beyond the limits of irrigation the
country is semi-barren. Alfalfa and grapes are the principal
products, and considerable attention is given to the cultivation
of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and melons. The " Vale of
Quillota," through which the railway passes between Valparaiso
and Santiago, is celebrated for its gardens. The Aconcagua
river rises on the southern slope of the volcano Aconcagua, flows
eastward through a broad valley, or bay in the mountains, and
enters the Pacific 12 m. north of Valparaiso. The river has a
course of about 200 m., and its waters irrigate the best and
most populous part of the province. Two other rivers — the
Ligua and Choapa — traverse the province, the latter forming
the northern boundary line. The capital is San Felipe, on the
Aconcagua river; it had a population of 11,313 in 1895, and an
estimated population of 11,660 in 1902. The other chief town
is Santa Rosa de los Andes (est. pop. 6854), which is a principal
station on the Transandine branch of the state railway. The
only port in the province is Los Vilos, in lat. 32° S., from which
a railway 40 m. long runs north-east to the valley of the Choapa.
Another short line connects Cabildo, in the valley of the Ligua,
with the state railway.

ACONCIO, GIACOMO (1492-1566?), pioneer of religious tolera-
tion, was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September
1492. He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernar-
dino Ochino who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found
refuge in England. Like them, his revolt against Romanism
took an extremer form than Lutheranism, and after a temporary
residence in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in England
soon after EKzabeth's accession. He had studied law and
theology, but his profession was that of an engineer, and in this
capacity he found employment with the English government.
He was granted an annuity of £60 on the 27th of February 1560,
and letters of naturalization on the 8th of October 1561 (Co/.
Stale Papers, Dom. Ser., Addenda, 1547-1566, p. 495), and wasfor
some time occupied with draining Plumstead marshes, for which

object various acts of parliament were passed at this time (Lords'
Journals, vol. i., and Commons' Journals, vol. i., passim). In
1564 he was sent to report on the fortifications of Berwick (Co/.
St. Pap. For. Ser. 1564-1565, passim; Acts P.C., 1558-1570,
p. 146); his report is now in the Record Office (C.S.P. For.,
1564-1565, No. 512).

But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the
history of religious toleration. Before reaching England he had
published a treatise on the methods of investigation, De Methodo,
hoc est, de recte investigandarum tradendarumque Scientiarum
ratione (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical spirit placed him
outside all the recognized religious societies of his time. On his
arrival in London he had joined the Dutch Reformed Church
in Austin Friars, but he was " infected with Anabaptistical and
Arian opinions " and was excluded from the sacrament by
Grindal, bishop of London. The real nature of his heterodoxy
is revealed in his Stratagemata Satanae, published in 1565 and
translated into various languages. The " stratagems of Satan "
"are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian church. Aconcio
sought to find the common denominator of the various creeds;
this was essential doctrine, the rest was immaterial. To arrive
at this common basis, he had to reduce dogma to a low level,
and his result was generally repudiated. Even Selden applied
to Aconcio the remark ubi bene, nil melius; ubi male, nemo
pejus. The dedication of such a work to Queen Elizabeth illus-
trates the tolerance or religious laxity during the early years of
her reign. Aconcio found another patron in the earl of Leicester,
and died about 1566.

AUTHORITIES. — Cough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ. • Strype's
Grindal, pp. 62, 66; Bayle's Dictionnaire ; G. Tiraboschi, Storia
della lett. italiana (Florence, 1805-1813); Osterreichisches Biogr.
Lexikon ; Nouvelle biogr. generate ; Diet. Nat. Biogr. (A. "F. P.)

ACONITE (Aconitum)i a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly
known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embracing
about 60 species, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the
northern hemisphere. They are distinguished by having one
of the five blue or yellow coloured sepals (the posterior one) in
the form of a helmet; hence the English name monkshood.
Two of the petals placed under the hood of the calyx are sup-
ported on long stalks, and have a hollow spur at their apex,
containing honey. They are handsome plants, the tall stem
being crowned by racemes of showy flowers. Aconitum Napellus,
common monkshood, is a doubtful native of Britain, and is of
therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occa-
sionally been mistaken for horse-radish. The aconite has a short
underground stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots
descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to
new plants. When put to the h'p, the juice of the aconite root
produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-radish
root, which belongs to the natural order Cruciferae, is much
longer than that of the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour
is yellowish, and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves
on it.

Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some having
blue and others yellow flowers. Aconitum lycoctonum, wolfsbane,
is a yellow-flowered species common on the Alps of Switzerland.
The roots of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nepal)
poison called bikh, bish or nabee. It contains considerable
quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is the most
deadly poison known. Aconitum palmatum yields another of
the celebrated bikh poisons. The root of Aconitum luridum, of
the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that of A. ferox or
A . Napellus. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental,
hardy perennials. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil,
and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propa-
gated by divisions of the root or by seeds; great care should be
taken not to leave pieces of the root about owing to its very
poisonous character.

Chemistry. — The active principle of Aconitum Napellus is the
alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Geiger and Hesse
(Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267). Alder Wright and A. P. Luff obtained

152

ACONTIUS— ACORN

apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic acid by hydrolysis; while, in
1892, C. Ehrenberg and A. Purfiirst (Journ. Prat. Chem., 1892,
45 , p. 604) observed acetic acid as a hydroly tic product. This, and
allied alkaloids, have formed the subject of many investigations
by Wyndham Dunstan and his pupils in England, and by Martin
Freund and Paul Beck in Berlin. But their constitution is not
yet solved, there even being some divergence of opinion as to
their empirical formulae. Aconitine (GsI^NOjs, according to
Dunstan; C^H^NOu, according to Freund) is a crystalline
base, soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alco-
holic solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory.
When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine. Hydrolysis
gives acetic acid and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the
alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives
aconine. Pseudaconitine, obtained from Aconitum ferox, gives
on hydrolysis acetic acid and veratrylpseudaconine, the latter
of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric acid and pseud-
aconine: Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese aconites,
known locally as " kuza-uzu," hydrolyses to japbenzaconine,'
which further breaks down to benzoic acid and japaconine.
Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and myoctonine which
occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. The usual test for
solutions of aconitine consists in slight acidulation with acetic
acid and addition of potassium permanganate, which causes the
formation of a red crystalline precipitate. In 1905, Dunstan and
his collaborators discovered two new aconite alkaloids, indaconi-
tine in " mohri " (Aconitum chasmanthum, Stapf), and bikh-
aconitine in " bikh " (Aconitum spicatum); he also proposes to
classify these alkaloids according to whether they yield benzoic
or veratric acid on hydrolysis (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, pp.
1620, 1650).

From the root of Aconitum Napellus are prepared a liniment
and a tincture. The dose of the latter (Brit. Pharmacop.) is of
importance as being exceptionally small, for it is not advisable
to give more than at most five drops at a time. The official
preparation is an ointment which contains one part of the alka-
loid in fifty. It must be used with extreme care, and in small
quantities, and it must not be used at all where cuts or cracks are
present in the skin.

Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine. — Aconite first stimu-
lates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and tempera-
ture, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or to a mucous
membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long-
continued anaesthetic action. Taken internally aconite acts
very notably on the circulation, the respiration and the nervous
system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute
being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or
even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously
falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole. Immediately before
arrest the heart may beat much faster than normally, though
with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles
may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by
veratrine and colchicum. The action of aconitine on the circu-
lation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory
centre in the medulla oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves),
and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and
muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is
not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration
becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory
centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action,
the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart.
Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals,
the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses it
therefore tends to relieve pain, if this be present. The activity
of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first
contracted, and afterwards dilated. The cerebrum is totally
unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence re-
maining normal to the last. The antipyretic action which con-
siderable doses of aconite display is not specific, but is the
result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its
slight diaphoretic action.

Therapeutics. — The indications for its employment are limited,

but definite. It is of undoubted value as a local anodyne in
sciatica and neuralgia, especially in ordinary facial or trigeminal
neuralgia. The best method of application is by rubbing in a
small quantity of the aconitine ointment until numbness is felt,
but the costliness of this preparation causes the use of the
aconite liniment to be commonly resorted to. This should be
painted on the affected part with a camel's hair brush dipped in
chloroform, which facilitates the absorption of the alkaloid.
Aconite is indicated for internal administration whenever it
desirable to depress the action of the heart in the course of a
fever. Formerly used in every fever, and even in the septic states
that constantly followed surgical operations in the pre-Listerian
epoch, aconite is now employed only in the earliest stage of the
less serious fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and,
notably, laryngitis. The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the
vocal cords — with threatened obstruction to the respiration —
that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved by the
sedative action of this drug upon the circulation. In order to
reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these cases, without at the
same time lessening the power of the heart, the drug must be
given in doses of about two minims of the tincture every half-
hour and then every hour until the pulse falls to the normal rate.
Thereafter the drug must be discontinued. It is probably never
right to give aconite in doses much larger than that named.
There is one condition of the heart itself in which aconite is
sometimes useful. Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all
cases of valvular disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hyper-
trophy with over-action. But the practitioner must be assured
that neither valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium
is present.

Toxicology. — In a few minutes after the introduction of a
poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The
initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary canal.
There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness in the
mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually super-
venes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be observed.
After about an hour there is severe vomiting. Much motor
weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above de-
scribed soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail,
death occurring from asphyxia. As in strychnine poisoning,
the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The
only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia. The treatment
is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant emetic.
The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or
strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in
maximal doses. Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also
be employed.

ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful youth
of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told byCallimachus
in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of two of Ovid's
Heroides (xx., xxi.). During the festival of Artemis at Delos,
Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian maiden of whom
he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the goddess. He
wrote on an apple the words, " I swear by the sacred shrine of
the goddess that I will marry you," and threw it at her feet. She
picked it up, and mechanically read the words aloud, which
amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them out. Unaware
of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; but, although she
was betrothed more than once, she always fell ill before the wed-
ding took place. The Delphic oracle at last declared the cause
of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended goddess; where-
upon her father consented to her marriage with Acontius (Aris-
taenetus, Epistolae, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses,
i., tells the story with different names).

ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by
analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of wood
keeping the vane on the mast-head. The etymology of the word
(earlier akerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the New English
Dictionary. It is derived from a word (Goth, akran) which
meant " fruit," originally " of the unenclosed land," and so of
the most important forest produce, the oak. Chaucer speaks of
" achornes of okes." By degrees, popular etymology connected

ACORUS CALAMUS— ACOUSTICS

153

the word both with " corn " and " oak-horn," and the spelling
changed accordingly.

ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the
natural order Araceae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint (Arum)
the representation in Britain of that order of Monocotyledons.
The name is derived from acorus, Gr. o/copos, the classical
name for the plant. It was the Calamus aromaticus of the
medieval druggists and perhaps of the ancients, though the latter
has been referred by some to the Citron grass, Andropogon
Nardus. The spice " Calamus " or " Sweet-cane " of the Scrip-
tures, one of the ingredients of the holy anointing oil of the Jews,
was perhaps one of the fragrant species of A ndropogon. The plant
is a herbaceous perennial with a long, branched root-stock
creeping through the mud, about f inch thick, with short joints
and large brownish leaf-scars. At the ends of the branches are
tufts of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long
and about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in the
true Flag (Iris); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), which very
much resemble the leaves, bear an apparently lateral, blunt,
tapering spike of densely packed, very small flowers. A long
leaf (spathe) borne immediately below the spike forms an appar-
ent continuation of the scape, though really a lateral outgrowth
from it, the spike of flowers being terminal. The plant has a wide
distribution, growing in wet situations in the Himalayas, North
America, Siberia and various parts of Europe, including Eng-
land, and has been naturalized in Scotland and Ireland. Though
regarded as a native in most counties of England at the present
day, where it is now found thoroughly wild on sides of ditches,
ponds and rivers, and very abundantly in some districts, it is
probably not indigenous. It seems to have been spread in western
and central Europe from about the end of the i6th century by
means of botanic gardens. The botanist Clusius (Charles de
1'Escluse or Lecluse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna
from a root received from Asia Minor in 1574, and distributed
it to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was
probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist
Gerard. It is very readily propagated by means of its branch-
ing root-stock. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used
medicinally. The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is
associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder.
Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions it as
a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague. In India it is used as an
insectifuge, and is administered in infantile diarrhoea. It is an
ingredient in pot-pourri, is employed for flavouring beer and is
chewed to clear the voice; and its volatile oil is employed by
makers of snuff and aromatic vinegar. The rhizome of Acorus
Calamus is sometimes adulterated with that of Iris Pseudacorus,
which, however, is distinguishable by its lack of odour, a stringent
taste and dark colour.

ACOSTA, JOSE DE (15397-1600), Spanish author, was born
at Medina del Campo about the year 1 539. He joined the Jesuits
in 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he acted
as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was appointed
theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, and in 1583
published a catechism in Quichua and Aymara — the first book
printed in Peru. Returning to Spain in 1587, and placing him-
self at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, Acosta was im-
prisoned in 1592-1593; on his submission in 1594 he became
superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and in 1598 rector of the
Jesuit college at Salamanca, where he died on the I5th of Feb-
ruary 1600. His treatise De natura novi orbis libri duo (Sala-
manca, 1588-1589) may be regarded as the preliminary draft of
his celebrated Hisloria natural y moral de las Indias (Seville,
1590) which was speedily translated into Italian (1596), French
(1597), Dutch (1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English
(1604). The Hi'storia is in three sections: books I. and II. deal
with generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography
and natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and VII.
with the religious and political institutions of the aborigines.
Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish colonial policy,
Acosta deserves high praise as an acute and diligent observer
whose numerous new and valuable data are set forth in a vivid

style. Among his other publications are De procuranda salute
Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 1588), De Christo revelato libri
novem (Rome, 1590), De temporibus novissimis libri quatuor
(Rome, 1590), and three volumes of sermons issued respectively
in 1596, 1597 and 1599.

AUTHORITIES. — Jps6 R. Carricido, El P. Jose de Acosta y su
importancia en la literatura cientifica espanola (Madrid, 1899); C.
Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, Premiere
Partie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward
Grimston's translation of the Historia reprinted (1880) for the
Hakluyt Society with introduction and notes by Sir Clements R.
Markham. (J. F.-K.)

ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), a Portuguese Jew of noble family,
was born at Oporto towards the close of the i6th century. His
father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up in
the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites of the
church till the course of his inquiries led him, after much painful
doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for Judaism. Passing
over to Amsterdam, he was received into the synagogue, having
his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel. His wayward dis-
position found, however, no satisfaction in the Jewish fold. He
came into conflict with the authorities of the synagogue and was
excommunicated. Unlike Spinoza (who was about fifteen at
the time of Acosta's death), Acosta was not strong enough to
stand alone. Wearied by his melancholy isolation, he was
driven to seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having re-
canted his heresies, he was readmitted after an excommunication
of fifteen years, but was soon excommunicated a second time.
After seven years of exclusion, he once more sought admission,
and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was again
received. His vacillating autobiography, Exemplar Humanae
Vitae, was published with a " refutation " by Limborch in 1687,
and republished in 1847. In this brief work Acosta declares his
opposition both to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks
with the more bitterness of the latter religion. The only authority
which he admits is the lex naturae. Acosta was not an original
thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational Deists.
His history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy by
Gutzkow. Acosta committed suicide in 1647. The significance
of his career has been much exaggerated.

ACOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of
Botany, embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods,
horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and fungi.
The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or cotyledon.
Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, with usually
one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while in flowerless plants
there is no seed and therefore no true cotyledon. The term is
synonymous with Cryptogams, by which it was replaced in later
systems of classification.

ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. O.KOVH.V to hear), a title frequently
given to the science of sound, that is, to the description and
theory of the phenomena which give rise to the sensation
of sound (q.v.). The term " acoustics " might, however, with
advantage be reserved for the aspect of the subject more im-
mediately connected with hearing. Thus we may speak appro-
priately of the acoustic quality of a room or hall, describing it
as good or bad acoustically, according as speaking is heard in it
easily or with difficulty. When a room has bad acoustic quality
we can almost always assign the fault to large smooth surfaces
on the walls, floor or ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of
the speaker so that the direct waves sent out by him at any
instant are received by a hearer with the waves sent out previ-
ously and reflected at these smooth surfaces. The syllables
overlap, and the hearing is confused. The acoustic quality of
a room may be improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces
by curtains or by arrangement of furniture. The echo is then
broken up into small waves, none of which may be sufficiently
distinct to interfere with the direct voice. Sometimes a sound-
ing-board over the head of a speaker improves the hearing
probably by preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him.
A large bare floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when
a room is filled by an audience the hearing is much improved

154

ACQUI— ACRE

Wires are frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably
with the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the
roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to suppose
that they are efficient. The only cure appears to consist in
breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the reflexion shall be
much less regular and distinct. Probably drapery assists by
absorbing the sound to some extent, and thus it lessens the echo
besides breaking it up. (J. H. P.)

ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is 21 m.
S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,786. Its warm sulphur springs
are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae Statiellae they
were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus and Liut-
prand speak of the ancient bath establishment. In the neigh-
bourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct which sup-
plied it. The place was connected by road with Alba Pompeia
and Augusta Taurinorum. The tribe of the Statielli, to whom
the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early period,
but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the north of
the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral.

ACR&, or AQDIRY, a river of Brazil and principal tributary of
the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing easterly
and northerly to a junction with the Purts at 8° 45' S. lat. The
name is also applied to a district situated on the same river
and on the former (1867) boundary line between Bolivia and
Brazil. The region, which abounds in valuable rubber forests,
was settled by Bolivians between 1870 and 1878, but was in-
vaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade and
became tributary to the rubber markets of Manaos and Para.
In 1899 the Bolivian government established a custom-house at
Puerto Alonso, on the Acre river, for the collection of export
duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian
settlers and finally brought about a boundary dispute between
the two republics. In July 1899 the Acreanos declared their
independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the
following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil.
Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto
Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally
settled at Petropolis on the i7th of November 1903 through the
purchase by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to
about the nth parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq. m.

ACRE, ' Akka, or ST JEAN D'ACRE, the chief town of a govern-
mental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, Nazareth and
Tiberias. It stands on a low promontory at the northern ex-
tremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m. N. N.W. from Jerusalem, and
25 m. S. of Tyre. The population is about n,ooo; 8000 being
Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, &c. It was long
regarded as the " Key of Palestine," on account of its command-
ing position on the shore of the broad plain that joins the inland
plain of Esdraelon, and so affords the easiest entrance to the
interior of the country. But trade is now passing over to Haifa,
at the south side of the bay, as its harbour offers a safer road-
stead, and is a regular calling -place for steamers. Business,
rapidly declining, is still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame,
&c., in the town market. There are few buildings of interest,
owing to the frequent destructions the town has undergone.
The wall, which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from
the crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804)
from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is
within. Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion.

History. — Few towns have had a more chequered or calami-
tous history. Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified
with the 'Aak of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III.
(c. 1500 B.C.), and it is certainly the Akka of the Tell el-Amarna
correspondence. To the Hebrews it was known as Acco (Re-
vised Version spelling), but it is mentioned only once in the
Old Testament, namely Judges i. 31, as one of the places from
which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants.
Theoretically it was in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and
Josephus assigns it by name to the district of one of Solomon's
provincial governors. Throughout the period of Hebrew domina-
tion, however, its political connexions were always with Syria

rather than with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined
Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a
stormy experience during the three centuries preceding the
Christian era. The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus
calls it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais,
probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom
of Alexander. Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for
the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt. About 165 B.C.
Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles in
Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 1 53 B.C. Alex-
ander Hulas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the Syrian
crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates
to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to
obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the revenues
of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in vain. Jonathan
threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 150 B.C. he was received
by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later,
however, Tryphon, an officer of the Syrians, who had grown
suspicious of the Maccabees, enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais
and there treacherously took him prisoner. The city was also
assaulted and captured by Alexander Jannaeus, by Cleopatra
and by Tigranes. Here Herod built a gymnasium, and here the
Jews met Petronius, sent to set up statues of the emperor in
the Temple, and persuaded him to turn back. St Paul spent a
day in Ptolemais. The Arabs captured the city in A.D. 638,
and lost it to the crusaders in mo. The latter made the town
their chief port in Palestine. It was re-taken by Saladin in
1187, besieged by Guy de Lusignan in 1189 (see below), and
again captured by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191. In 1229 it
was placed under the control of the knights of St John (whence
one of its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in
1291. The Turks under Sultan Selim I. captured the city in 1517,
after which it fell into almost total decay. Maundrell in 1697
found it a complete ruin, save for a khan occupied by some
French merchants, a mosque and a few poor cottages. Towards
the end of the i8th century it seems to have revived under
the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar el- Amir, the local
sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, governor of Damascus,
improved and fortified it, but by heavy imposts secured for him-
self all the benefits derived from his improvements. About 1780
Jezzar peremptorily banished the French trading colony, in
spite of protests from the French government, and refused to
receive a consul. In 1799 Napoleon, in pursuance of his scheme
for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, ap-
peared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March-May)
was repulsed by the Turks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a
force of British sailors. Jezzar was succeeded on his death by
his son Suleiman, under whose milder rule the town advanced in
prosperity till 1831, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced
the town and destroyed its buildings. On the 4th of November
1840 it was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French
squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule.

Battle of Acre. — The battle of 1189, fought on the ground
to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the
Crusades. The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king of
Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 4th of
October 1189 to the relieving army which Saladin had collected.
The Christian army consisted of the feudatories of the kingdom
of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of European crusaders
and the military orders, and contingents from Egypt, Turkestan,
Syria and Mesopotamia fought under Saladin. The Saracens
lay in a semicircle east of the town facing inwards towards Acre.
The Christians opposed them with crossbowmen in first line and
the heavy cavalry in second. At Arsuf the Christians fought
coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat
between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The crusaders
were so far successful that the enemy had to send up reinforce-
ments from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of
the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the
crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms,
met with no great resistance. But the victors scattered to
plunder. Saladin rallied his men, and, when the Christians

ACRE— ACRON

began to retire with their booty, let loose his light horse upon
them. No connected resistance was offered, and the Turks
slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh troops of the
Christian right wing. Into this fight Guy's reserve, charged
with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was also drawn, and,
thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the town to the north-
ward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, they fell upon the
Templars, who suffered severely in their retreat. In the end the
crusaders repulsed the relieving army, but only at the cost of
7000 men. (R. A. S. M.)

ACRE, a land measure used by English-speaking races.
Derived from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat. ager,
Gr. &yp6s, Sans, ajras, it has retained its original meaning
" open country," in such phrases as " God's acre," or a church-
yard, " broad acres," &c. As a measure of land, it was first
defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a day;
statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward I.,
Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights
and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq.
yds. In addition to this " statute " or " imperial acre," other
" acres " are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, Ireland,
Wales and certain English counties. The Scottish acre con-
tains 6150-4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in Wales,
the land measures erw (4320 sq. yds.), slang (3240 sq. yds.) and
paladr are called " acres "; the Leicestershire acre (2308^ sq.
yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and Cheshire acre
(10,240 sq. yds.) are examples of local values.

ACRIDINE, Ci3H9N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring com-
pound found in crude coal-tar anthracene. It may be separated
by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and then precipitating
the sulphuric acid solution with potassium bichromate, the
resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed by ammonia.
It was first isolated in 1890 by C. Graebe and H. Caro (Ann.,
1871, 158, p. 265). Many synthetic processes are known for the
production of acridine and its derivatives. A. Bernthsen (Ann.,
1884, 224, p. i) condensed diphenylamine with fatty acids, in the
presence of zinc chloride. Formic acid yields acridine, and the
higher homologues give derivatives substituted at the meso
carbon atom,

N N

+HCOOH->C6H5/|\C6HS->C,H4<|>C8H4
CHO CH

N N

+CHaCOOH-»C6H6/|\C6H6-»C6H4<|>C6H4
COCH, C(CH,)

Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of phenyl-
ortho-toluidine through a red-hot tube (C. Graebe, Ber., 1884,
17, P- *37°)', by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, in
presence of aluminium chloride (O. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, p.
102); by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane
over heated litharge (O. Fischer) ; by heating salicylic aldehyde
with aniline and zinc chloride to 260° C. (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1886,
19, p. 2452) ; and by distilling acridone over zinc dust (C. Graebe,
Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1735).

Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of
feebly basic character. They combine readily with the alkyl
iodides to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily trans-
formed by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to
N-alkyl acridones. Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at
110° C. It is characterized by its irritating action on the skin,
and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions of its salts. On
oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields acridinic acid
(quinoline -o-/3-dicarboxylic acid) C9H5N(COOH)2. Numerous
derivatives of acridine are known and may be prepared by
methods analogous to those used for the formation of the
parent base. For the preparation of the naphthacridines, see
F.Ullmann, German Patents 117472, 118439, 127S86, 128754, and
also Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 316, 2670. Phenyl-acridine is the parent
base of chrysaniline, which is the chief constituent of the dye-
stuff phosphine (a bye-product in the manufacture of rosauiline).
Chrysaniline (diamino-phenylacridine) forms red-coloured salts,

C6H6.NH-C,H6

which dye silk and wool a fine yellow; and the solutions of the
salts are characterized by their fine yellowish-green fluorescence.
It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner (Ber., 1884,
17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with aniline,
the resulting ortho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane being
reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which on
oxidation yields chrysaniline. Benzoflavin, an isomer of chrys-
aniline,! is also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by K. Oehler
(English Patent96i4)from meta-phenylenediamine and benzalde-
hyde. These substances condense to form tetra-aminotriphenyl-
methane, which, on heating with acids, loses ammonia and yields
diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which benzoflavin is ob-
tained by oxidation. It is a yellow powder, soluble in hot water.
The formulae of these substances are: —

H2N

/\c/\/
I
7s

NH?
Chrysaniline.

v

Benzoflavin.

ACRO (or ACRON), HELENIUS, Roman grammarian and com-
mentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd' century A.D.
He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius. A
collection of scholia on Horace, originally anonymous in the
earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was wrongly
attributed to him at a much later date, probably during the
1 5th century. It has been published by Pauly (1861) and
Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia.

See Pseudoacronis Scholia in Horatium Vetustiora, ed. O. Keller
(1902-1904).

. ACROBAT (Gr. &KpoffaTelv, to walk on tiptoe), originally
a rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover pro-
fessional performers on the trapeze, &c., contortionists, balancers
and tumblers. Evidence exists that there were very skilful
performers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient
Romans. Modern rope-walkers (e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers
generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such assistance
in balancing, and by shifting this are enabled to maintain, or
readily to recover, their equilibrium^

ACR06ENAE (" growing at the apex "), an obsolete botanical
term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and
ferns), which were erroneously distinguished from the lower
(Algae and Fungi) by apical growth of the stem. The lower
Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae (" growing all
over "), a misnomer, as apical growth is common among them.

ACROLITHS (Gr. d/cpoXifloi, i.e. ending in stone), statues
of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which the
trunk of the figure was of wood, and the head, hands and feet of
marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or, more
commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were exposed.
Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the best known
specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans.

ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized
by a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and
soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of the
face and extremities (Gr. aKpov, point, and (ityas, large).
It is more frequent in the female sex, between the ages of 25
and 40. Its causation is generally associated with disturbances
in the pituitary gland, and an extract of this body has been tried
in the treatment, as one of the recent developments in organo-
therapeutics; thyroid extract has also been used, but without
marked success, on the apparent analogy of acromegaly with
myxoedema.

ACRON, a Greek physician, born at Agrigentum in Sicily,
was contemporary with Empedocles, and must therefore have
lived in the 5th century before Christ. The successful measure of
lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, to put
a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said to have origin-
ated with him; but this has been questioned on chronological

i56

ACROPOLIS— ACT

grounds. Suidas gives the titles of several medical works written
by him in the Doric dialect.

ACROPOLIS (Gr. cUpos, top, TroXis, city), literally the upper
part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally
chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides,
and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the
nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower
ground. The word Acropolis, though Greek in origin and asso-
ciated primarily with Greek towns (Athens, Argos, Thebes,
Corinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels (Rome,
Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Hill at Edin-
burgh). The most famous is that of Athens, which, by reason
of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected
upon it, is generally known without qualification as the Acropolis
(see ATHENS).

ACROPOLITA (AKROPOLITES), GEORGE (1217-1282), Byzan-
tine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople. At an
early age he was sent by his father to the court of John Ducas
Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom and by his
successors (Theodorus II. Lascaris and Michael VIII. Palaeo-
logus) he was entrusted with important state missions. The
office of " great logothete " or chancellor was bestowed upon him
in 1244. As commander in the field in 1257 against Michael
Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed little military capacity.
He was captured and kept for two years in prison, from which
he was released by Michael Palaeologus. Acropolita's most
important political task was that of effecting a reconciliation
between the Greek and Latin Churches, to which he had been
formerly opposed. In 1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X.,
and in the following year, at the council of Lyons, in the
emperor's name he recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome.
In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John IL, emperor of
Trebizond, and died in the same year soon after his return. His
historical work (XpoviK?) 2vyypa<t>ii, Annales) embraces the period
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to its
recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a con-
tinuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus. It is valuable
as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great
logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador
afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of
events. Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as far
as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to under-
stand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the construc-
tion of his sentences. He was also the author of several shorter
works, amongst them being a funeral oration on John Batatzes,
an epitaph on his wife Eirene and a panegyric of Theodorus II.
Lascaris of Nicaea. While a prisoner at Epirus he wrote two
treatises on the procession of the Holy Ghost ('E/oropewis, Pro-
cessio Spiritus Sancli).

Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), with the editor's famous
treatise De Georgiis eorumque Scriptis; editions in the Bonn Corpus
Scriplorum Hist. Byz., by I. Bekker (1836), and Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, cxl. ; in the Teubner series by A. Heisenberg (1903), the
second volume of which contains a full life, with bibliography; see
also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

ACROSTIC (Gr. a/cpos, at the end, and orix°s, line or verse), a
short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters
of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The fancy for
writing acrostics is of great antiquity, having been common
among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with
the Latin writers since Ennius and Plautus, many of the argu-
ments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respec-
tive titles. One of the most remarkable acrostics was contained
in the verses cited by Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century,
and attributed to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of
which form the words "IijcroOj Xptords Qtov w6s crcoriip: "Jesus
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour." The initials of the shorter
form of this again make up the word Ixdvs (fish), to which a
mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, De Civitate Dei,
18, 23), thus constituting another kind of acrostic.

The monks of the middle ages, who wrote in Latin, were fond
of acrostics, as well as the poets of the Middle High German
period, notably Gottfried of Strassburg and Rudolph of Ems.

The great poets of the Italian renaissance, among them Boc-
caccio, indulged in them, as did also the early Slavic writers.
Sir John Davies (1569-1626) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to
Astraea, each an acrostic on " Elisabetha Regina " ; and Mistress
Mary Page, in Fame's Route, 1637, commemorated 420 cele-
brities of her time in acrostic verses. The same trick of com-
position is often to be met with in the writings of more recent
versifiers. Sometimes the lines are so combined that the final
letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar Allan Poe
worked two names — one of them that of Frances Sargent
Osgood — into verses in such a way that the letters of the names
corresponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter
of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on.

Acrostic verse has always been held in slight estimation from a
literary standpoint. Dr Samuel Butler says, in his "Character of
a Small Poet," " He uses to lay the outsides of his verses even, like
a bricklayer, by a line of rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle
with rubbish." Addison (Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible
to decide whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic
were the greater blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says,
" I have seen some of them where the verses have not only been
edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the same name
running down like a seam through the middle of the poem."
And Dryden, in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully assigned Shadwell the
rule of

Some peaceful province in acrostic land.

The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or " abece-
darian " verses. Of these we have instances in the Hebrew
psalms (e.g. Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), where successive verses begin
with the letters of the alphabet in their order. The structure of
Ps. cxix. is still more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the
twenty-two parts commencing with the letter which stands at
the head of the part in our English translation.

At one period much religious yerse was written in a form
imitative of this alphabetical method, possibly as an aid to the
memory. The term acrostic is also applied to the formation of
words from the initial letters of other words. 'Ix^-*, referred to
above, is an illustration of this. So also is the word " Cabal,"
which, though it was in use before, with a similar meaning, has,
from the time of Charles II., been associated with a particular
ministry, from the accident of its being composed of Clifford,
Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Akin to this
are the names by which the Jews designated their Rabbis; thus
Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known as Maimonides) was
styled " Rambam," from the initials R.M.B.M.; Rabbi David
Kimchi (R.D.K.), " Radak," &c.

Double acrostics are such as are so constructed, that not only
initial letters of the lines, but also the middle or last letters,
form words. For example: — i. By Apollo was my first made.
2. A shoemaker's tool. 3. An Italian patriot. 4. A tropical
fruit. The initials and finals, read downwards, give the name
of a writer and his nom de plume. Answer: Lamb, Elia.

1. L yr E

2. A w L

3. M azzin I

4. B anan A

ACROTERIUM (Gr. aKpurypiov, the summit or vertex), in archi-
tecture, a statue or ornament of any kind placed on the apex of
a pediment. The term is often restricted to the plinth, which
forms the podium merely for the acroterium.

ACT (Lat. actus, actum), something done, primarily a volun-
tary deed or performance, though any accomplished fact is often
included. The signification of the word varies according to the
sense in which it is employed. It is often synonymous with
" statute " (see ACT OF PARLIAMENT). It may also refer to the
result of the vote or deliberation of any legislature, the decision
of a court of justice or magistrate, in which sense records, decrees,
sentences, reports, certificates, &c., are called acts.

In law it means any instrument in writing, for declaring or
justifying the truth of a bargain or transaction, as: "I deliver
this as my act and deed." The origin of the legal use of the word
" act " is in the acta of the Roman magistrates or people, of their

ACTA DIURNA— ACTINOMYCOSIS

157

courts of law, or of the senate, meaning (i) what was done before
the magistrates, the people or the senate; (2) the records of
such public proceedings.

In connexion with other words " act " is employed in many
phrases, e.g. act of God, any event, such as the sudden, violent
or overwhelming occurrence of natural forces, which cannot
be foreseen or provided against. This is a good defence to a suit
for non-performance of a contract. Act of honour denotes the
acceptance by a third party of a protested bill of exchange for
the honour of any party thereto. Act of grace denotes the grant-
ing of some special privilege.

In universities, the presenting and publicly maintaining a
thesis by a candidate for a degree, to show his proficiency, is an
act. " The Act " at Oxford, up to 1856 when it was abolished,
was the ceremony held early in July for this purpose, and the
expressions " Act Sunday," " Act Term " still survive.

In dramatic literature, act signifies one of those parts into which
a play is divided to mark the change of time or place, and to give
a respite to the actors and to the audience. In Greek plays there
are no separate acts, the unities being strictly observed, and the
action being continuous from beginning to end. If the principal
actors left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con-
tributed an integral part of the play, though chiefly in the form
of comment upon the action. When necessary, another drama,
which is etymologically the same as an act, carried on the history
to a later time or in a different place, and thus we have the Greek
trilogies or groups of three dramas, in which the same characters
reappear. The Roman poets first adopted the division into acts,
and suspended the stage business in the intervals between them.
Their number was usually five, and the rule was at last laid down
by Horace in the Ars Poelica —

Neve minor, neu sit quinto productior actu
Fabula, quae posci vult, et spectata reponi.
" If you would have your play deserve success,
Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less." (Francis.)

On the revival of letters this rule was almost universally observed
by dramatists, and that there is an inherent convenience and
fitness in the number five is evident from the fact that Shake-
speare, who refused to be trammelled by merely arbitrary rules,
adopts it in all his plays. Some critics have laid down rules as to
the part each act should sustain in the development of the plot,
but these are not essential, and are by no means universally
recognized. In comedy the rule as to the number of acts has not
been so strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a division into two acts
or three acts being quite usual since the time of Moliere, who
first introduced it. It may be well to mention here Milton's
Samson Agonistes as a specimen in English literature of a
dramatic work founded on a purely Greek model, in which,
consequently, there is no division into acts.

For " acting," as the art and theory of dramatic representation
(or histrionics, from Lat. histrio, an actor), see the article DRAMA.

ACTA DIURNA (Lat. acta, public acts or records; diurnus,
daily, from dies), called also Acta Populi, Acta Publica and
simply Ada or Diurna, in ancient Rome a sort of daily gazette,
containing an officially authorized narrative of noteworthy
events at Rome. Its contents were partly official (court news,
decrees of the emperor, senate and magistrates), partly private
(notices of births, marriages and deaths). Thus to some extent
it filled the place of the modern newspaper ("<?•"•)• The origin of
the Acta is attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered.the keep-
ing and publishing of the acts of the people by public officers
(59 B.C.; Suetonius, Caesar, 20). The Acta were drawn up from
day to day, and exposed in a public place on a whitened board
(see ALBUM). After remaining there for a reasonable time they
were taken down and preserved with other public documents,
so that they might be available for purposes of research. The
Acta differed from the Annals (which were discontinued in 133
B.C.) in that only the greater and more important matters were
given in the latter, while in the former things of less note were
recorded. Their publication continued till the transference of
the seat of the empire to Constantinople. There are no genuine
fragments extant.

Leclerc, Des journaux chez les Remains (1838); Renssen, De
Diurnis aliisque Romanorum Actis (1857); Hubner, De Senatus
Populique Romani Actis (1860); Gaston Bpissier, Tacitus and other
Roman Studies (Eng. trans., W. G. Hutchison, 1906), pp. 197-229.

ACTAEON, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a famous Theban
hero and hunter, trained by the centaur Cheiron. According to
the story told by Ovid (Metam. iii. 131; see also Apollod iii. 4),
having accidentally seen Artemis (Diana) on Mount Cithaeron
while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and
pursued and killed by his fifty hounds. His statue was often
set up on rocks and mountains as a protection against excessive
heat. The myth itself probably represents the destruction of
vegetation during the fifty dog-days. Aeschylus and other tragic
poets made use of the story, which was a favourite subject in
ancient works of art. There is a well-known small marble group
in the British Museum illustrative of the story.

ACTA SENATUS, or COMMENTARII SENATUS, minutes of
the discussions and decisions of the Roman senate. Before the
first consulship of Julius Caesar (59 B.C.), minutes of the pro-
ceedings of the senate were written and occasionally published,
but unofficially; Caesar, desiring to tear away the veil of mystery
which gave an unreal importance to the senate's deliberations,
first ordered them to be recorded and issued authoritatively.
The keeping of them was continued by Augustus, but their
publication was forbidden (Suetonius, Augustus, 36). A young
senator (ab actis senatus) was chosen to draw up these Acta,
which were kept in the imperial archives and public libraries
(Tacitus, Ann. v. 4). Special permission from the city praefect
was necessary in order to examine them. For authorities see
ACTA DIURNA.

ACTINOMETER (Gr. axns, ray, ^frpov, measure), an instru-
ment for measuring the heating and chemical effects of light.
The name was first given by Sir John Herschel to an apparatus
for measuring the heating effect of solar rays (Edin. Journ.
Science, 1825); Herschel's instrument has since been discarded
in favour of the pyrheliometer (Gr. irvp, fire, j}Xios, sun).
(See RADIATION.) The word actinometer is now usually applied
to instruments for measuring the actinic or chemical effect
of luminous rays; their action generally depends upon photo-
chemical changes (see PHOTO-CHEMISTRY). Certain practical
forms are described in the article PHOTOGRAPHY.

ACTINOMYCOSIS (STREPTOTRICHOSIS), a chronic infective dis-
ease occurring in both cattle and man. In both these groups it
presents the same clinical course, being characterized by chronic
inflammation with the formation of granulomatous tumours,
which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis or calcification.
It used to be believed that this disease was caused by a single
vegetable parasite, the Ray-Fungus, but there is now an over-
whelming mass of observations to show that the clinical features
may be produced by a number of different species of parasites,
for which the generic name Streptothrix has been generally
adopted. In 1899 the committee of the Pathological Society of
London recommended that the term Streptotrichosis should be
used as the appropriate clinical epithet of the large class of
Streptothrix infections. And since that year the name Actino-
mycosis has been falling into disuse, and in any case is only used
synonymously with Streptotrichosis. For a further account
of these parasites see the articles on BACTERIOLOGY and on
PARASITIC DISEASES.

Pathological Anatomy. — The naked-eye appearance of the
different organs affected by Streptothrix infection varies accord-
ing to the duration and acuteness of the disease. In some
tissues the appearance is that of simple inflammation, whereas
in others it may be characteristic. The liver when affected
shows scattered foci of suppuration, which may become aggre-
gated into spheroidal masses, surrounded by a zone of inflam-
mation. In the lungs the changes may be any that are produced
by the following conditions, (i) An acute bronchitis. (2) A
phthisical lung, grey nodules being scattered here and there
almost exactly simulating tuberculous nodules. (3) An acute
broncho-pneumonia with some interstitial fibrosis and a tend-
ency to abscess formation. The most characteristic lesions are

i58

ACTINOZOA— ACTION

in the skin. These appear as nodules, sarcomatous-looking,
soft and pulpy. Their colour is mottled, yellow and purplish
red. The skin over them is thinned out, and broken down in
places to form one or two crateriform ulcers from which a clear
sticky fluid exudes. The size varies from that of a pea to a
small orange. The pus is characteristic, varying in consistency
though usually viscid, and containing numerous minute specks.

The disease is more common in males than in females, and
more prevalent in Germany and Russia than in England. The
infection is probably spread by grain (corn or barley), on which
the fungus may often be found. In a great number of recorded
cases the patient has been following agricultural pursuits. The
disease can only be transmitted from one individual to another
with considerable difficulty, and no case of direct transmission
from animal to man has yet been noted.

Clinical History. — The course of actinomycosis is usually a
chronic one, but occasionally the fungus gets into the blood,
when the course is that of an acute infective disease or even
pyaemia. The symptoms are entirely dependent on the organ
attacked, and are in no way specially characteristic. During
life a diagnosis of phthisis is continually made, and only a micro-
scopic examination after death renders the true nature of the
disease apparent. The nature of the skin lesion is the most
evident, and here the parasite can be detected early in the
illness. The only drug which appears to have any beneficial
influence on the course of the disease is potassium iodide, and
this has occasionally been used with great benefit. Surgical
interference is usually needed, either excision of the part affected,
or, where possible, a thorough scraping of the lesion and free
application of antiseptics.

ACTINOZOA, a term in systematic zoology, first used by
H. M. D. de Blainville about 1834, to designate animals the
organs of which were disposed radially about a centre. De
Blainville included in his group many unicellular forms such as
Noctiluca (see PROTOZOA), sea -anemones, corals, jelly-fish and
hydroid polyps, echinoderms, polyzoa and rotifera. T. H.
Huxley afterwards restricted the term. He showed that in de
Blainville's group there were associated with a number of
heterogeneous forms a group of animals characterized by being
composed of two layers of cells comparable with the first two
layers in the development of vertebrate animals. Such forms he
distinguished as Coelentera, and showed that they had no special
affinity with echinoderms, polyzoa, &c. He divided the Coelen-
tera into a group Hydrozoa, in which the sexually produced
embryos were usually set free from the surface of the body,
and a group Actinozoa, in which the embryos are detached from
the interior of the body and escape generally by the oral aper-
ture. Huxley's Actinozoa comprised the sea-anemones, corals
and sea-pens, on the one hand, and the Ctenophora on the other.
Later investigations, whilst confirming the general validity of
Huxley's conclusions, have slightly altered the limits and
definitions of his groups. (See ANTHOZOA, COELENTERA, CTENO-
PHORA and HYDROZOA.) (P. C. M.)

ACTION, in law, a term used by jurists in three different
senses: (i) a right to institute proceedings in a court of justice
to obtain redress ' for a wrong (aclio nihil aliud est quam jus
prosequendi in judicio quod alicui debetur, Bracton, de Legibus
Angliae, bk. iii. ch. i., f. 98 b) ; (2) the proceeding itself (action n'est
outer chose que loyall demande de son droit, Co. Litt. 285 (a)); (3)
the particular form of the proceeding. The term is derived from
the Roman law (actio), in which it is used in all three senses. In
the history of Roman law, actions passed through three stages.
The first period (terminated about 170 B.C. by the Lex Aebutia)
is known as the system of legis actiones, and was based on the
precepts of the XII. tables and used before the praetor urbanus.
These actiones were five in number — sacramenti, per judicis pos-
tulationem, per condiclionem, per manus injectionem, per pignoris
captionem. The first was the primitive and characteristic action
of the Roman law, and the others were little more than modes
of applying it to cases not contemplated in the original form,
or of carrying the result of it into execution when the action had
been decided. The legis actiones were superseded by the formulae,

originated by the praetor peregrinus for the determination of
controversies between foreigners, but found more flexible than
the earlier system and made available for citizens by the Lex
Aebutia. Under both these systems the praetor referred the
matter in dispute to an arbiter (judex), but in the later he settled
the formula (i.e. the issues to be referred and the appropriate
form of relief) before making the order of reference. In the third
stage, the formulary stage fell into disuse, and after A.D. 342 the
magistrate himself or his deputy decided the controversy after
the defending party had been duly summoned by a libellus.

The classifications of actiones in Roman law were very numer-
ous. The division which is still most universally recognized is
that of actions in rem and actions in personam (Sohm, Roman
Law, tr. by Ledlie, and ed. 277). An action in rem asserts a right
to a particular thing against all the world. An action in per-
sonam asserts a right only against a particular person. Perhaps
the best modern example of the distinction is that made in
maritime cases between an action against a ship after a collision
at sea, and an action against the owners of the ship.

In English law the term " action " at a very early date became
associated with civil proceedings in the Court of Common Pleas,
which were distinguished from pleas of the crown, such as in-
dictments or informations and for suits in the Court of Chancery
or in the Admiralty or ecclesiastical courts. The English action
was a proceeding commenced by writ original at the common law.
The remedy was of right and not of grace. The history of actions
is the history of civil procedure in the courts of common law.
As a result of the reform of civil procedure by the Judicature Acts
the term " action " in English law now means at the High Court of
Justice " a civil proceeding commenced by writ of summons or
in such other manner as may be prescribed by rules of court "
(e.g. by originating summons). The proceeding thus commenced
ends by judgment and execution. This definition includes pro-
ceedings under the Chancery, Admiralty and Probate jurisdic-
tion of the High Court, but excludes proceedings commenced by
petition, such as divorce suits and bankruptcy and winding-up
matters, as well as criminal proceedings in the High Court or
applications for the issue of the writs of mandamus, prohibition,
habeas corpus or certiorari. The Judicature Acts and Rules
have had the effect of abolishing all the forms of •" action " used
at the common law and of creating one common form of legal
proceeding for all ordinary controversies between subjects in
whatever division of the High Court. The stages in an English
action are the writ, by which the persons against whom relief
is claimed are summoned before the court; the pleadings and
interlocutory steps, by which the issues between the parties are
adjusted; the trial, at which the issues of fact and law involved
are brought before the tribunal; thejudgment, by which the relief
sought is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law
gives to the successful party the fruits of the judgment.

The procedure varies according as the action is in the High
Court, a county court or one of the other local courts of record
which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in the
incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these courts.
The initial difference between actions in the High Court and the
county court is that the latter are commenced by plaint lodged
in the court, on which a summons is prepared by the court and
served by its bailiff, whereas in the High Court the party pre-
pares the writ and lodges it in court for sealing, and when it is
sealed, himself effects the service.

An action is said to " lie " when the law provides a remedy
for some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes
the legal rights of another subject. An act of such a character
is said to give a " cause of action." In the action the person who
alleges himself aggrieved claims a judgment of the court in his
favour giving an adequate and appropriate remedy for the injury
or damage which he has sustained by the infraction of his rights.
As to the time within which an action must be brought, see
LIMITATION, STATUTES OF. When the rights of a subject are in-
fringed by the illegal action of the state, an action lies in England
against the officers who have done the wrong, unless the claim
be one arising out of breach of a contract with the state, or out

ACTIUM— ACTON

of an " Act of State." For a breach by the state of a contract
made between the state and a subject the remedy of the subject
is, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of the state
who acted for the state with reference to the making or breach of
the contract, but against the Crown itself by the proceeding
called Petition of Right (see PETITION).

While as a generic term " action " in its proper legal sense
includes suits by the Crown and " criminal actions " (see Co. Litt.
284b; Bracton, de Legibus Angliae, bk. iii. ch. v. f. 1046; Brad-
laugh v. Clarke, 1883, 8 App. Cas. 354, 361, 374), in popular
language it is taken to mean a proceeding by a subject and is
now rarely applied in England even by lawyers to criminal pro-
ceedings. What are now known as " penal actions," i.e. pro-
ceedings in which an individual who has not suffered personally
by a breach of the law sues as a common informer for the statu-
tory penalty either on his own benefit or on behalf also of the
Crown (qui tarn pro rege quam'pro se ipso), bear some analogy to
the actio popularis of Roman law, from which they are derived
(see the statute 4 Hen. VII. 1488) ; but they are now treated
for most purposes as civil and not as criminal proceedings. The
law of Scotland follows the lines of the civil law, and the ex-
pression " criminal action " is in use to distinguish proceedings to
punish offences against the public as distinguished from civil
action, brought to enforce a private right.

In the United States, and the British colonies in which English
law runs by settlement, charter, proclamation or statute, the
nature of an action is substantially the same as in England. The
differences between one state of the Union and another, and one
colony and another, depend mainly on the extent to which the
old procedure of the common law has been abolished, simplified
or reformed by local legislation.

AUTHORITIES. — Roman Law: Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law,
W. G. Ledlie (and ed., 1901). English Law: Pollock and Maitland,
English Law; Holmes, The Common Law; Bullen and Leake,
Prec. Pleadings (3rd ed. ; 6th ed. 1905).

ACTIUM (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a promontory in
the north of Acarnania (Greece) at the mouth of the Sinus
Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite Nicopolis, built by Augustus
on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an
ancient temple of Apollo Actius, which was enlarged by
Augustus, who also, in memory of the battle, instituted or
renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci.
Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the battle of
Actium. There was on the promontory a small town, or rather
village, also called Actium.

History. — Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian
colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of
Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century it fell
to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods there.
Actium is chiefly famous as the site of Octavian's decisive
victory over Mark Antony (2nd of September 31 B.C.). This
battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final
conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been per-
suaded by Cleopatra to retire to Egypt and give battle to mask
his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization
of his army would sufficiently account for his decision. The
fleets met outside the gulf, each over 200 strong (the totals given
by ancient authorities are very conflicting). Antony's heavy
battleships endeavoured to close and crush the enemy with their
artillery; Octavian's light and mobile craft made skilful
use of skirmishing tactics. During the engagement Cleopatra
suddenly withdrew her squadron and Antony slipped away
behind her. His flight escaped notice, and the conflict remained
undecided, until Antony's fleet was set on fire and thus
annihilated.

AUTHORITIES.— Dio Cassius, 50.12-51 . 3 ; Plutarch, A ntonius, 62-68 ;
Velleius Paterculus, ii. 84-85. C. Merivale, History of the Romans
under the Empire, iii. pp. 313-325 (London, 1851) ; V. Gardthausen,

ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An act of parliament may be re-
garded as a declaration of the legislature, enforcing certain rules

of conduct, or defining rights and conferring them upon or with-
holding them from certain persons or classes of persons. The
collective body of such declarations constitutes the statutes of
the realm or written law of the British nation, in the widest sense,
from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. It is not, however,
till the earlier half of the I3th century that, in a more limited
constitutional sense, the statute-book is generally held to open,
and the parliamentary records only begin to assume distinct out-
lines late in the reign of Edward I. It gradually became a fixed
constitutional principle that an act of parliament, to be valid,
must express concurrently the will of the entire legislature.
It was not, however, till the reign of Henry VI. that it became
customary, as now, to introduce bills into parliament in the form
of finished acts; and the enacting clause, regarded by constitu-
tionalists as the first perfect assertion, in words, of popular right,
came into general use as late as the reign of Charles II. It is
thus expressed in the case of all acts other than those granting
money to the crown: — " Be it enacted by the King's most
excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the
Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same."
Where the act is a money grant the enacting clause is prefaced
by the words, " Most gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's
most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled,
towards making good the supply1 which we have cheerfully
granted to Your Majesty in this session of Parliament, have
resolved to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter
mentioned ; and do therefore most humbly beseech Your
Majesty that it may be enacted, &c." The use of the pre-
amble with which acts are usually prefaced is thus quaintly
set forth by Lord Coke: " The rehearsal or preamble of the
statute is a good meane to find out the meaning of the statute,
and, as it were, a key to open the understanding thereof " (Co.
Litt. 7ga). Originally the collective acts of each session formed
but one statute, to which a general title was attached, and for
this reason an act of parliament was up to 1892 generally cited
as the chapter of a particular statute, e.g. 24 and 25 Viet. c. 101.
Titles were, however, prefixed to individual acts as early as 1488.
Now, by the Short Titles Act 1892, it is optional to cite most
important acts up to that date by their short titles, either indi-
vidually or'collectively. Most modern acts have borne short titles
independently of the act of 1892. (See PARLIAMENT; STATUTE.)

ACTON (JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG ACTON),
IST BARON (1834-1902), English historian, only son of Sir Richard
Acton, yth baronet, and grandson of the Neapolitan admiral,
Sir J. F. E. Acton, 6th baronet (q.v.), was born at Naples on the
loth of January 1834. His grandfather, who had succeeded
in 1791 to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire,
previously held by the English branch of the Acton family,
represented a younger branch which had transferred itself first
to France and then to Italy, but by the extinction of the elder
branch the admiral became head of the family; his eldest son,
Richard, had married Marie Louise Pelline, the daughter and
heiress of Emerich Joseph, due de Dalberg (q.i>.), a naturalized
French noble of ancient German lineage who had entered the
French service under Napoleon and represented Louis XVIII.
at the congress of Vienna in 1814, and after Sir Richard Acton's
death in 1837 she became (1840) the wife of the 2nd Earl Gran-
ville. > Coming of a Roman Catholic family, young Acton was
educated at Oscott till 1848 under Dr (afterwards Cardinal)
Wiseman, and then at Edinburgh, and at Munich under Dol-
linger, whose lifelong friend he became. He had wished to go to
Cambridge, but for a Roman Catholic this was then impossible.
By DoUinger he was inspired with a deep love of historical re-
search and a profound conception of its functions as a critical
instrument. He was a master of the chief foreign languages,
and began at an early age to collect a magnificent historical
library, with the object, never in fact realized, of writing a great
History of Liberty. In politics he was always an ardent Liberal.

1 Where the grant is not of supply, the preamble varies a little,
e.g. in the Prince of Wales's Children Act 1889.

i6o

ACTON

Without being a notable traveller, he spent much time in the
chief intellectual centres of Europe, and in the United States,
and numbered among his friends such men as Montalembert,
De Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel
and Ranke. He was attached to Lord Granville's mission to
Moscow, as British representative at the coronation of Alexander
II. in 1856. In 1859 Sir John Acton settled in England, at his
country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He was returned to
the House of Commons in that year for the Irish borough of
Carlow, and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Mr
Gladstone; but he was practically a silent member, and his
parliamentary career came to an end after the general election
of 1865, when, having headed the poll for Bridgnorth, he t was
unseated on a scrutiny ; he contested Bridgnorth again in 1868,
but without success. Meanwhile he had become editor of the
Roman Catholic monthly paper, the Rambler, in 1859, on J. H.
Newman's retirement from the editorship ; and in 1862 he
merged this periodical in the Home and Foreign Review. His
contributions at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of
historical knowledge. But though a sincere Roman Catholic,
his whole spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane
pretensions, and his independence of thought and liberalism
of view speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman
Catholic hierarchy. As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman
publicly censured the Renew; and when in 1864, after Dollinger's
appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude towards
historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration that the
opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the authority of the
Roman congregations, Acton felt that there was only one way of
reconciling his literary conscience with his ecclesiastical loyalty,
and he stopped the publication of his monthly periodical. He
continued, however, to contribute articles to the North British
Review, which, previously a Scottish Free Church organ, had
been acquired by friends in sympathy with him, and which for
some years (until 1872, when it ceased to appear) actively pro-
moted the interests of a high-class Liberalism in both temporal
and ecclesiastical matters; he also did a good deal of lecturing
on historical subjects. In 1865 he married the Countess Marie,
daughter of the Bavarian Count Arco- Valley, by whom he had
one son and three daughters. In 1869 he was raised to the
peerage by Gladstone as Baron Acton ; he was an intimate
friend and constant correspondent of the Liberal leader, and the
two men had the very highest regard for one another. Matthew
Arnold used to say that "Gladstone influences all round him
but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone."

In 1870 came the great crisis in the Roman Catholic world
over the promulgation by Pius IX. of the dogma of papal infalli-
bility. Lord Acton, who was in complete sympathy on this
subject with Bellinger (<?.».), went to Rome in order to throw
all his influence against it, but the step he so much dreaded was
not to be averted. The Old Catholic separation followed, but
Acton did not personally join the seceders, and the authorities
prudently refrained from forcing the hands of so competent
and influential an English layman. In 1874, when Gladstone
published his pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees, Lord Acton
wrote during November and December a series of remarkable
letters to The Times, illustrating Gladstone's main theme by
numerous historical examples of papal inconsistency, in a way
which must have been bitter enough to the ultramontane party,
but demurring nevertheless to Gladstone's conclusion and in-
sisting that the Church itself was better than its premisses
implied. Acton's letters led to another storm in the English
Roman Catholic world, but once more it was considered prudent
by the Vatican to leave him alone. In spite of his reservations,
he regarded "communion with Rome as dearer than life."
Thenceforth he steered clear of theological polemics. He de-
voted himself to persistent reading and study, combined with
congenial society. With all his capacity for study he was a man
of the world, and a man of affairs, not a bookworm. Little in-
deed came from his pen, his only notable publications being a
masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on
"Democracy in Europe" ; two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in

1877 on " The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The His-
tory of Freedom in Christianity" — these last the only tangible
portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of
Liberty"; and an essay on modern German historians in the
first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped
to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London,
Cannes and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating
the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the hono-
rary degree of doctor of philosophy by Munich University; in

1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of LL.D., and in

1889 Oxford the D.C.L.; and in 1890 he was made a felloe
of All Souls. His reputation for learning had gradually been
spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence. The latter
found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, when the
Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a lord-in-
waiting. Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John Seeley, Lord
Rosebery appointed him to the Regius Professorship of Modern
History at Cambridge. The choice was an excellent one. His
inaugural lecture on "The Study of History," afterwards pub-
lished with notes displaying a vast erudition, made a great im-
pression in the university, and the new professor's influence on
historical study was felt in many important directions. He
delivered two valuable courses of lectures, on the French Revolu-
tion and on Modern History, but it was in private that the
effects of his teaching were most marked. The great Cambridge
Modern History, though he did not live to see it, was planned
under his editorship, and all who came in contact with him
testified to his stimulating powers and his extraordinary range of
knowledge. He was taken ill, however, in 1901, and died on
the igth of June 1902, being succeeded in the title by his son,
Richard Maximilian Dalberg Acton, 2nd Baron Acton (b.i87o).
Lord Acton has left too little completed original work to rank
among the great historians ; his very learning seems to have
stood in his way; he knew too much and his literary conscience
was too acute for him to write easily, and his copiousness of
information overloads his literary style. But he was one of the
most deeply learned men of his time, and he will certainly be
remembered for his influence on others. His extensive library,
formed for use and not for display, and composed largely of books
full of his own annotations, was bought immediately after his
death by Mr Andrew Carnegie, and presented to Mr John Morley,
by whom it was forthwith given to the university of Cambridge.

See Mr Herbert Paul's excellent Introductory Memoir to the
interesting volume of Lord Acton's Letters to Mrs Drew (1904), and
the authorities cited there; also Dom Gasquet's Lord Acton and his
Circle (1906). A Bibliography of the Works of Lord Acton, by W. A.-
Shaw, was published by the Royal Historical Society in 1903. The
Edinburgh Review of April 1903 contains a luminous essay; and
Mr Bryce has a chapter on Acton in his Studies of Contemporary
Biography (1903). Lord Acton's Lectures on Modern History, edited
by J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence, appeared in 1906; and his
History of Freedom and other Essays and Historical Essays and Studies
(by the same editors) in 1907. (H. CH.)

ACTON, SIR JOHN FRANCIS EDWARD, BART. (1736-1811),
prime minister of Naples under Ferdinand IV., was the son of
Edward Acton, a physician at Besancon, and .was born there in
1736, succeeding to the title and estates in 1791, on the death of
his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard Acton of Aldenham
Hall, Shropshire. He served in the navy of Tuscany, and in
1775 commanded a frigate in the joint expedition of Spain and
Tuscany against Algiers, in which he displayed such courage
and resource that he was promoted to high command. In 1779
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples persuaded her brother the Grand-
Duke Leopold of Tuscany to allow Acton, who had been recom-
mended to her by Prince Caramenico, to undertake the re-
organization of the Neapolitan navy. The ability displayed by
him in this led to his rapid advancement. He became com-
mander-in-chief of both services, minister of finance, and finally
prime minister. His policy was devised in concert with the
English ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and aimed at sub-
stituting the influence of Austria and Great Britain for that of
Spain, at Naples, and consequently involved open opposition
to France and the French party in Italy. The financial and
administrative measures which were the outcome of a policy

ACTON— ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

161

which necessitated a great increase of armament made him
intensely unpopular, and in December 1798 he shared the flight
of the king and queen. For the reign of terror which followed
the downfall of the Parthenopean Republic, five months later,
Acton has been held responsible. In 1804 he was for a short time
deprived of the reins of government at the demand of France;
but he was speedily restored to his former position, which he held
till, in February 1806, on the entry of the French into Naples,
he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. He died at
Palermo on the I2th of August 1811.

He had married, by papal dispensation, the eldest daughter
of his brother, General Joseph Edward Acton (b. 1737), who
was in the Neapolitan service, and left three children, the elder
son, Sir Richard, being the father of the first Lord Acton.
The second son, Charles Januarius Edward (1803-1847), after
being educated in England and taking his degree at Magdalene
College, Cambridge, in 1823, entered the Academia Ecclesiastica
at Rome. He left this with the rank of prelate, in 1828 was
secretary to the nuncio at Paris and was made vice-legate
of Bologna shortly afterwards. He became secretary of the
congregation of the Disciplina Regolare, and auditor of the
Apostolic Chamber under Gregory XVI., by whom he was
made a cardinal in 1842. Cardinal Acton was protector of the
English College at Rome, and had been mainly instrumental
in the increase, in 1840, of the English vicariates-general
to eight, which paved the way for the restoration of the
hierarchy by Pius IX. in 1850. He died on the 23rd of June
1847.

ACTON, an urban district in the Baling parliamentary division
of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W. of St.
Paul's Cathedral. Pop. (1861) 3151; (1901) 37,744. Its ap-
pearance is now wholly that of a modern residential suburb.
The derivation offered for its name is from Oak-town, in refer-
ence to the extensive forest which formerly covered the locality.
The land belonged from early times to the see of London, a grant
being recorded in 1220. Henry III. had a residence here. At
the time of the Commonwealth Acton was a centre of Puritanism.
Philip Nye (d. 1672) was rector; Richard Baxter, Sir Matthew
Hale (Lord Chief- Justice), Henry Fielding the novelist and
John Lindley the botanist (d. 1865) are famous names among
residents here. Acton Wells, of saline waters, had considerable
reputation in the i8th century.

ACT ON PETITION, the term for a part of the procedure in
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, now of infrequent
occurrence. It was more freely used in the old Admiralty and
Divorce courts before the Judicature Acts. (See PLEADING.)

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book of the Bible, which
now stands fifth in the New Testament, was read at first as the
companion and sequel of the Gospel of Luke. Its separation was
due to growing consciousness of the Gospels as a unit of sacred
records, to which Acts stood as a sort of appendix. Historically
it is of unique interest and value: it has no fellow within the
New Testament or without it. The so-called Apocryphal Acts
of certain apostles, while witnessing to the impression produced
by our Acts as a type of edifying literature, only emphasize this
fact. It is the one really primitive Church history, primitive in
spirit as in substance; apart from it a connected picture of
the Apostolic Age would be impossible. With it, the Pauline
Epistles are of priceless historical value; without it, they would
remain bafflingly fragmentary and incomplete, often even mis-
leading.

i. Plan and Aim. — All agree that the Acts of the Apostles is
the work of an author of no mean skill, and that he has exercised
careful selection in the use of his materials, in keeping with a
definite purpose and plan. It is of moment, then, to discover
from his emphasis, whether by iteration or by fulness of scale,
what objects he had in mind in writing. Here it is not needful
to go farther back than F. C. Baur and the Tubingen school, with
its theory of sharp antitheses between Judaic and Gentile Chris-
tianity, of which they took the original apostles and Paul respect-
ively as typical. Gradually their statement of this position
underwent serious modifications, as it became realized that
1.6

neither Jewish nor Gentile Christianity was a uniform genus,
but included several species, and that the apostolic leaders
from the first stood for mutual understanding and unity. Hence
the Tubingen school did its chief work in putting the needful
question, not in returning the correct answer. Their answer
could not be correct, because, as Ritschl showed (in his Altkath.
Kirche, 2nded., 1857), their premisses were inadequate. Still the
attitude created by the Tubingen theory largely persists as a
biassing element in much that is written about Acts. On the
whole, however, there is a disposition to look at the book more
objectively and to follow up the hints as to its aim given by the
author in his opening verses. Thus (i) his second narrative is
the natural sequel to his first. As the earlier one set forth in
orderly sequence (Ka0e£rjs) the providential stages by which Jesus
was led, " in the power of the Spirit," to begin the establishment
of the consummated Kingdom of God, so the later work aims
at setting forth on similar principles its extension by means of
His chosen representatives or apostles. This involves emphasis
on the identity of the power, Divine and not merely human,
expressed in the great series of facts from first to last. Thus (2)
the Holy Spirit appears as directing and energizing throughout
the whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome in
either ministry, of Master or disciples. But (3) the continuity
is more than similarity of activity resting on the same Divine
energy. The working of the energy in the disciples is condi-
tioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His
Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, " the Spirit of
Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence
the pains taken to exhibit (i. 2, 4 f. 8, ii. i ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 49)
the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means
His continued action in the world. And (4) the scope of this
action is nothing less than humanity (ii. 5 ff.), especially within
the Roman empire. It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses
should be borne by Divine power through all obstacles and to
ever-widening circles, until they reached and occupied Rome
itself for the God of Israel — now manifest (as foretold by Israel's
own prophets) as the one God of the one race of mankind.
(5) Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke xxiv.
46-48, the divinely appointed method of victory is through
suffering (Acts xiv. 22). This explains the large space devoted
to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy amid
them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It forms one side
of the virtual apologia for the absence of that earthly prosperity
in which the pagan mind was apt to see the token of Divine
approval. Another side is the recurring exhibition of the fact
that these witnesses were persecuted only by those whose action
should create no bias against the persecuted. Their foes were
chiefly Jews, whose opposition was due partly to a stiff-necked
disinclination to bow to the wider reading of their own religion
— to which the Holy Spirit had from of old been pointing (cf.
the prominence given to this idea in Stephen's long speech) —
and partly to jealousy of those who, by preaching the wider
Messianic Evangel, were winning over the Gentiles, and particu-
larly proselytes, in such great numbers.

Such, then, seem to be the author's main motifs. They make
up an account fairly adequate to the manifoldness of the book;
yet they may be summed up in three ideas, together constituting
the moral which this history of the expansion of Christianity
aims at bringing home to its readers. These are the universality
of the Gospel, the jealousy of national Judaism, and the Divine
initiative manifest in the gradual stages by which men of Jewish
birth were led to recognize the Divine will in the setting aside
of national restrictions, alien to the universal destiny of the
Church. The practical moral is the Divine character of the
Christian religion, as evinced by the manner of its extension in
the empire, no less than by its original embodiment in the
Founder's life and death. Thus both parts of the author's work
alike tend to produce assured conviction of Christianity as of
Divine origin (Luke i. i, 4; Acts i. i f.).

This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious
aim — a sine qua non to any theory of an early Christian writing.
Though meant for men of pagan birth in the first instance, it is

5

162

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

to them as inquirers or even converts, such as " Theophilus, "
that the argument is addressed. In spite of all difficulties, this
religion is worthy of personal belief, even though it mean oppo-
sition and suffering. Among the features of the occasion which
suggested the need of such an appeal was doubtless the existence
of persecution by the Roman authorites, perhaps largely at the
instigation of local Judaism. To meet this special perplexity,
the author holds up the picture of early days, when the great
protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the
hands of Roman justice. It is implied that the present distress
is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding;
meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong
reassurance. The Acts of the Apostles is in fact an Apology for
the Church as distinct from Judaism, the breach with which is
accordingly traced with great fulness and care.

From this standpoint Acts no longer seems to end abruptly.
Whether as exhibiting the Divine leading and aid, or as recording
the impartial and even kindly attitude of the Roman State
towards the Christians, the writer has reached a climax. " He
wished, " as Harnack well remarks, " to point out the might of
the Holy Spirit in the apostles, Christ's witnesses; and to show
how this might carried the Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and
gained for it entrance into the pagan world, whilst the Jews in
growing degree incurred rejection. In keeping with this, verses
26-28 of chapter xxviii. are the solemn closing verses of the work.
But verses 30, 31 are an appended observation. "

Yet the writer is, in fact, ending up most fitly on one of his
keynotes, in that he leaves Paul preaching in Rome itself, " un-
molested. " " Paulus Romae, apex Evangelii. "

The full force of this is missed by those who, while rejecting
the idea that the author had in reserve enough Pauline history
to furnish another work, yet hold that Paul was freed from the
imprisonment amid which Acts leaves him (see PAUL). But for
those, on the other hand, who see in the writer's own words in
xx. 38, uncontradicted by anything in the sequel, a broad hint
that Paul never saw his Ephesian friends again, the natural view
is open that the sequel to the two years' preaching was too well
known to call for explicit record. Nor would such silence touch-
ing Paul's speedy martyrdom be disingenuous, any more than
on the theory that martyrdom overtook him several years later.
The writer views Paul's death (like the horrors of Nero's Vatican
Gardens in 64) as a mere exception to the rule of Roman policy
heretofore illustrated. Not even by the Roman authorities were
some of Nero's acts regarded as precedents.

2. Authorship. — External evidence, which is relatively early and
widespread (e.g. Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement
and Origen), all points to Luke, the companion and fellow-
worker of Paul (Philem. 24), who probably accompanied him
as physician also (Col. iv. 14). It must be noted too that evidence
for his authorship of the third Gospel counts also for Acts. This
carries us back at least to the second quarter of the 2nd century
(Justin, Dial. 103, and most probably Marcion), when A.ovKai>
no doubt stood at the head of the Gospel, especially where
it was used side by side with the others. We have every reasori
to trust the Church's tradition at this time, particularly as Luke
was not prominent enough as an associate of Paul to suggest the
theory as a guess. Nor does Eusebius, who knew the ante-
Nicene literature intimately, seem to know of any other view
ever having been held. If, then, the traditional Lucan author-
ship is to be doubted, it must be on internal evidence only. The
form of the book, however, in all respects favours Luke, who
was of non- Jewish birth (see Col. iv. 12-14 compared with 10 f.),
and as a physician presumably a man of culture. The medical
cast of much of its language, which is often of a highly technical
nature, points strongly the same way;1 while the early tradition
that Luke was born in the Syrian Antioch admirably suits the

1 This argument, first worked out by Dr W. K. Hobart, The
Medical Language of St Luke (Dublin, 1882), but hitherto neglected
by many Continental scholars, has been urged afresh by Harnack,
Lukas der Arzt (Leipzig, 1906; Eng. trans., London, 1907), to which
reference may be made for all matters connected with Lucan author-
ship; comp. also R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Greek Testa-
ment.

fulness with which the origin of the Antiochene Church and its
place in the further extension of the Gospel are described (see
LUKE). Again, the attitude of Acts towards the Roman Empire
is just what would be expected from a close comrade of Paul
(cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen,
1895), but was hardly likely to be shared by one of the next
generation, reared in an atmosphere of resentment, first at Nero's
conduct and then at the persecuting policy of the Flavian Caesars
(see REVELATION). Finally, the book itself seems to claim to
be written by a companion of Paul. In chap. xvi. 10 the writer,
without any previous warning, passes from the third person to
the first. Paul had reached Troas. There he saw a vision invit-
ing him to go to Macedonia. " But when he saw the vision,
straightway -we sought fo go forth into Macedonia. " Thence-
forth " we " re-emerges at certain points in the narrative until
Rome is reached. Irenaeus (iii. 14. i) quotes these passages as
proof that Luke, the author, was a companion of the apostle.
The minute character of the narrative, the accurate description
of the various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the
details, especially some of the incidents of the shipwreck, are
strong reasons for believing that the narrative is that of an eye-
witness. If so, we can scarcely help coming to the conclusion
that this eye-witness was the author of the work; for the style
of this eye-witness is exactly the style of the writer who
composed the previous portions (see Harnack, op. cit., reinforc-
ing the argument as already worked out by B. Weiss, 1893, and
especially by Sir J. C. Hawkins in Horae Synopticae, 1899, PP-
143-147). Most scholars admit that the " we " narrative is that
of a personal companion of Paul, who was probably none other
than Luke, in view of his traditional authorship of Acts. But
many suppose that the tradition arose from confused remem-
brance of the use by a later author of Luke's " we " document
or travel-diary. This supposition would compel us to believe
either that the skilful writer of Acts was so careless as to incor-
porate a document without altering its form, or that " we " is
introduced intentionally. In the latter case we must suppose
either that the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to
be thought an eye-witness. E. Zeller, a follower of Baur, adopted
this latter alternative, and P. W. Schmiedel adheres to it. In-
deed it is hard to see how it can be avoided on the theory that
the author of Acts used a travel-document by another hand
(see below, Sources). On the whole, then, the most tenable
theory is that the writer of the " we " sections was also the
author of Acts; and that he was Luke, Paul's companion during
most of his later ministry, and also his " counterpart," "as a
Hellene, who yet had personal sympathy with Jewish primitive
Christianity " (Harnack, op. cit. p. 103; see also LUKE).

3. Sources. — So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts
being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composi-
tion, one may say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps
the literary analysis within scientific limits. The more one
realizes the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a
whole, the more one feels that the speeches in the first part of
Acts (e.g. that of Stephen) — and indeed elsewhere, too — are not
" free compositions " of our author, the mere outcome of dra-
matic idealization such as ancient historians like Thucydides
or Polybius allowed themselves. The Christology, for instance
of the early Petrine speeches is such as a Gentile Christian writing
c. 80 A.D. simply could not have imagined. Thus we are forced
to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian
material, akin to that implied also in the special parts of the
Third Gospel. Paul Feine (Eine vorkanonische Ueberlicfcnmg
des Lukas, 1891) suggested that a single document explains this
material in both works, as far as Acts xii. Others maintain
that at any rate two sources underlie Acts i.-xii., or even i.-xv.
(see A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte, p. 131 ff.). In particular
we can recognize a source embodying the traditions of the
largely Hellenistic Church of Antioch, a secondary gloss from
which may survive in the Bezan addition to xi. 27, " when we
were assembled. " Further, if our author was a careful inquirer
(Luke i. 3), especially if he was in the habit of taking down in
writing what he heard from different witnesses, this may explain

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

163

some of the phenomena.' Such a man as Luke would have rare
facilities for collecting Palestinian materials, varying no doubt
in accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or
in Caesarea, where he probably resided for some two years in
contact with men like Philip the Evangelist (xxi. 8). There and
elsewhere he might also learn a good deal from John Mark, Peter's
friend (i Pet. v. 13; Acts xii. 12). In any case the study of
sources (Quellenkritik) is a comparatively new one, and the
resources of analysis, linguistic in particular, are by no means
exhausted. One important analogy exists for the way in which
our author would handle any written sources he may have had
by him, namely, the manner in which he uses Mark's Gospel
narrative in compiling his own Gospel. Guided by this objective
criterion, and safeguarded by growing insight into the author's
plastic aim, we need not despair of reaching large agreement as
to the nature of the sources lying behind the first half of Acts.

In the second or strictly Pauline half we are confronted by
the so-called "we" passages. Of these two main theories are
possible: (i) that which sees in them traces of an earlier docu-
ment— whether entries in a travel-diary, or a more or less
consecutive narrative written later; and (2) that which would
regard the "we" as due to the author's breaking instinctively
into the first person plural at certain points where he felt himself
specially identified with the history. On the former hypothesis,
it is still in debate whether the "we" document does or does
not lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated
by the formula in question (e.g. cc. xiii.-xv., xxi. ig-xxvi.).
On the latter, it may well be questioned whether the presence or
absence of "we" be not due to psychological causes, rather
than to the writer's mere presence or absence.1 That is, he may
be writing sometimes as a member of Paul's mission at the
critical stages of onward advance, sometimes rather as a witness
absorbed in his hero's words and deeds (so "we" ceases between
xx. 15 and xxi. i). Naturally he would fall into the former
attitude mostly when recording the definitive transition of Paul
and his party from one sphere of work to another (xvi. 10 ff.,
xx. 5 ff., xxvii. i ff.). At such times the whole "mission" was
as one man in its movements.

4. Historical Value. — The question of authorship is largely
bound up with that as to the quality of the contents as history.
Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (i.-xii.) deals
with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as
central figure — at any rate in cc. i.-v. " Yet in cc. vi.-xii.," as
Harnack'2 observes, "the author pursues several lines at once.
(i) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community
and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary
labours); (2) he inserts in vi. i ff. a history of the Hellenistic
Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the
first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the
Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of Philip
in Samaria and on the coast . . . ; (4) lastly, he relates the
history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young
Antiochene church. In the small space of seven chapters he
pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together,
at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition
of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian,
he has here set himself the greatest task." No doubt gaps abound
in these seven chapters. " But the inquiry as to whether what
is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main
facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet con-
cluded." The difficulty is that we have but few external means
of testing this portion of the narrative (see below, Date). Some
of it may well have suffered partial transformation in oral tradi-
tion before reaching our author; e.g. the nature of the Tongues
at Pentecost does not accord with what we know of the gift
>f "tongues" generally. The second part pursues the history

1 This view has received Harnack's support, op. cit. 89 f.

- A postelgeschichte (1908), p. 46. Harnack finds that our sense of
the trustworthiness of the book " is enhanced by a thorough study
of the chronological procedure of its author, both where he speaks
and where he keeps silence." In this aspect the book " as a whole
is according to the aims of the author and in reality a historical
work " (p. 41 ; cf. pp. I-2O, 222 ff.).

of the apostle Paul; and here we can compare the statements
made in the Acts with the Epistles. The result is a general
harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and
there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been
drawn to two remarkable exceptions. These are, the account
given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as com-
pared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle
Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.

In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's move-
ments until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia
(see PAUL) do not really amount to more than can be explained
by the different interests of Paul and our author respectively.
But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Gal. ii. i-io and Acts
xv. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually
assumed,3 it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to
the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication
of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given
in Gal. ii. 9 f. and Acts xv. 20 f., are not at all the same.4 Nay
more, if Gal. ii. i-io = Acts xv., the historicity of the "Relief
visit" of Acts xi. 30, xii. 25, seems definitely excluded by Paul's
narrative of events before the visit of Gal. ii. i ff. Accordingly.
Sir W. M. Ramsay and others argue that the latter visit itself
coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Gal. ii. 10 witness
thereto.

But why, then, does not Paul refer to the public charitable
object of his visit? It seems easier therefore to admit that the
visit of Gal. ii. i ff. is one altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing
to its private nature as preparing the way for public develop-
ments— with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case it
would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be
tacit explanatory allusion, in Gal. ii. 10 (see further PAUL);
and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in
Gal. ii. i ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey
and to Acts xv.

We pass next to the Paul of Acts. Paul insists that he was
appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Cir-
cumcision; and that circumcision and the observance of the
Jewish law were of no importance to the Christian as such. His
words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided.
But in Acts it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles.
It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the in-
tolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation (xv. 10 f.,
cf. i). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between
Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal. ii. ii ff.). The brethren in
Antioch send Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask the
opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and
carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of
Acts Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the
Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish
Christians to himself by personally observing the law of Moses.
He circumcises the semi-Jew, Timothy; and he performs his
vows in the temple. He is particularly careful in his speeches
to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this
the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians
he claims perfect freedom in principle, for himself as for the
Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither
in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to
which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The
narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what
it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if
he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law?

There is, nevertheless, no essential contradiction here, only
such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the stand-
points and aims of the two writers amid their respective

'Though this view had the support of J. B. Lightfoot, it should
be remembered that this was before the " South Galatian " theory
as to the date of Paul's work among the Galatians came to prevail.

4 Harnack, indeed, argues (op. cit. pp. 188 ff.) that the Abstinences
defined for Gentiles were in the original text of Acts xv. 20 purely
moral, and had no reference to Jewish scruples as to eating blood.
He regards "what is strangled' (irwxriv) as originally a mistaken
gloss, which crept into the text. External evidence is against this,
nor does it seem demanded by the context; in fact xv. 21 rather
goes against it.

164

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

historical conditions. Peter's function in relation to the Gentiles
belongs to the early Palestinian conditions, before Paul's dis-
tinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate — a
personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of
" the Twelve " — has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval,
Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the
two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall
not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages
(Acts xv.). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt
with him that the Law could not justify (Gal. ii. 15 ff.), and
argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle
(cf. " a yoke," Acts xv. 10); yet for Jews it might continue for
the time (pending the Parousia) to be seemly and expedient,
especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he
conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apos-
tolate was not involved (i Cor. ix. 19 ff.). There is no reason
to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this
spirit in Gal. ii. n f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to
draw back for expediency's sake. This incident it simply did
not fall within the scope of Acts (see below) to narrate, since
it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's
• submission of the issue in Acts xv. to the Jerusalem conference,
Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision
in favour of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a
decision for his own policy in the quarter to which they were
most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an under-
standing with the " Pillar " Apostles, as recorded in Gal. ii. i-io
(see further PAUL), be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he
was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts xv. Paul's
own " free " attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just
what is implied by the hostile rumours as to his conduct in
Acts xxi. 21, which he would be glad to disprove as at least
exaggerated (ib. 24 and 26). What is clear is that such lack of
formal accord as here exists between Acts and the Epistles, tells
against its author's dependence on the latter, and so favours his
having been a comrade of Paul himself.

The speeches in Acts deserve special notice. Did its author
follow the plan adopted by all historians, of his age, or is he an
Speeches. excepti°n? Ancient historians (like many of modern

times) used the liberty of working up in their own
language the speeches recorded by them. They did not dream
of verbal fidelity; even when they had more exact reports before
them, they preferred to mould a speaker's thoughts to their own
methods of presentation. Besides this, some did not hesitate to
give to the characters of their history speeches which were never
uttered. The method of direct speech, so useful in producing
a vivid idea of what is supposed to have passed through the mind
of the speaker, was used to give force to the narrative. Now
how far has the author of Acts followed the practice of his con-
temporaries? Some of his speeches are evidently but summaries
of thoughts which occurred to individuals or multitudes. Others
claim to be reports of speeches really delivered. But all these
speeches have to a large extent the same style, the style also of
the narrative. They have been passed though one editorial
mind, and some mutual assimilation in phraseology and idea
may well have resulted. They are, moreover, all of them, the
merest abstracts. The speech of Paul at Athens, as given by
Luke, would not occupy more than a minute or two in delivery.
But these circumstances, while inconsistent with verbal accuracy,
do not destroy authenticity; and in most of the speeches (e.g.
xiv. 15-17) there is a varied appropriateness as well as an allusive-
ness, pointing to good information (see under Sources). There
is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of
its author, without either written or oral basis; and in general
he seems more conscientious than most ancient historians
touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now
understood.

Objections to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its
miracles require to be stated more discriminately than has some-
Mirades. times been the case. Particularly is this so as regards

the question of authorship. As Harnack observes
(Lukas der Arzt, p. 24), the " miraculous" or supernormal ele-

ment is hardly, if at all, less marked in tne " we " sections, which
are substantially the witness of a companion of Paul (and where
efforts to dissect out the miracles are fruitless), than in the rest
of the work. The scientific method, then, is to consider each
" miracle " on its own merits, according as we find reason to
suppose that it has reached our author more or less directly. But
the record of miracle as such cannot prejudice the question of
authorship. Even the form in which the gift of Tongues at
Pentecost is conceived does not tell against a companion of Paul,
since it may have stood in his source, and the first outpouring
of the Messianic Spirit may soon have come to be thought of as
unique in some respects, parallel in fact to the Rabbinic tradition
as to the inauguration of the Old Covenant at Sinai (cf. Philo,
De decem oraculis, 9, ii, and the Midrash on Ps. 'Ixviii. ii).

Finally as to such historical difficulties in Acts as still perplex
the student of the Apostolic age, one must remember the possi-
bilities of mistake intervening between the facts and the accounts
reaching its author, at second or even third hand. Yet it must
be strongly emphasized, that recent historical research at the
hands of experts in classical antiquity has tended steadily to
verify such parts of the narrative as it can test, especially those
connected with Paul's missions in the Roman Empire. That is
no new result; but it has come to light in greater degree of
recent years, notably through Sir W. M. Ramsay's researches.
The proofs of trustworthiness extend also to the theological
sphere. What was said above of the Christology of the Petrine
speeches applies to the whole conception of Messianic salvation,
the eschatology, the idea of Jesus as equipped by the Holy Spirit
for His Messianic work, found in these speeches, as also to titles
like " Jesus the Nazarene " and " the Righteous One " both in
and beyond the Petrine speeches. These and other cases in
which we are led to discern very primitive witness behind Acts,
do not indeed give to such witness the value of shorthand notes or
even of abstracts based thereon. But they do support the theory
that our author meant to give an unvarnished account of such
words and deeds as had come to his knowledge. The perspective
of the whole is no doubt his own; and as his witnesses probably
furnished but few hints for a continuous narrative, this perspec-
tive, especially in things chronological, may sometimes be faulty.
Yet when one remembers that by 70-80 A.D. it must have been
a matter of small interest by what tentative stages the Messianic
salvation first extended to the Gentiles, it is surely surprising
that Acts enters into such detail on the subject, and is not content
with a summary account of the matter such as the mere logic of
the subject would naturally suggest. In any case, the very differ-
ence of the perspective of Acts and of Galatians, in recording the
same epochs in Paul's history, argues such an independence in
the former as is compatible only with an early date.

Quellenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent research
upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as
an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we
may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging
such a book. For among the results of the Tubingen criticism
was what Dr W. Sanday calls " an unreal and artificial standard,
the standard of the igth century rather than the ist, of Germany
rather than Palestine, of the lamp and the study rather than of
active life." This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences
between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In
the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like
Mommsen, Ramsay, Blass and Harnack, trained amid othe
methods and traditions than those which had brought the con-
structive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.

5. Dale. — External evidence now points to the existence
Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century.
As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, it
existence in Marcion's day (120-140) is now assured. Further,
the traces of it in Polycarp " and Ignatius,2 when taken together,
are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the
resemblance of Acts xiii. 22, and i Ciem. xviii. i, in features no

1 Polyc. ad Philipp. i. 2, Acts ii. 24; ii. I, Acts x. 42; ii. 3, Ac
xx. 35; vi. 3, Acts vii. 52.

2 Ign. ad Magn. v. i, Acts i. 25; ad Smyrn. iii. 3, Acts x. 41.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

165

found in the Psalm (Ixxxix. 20) quoted by each, can hardly be
accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and
Smyrna not later than c. A.D. 115, and perhaps in Rome as early
as c. A.D. 96.

With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some
advocacy of a date prior to A.D. 70, the bulk of critical
opinion is decidedly against it. The prologue to Luke's Gospel
itself implies the dying out of the generation of eye-witnesses
as a class. A strong consensus of opinion supports a date about
A.D. So; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75
seems no less possible. Of the reasons for a date in one of the
earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tubingen
school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these
are the supposed traces of 2nd-century Gnosticism and " hier-
archical " ideas of organization; but especially the argument
from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which
Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior
to Pliny's correspondence with Trajan on the subject. Another
fact, now generally admitted, renders a 2nd-century date yet
more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to
Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of
this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things
recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the
later works of Josephus, we should have to place the book
about A.D. 100. But this is far from being the case.

Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited.
(i)The circumstances attending the death of Herod Agrippa I. in
A.D. 44. Here Acts xii. 21-23 's largely parallel to Jos. Antt. xix.
8. 2 ; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone
gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public
appearance. Hence the parallel, when analysed, tells against de-
pendence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the Egyptian
pseudo-prophet in Acts xxi. 37 f., Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13. 5, Antt. xx.
8.6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of
Jqsephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them
Sicarii. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3)
the curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which
Theudas and Judas of Galilee are referred to in both as accidental,
the more so that again there is difference as to numbers. Further,
to make out a case for dependence at all, one must assume the
mistaken order (as it may be) in Gamaliel's speech as due to gross
carelessness in the author of Acts — an hypothesis unlikely in itself.
Such a mistake was far more likely to arise in oral transmission of
the speech, before it reached Luke at all.

6. Place. — The place of composition is still an open question.
For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favour; and
Blass combined both views in his theory of two editions (see
below, Text). But internal evidence points strongly to the
Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighbourhood of
Ephesus. Note the confident local allusion in xix. 9 to " the
school of Tyrannus " — not " a certain Tyrannus," as in the in-
ferior text — and in xix. 33 to " Alexander " ; also the very minute
topography in xx. 13-15. At any rate affairs in that region,
including the future of the church of Ephesus (xx. 28-30), are
treated as though they would specially interest " Theophilus "
and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the
adjacent Bithynia. Finally it was in this region that there
arose certain early glosses (e.g. on xix. 9, xx. 15), probably the
earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence
with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the

. Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman
policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength
of Judaism in " Asia " (cf. Rev. ii. 9, iii. 9, and see Sir W. M.
Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, ch. xii.).

7. Text. — The apparatus criticus of Acts has grown consider-
ably of recent years; yet mainly in one direction, that' of the so-
called " Western text." This term, which our growing knowledge,
especially of the Syriac and other Eastern versions, is rendering
more and more unsatisfactory, stands for a text which used to
be connected almost exclusively with the " eccentric " Codex
Bezae, and is comparable to a Targum on an Old Testament book.
But it is now recognized to have been very widespread, in both
east and west, for some 200 years or more from as early as the
middle of the 2nd century. The process, however, of sifting out
the readings of all our present witnesses — MSS., versions, Fathers

— has not yet gone far enough to yield any sure or final result as
to the history of this text, so as to show what in its extant forms
is primary, secondary, and so on. Beginnings have been made
towards grouping our authorities; but the work must go on
much further before a solid basis for the reconstruction of its
primitive form can be said to exist. The attempts made at such
a reconstruction, as by Blass (1895, 1897) and Hilgenfeld (1899),
are quite arbitrary. The like must be said even of the contribu-
tion to the problem made by August Pott,1 though he has helped
to define one condition of success — the classification of the strata
in " Western " texts — and has taken some steps in the right
direction, in connexion with the complex phenomena of one
witness, the Harklean Syriac.

Assuming, however, that the original form of the " Western "
text had been reached, the question of its historical value, i.e.
its relation to the original text of A cts, would yet remain. On this
point the highest claims have been made by Blass. Ever since
1894 he held that both the " Western " text of Acts (which he
styles the 0 text) and its rival, the text of the great uncials
(which he styles the a text), are due to the author's own hand.
Further, that the former (Roman) is the more original of the two,
being related to the latter (Antiochene) as fuller first draft to
severely pruned copy. But even in its later form, that " ft stands
nearer the Grundschrift than a, but yet is, like a, a copy from it,"
the theory is really untenable. In sober contrast of Blass's
sweeping theory stand the views of Sir W. M. Ramsay. Already
in The Church in the Roman Empire (1893) he held that the Codex
Bezae rested on a recension made in Asia Minor (somewhere
between Ephesus and S. Galatia), not later than about the middle
of the 2nd century. Though " some at least of the alterations
in Codex Bezae arose through a gradual process, and not through
the action of an individual reviser," the revision in question
was the work of a single reviser, who in his changes and additions
expressed the local interpretation put upon Acts in his own time.
His aim, in suiting the text to the views of his day, was partly to
make it more intelligible to the public, and partly to make it more
complete. To this end he "added some touches where surviving
tradition seemed to contain trustworthy additional particulars,"
such as the statement that Paul taught in the lecture-room of
Tyrannus " from the fifth to the tenth hour." In his later work,
on St Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895), Ramsay's
views gain both in precision and in breadth. The gain lies chiefly
in seeing beyond the Bezan text to the " Western " text as a
whole.

Generally speaking, then, the text of Acts as printed by West-
cottandHort, on the basis of the earliest MSS. (**B), seems as near
the autograph as that of any other part of the New Testament;
whereas the " Western " text, even in its earliest traceable forms,
is secondary. This does not mean that it has no historical value
of its own. It may well contain some true supplements to the
original text, derived from local tradition or happy inference —
a few perhaps from a written source used by Luke. Certain of
these may even date from the end of the ist century, and the
larger part of them are probably not later than the middle of the
and. But its value lies mainly in the light cast on ecclesiastical
thought in certain quarters during the epoch in question. The
nature of the readings themselves, and the distribution of the
witness for them, alike point to a process involving several stages
and several originating centres of diffusion. The classification
of groups of " Western " witnesses has already begun. When
completed, it will cast light, not only on the origin and growth of
this type of text, but also on the exact value of the remaining
witnesses to the original text of Acts — and further on the early
handling of New Testament writings generally. Acts, from its
very scope, was least likely to be viewed as sacrosanct as regards
its text. Indeed there are signs that its undogmatic nature caused
it to be comparatively neglected at certain times and places, as,
e.g., Chrysostom explicitly witnesses.

LITERATURE. — An account of the extensive and varied literature
that has gathered round Acts may be found in two representative

1 Der abendldndische Text der Apostelgeschichte u. die Wir-quelle
(Leipzig, 1900). See a review in the Journal of Theol. Studies, ii. 439 ff.

i66

ACTUARY— ADAIR

commentaries, viz., H. H. Wendt's edition of Meyer (1899), and
that by R. J. Knowling in Tlie Expositor's Greek Testament, vol.
ii. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony of St Paul to Christ
(1905). See also J. Moffatt, The Historical New Testament (1901).
412 ft., 655 ff. ; C. Clemen, Die Apostelgesch. im Lichte der netteren
Forschungen (Giessen, 1905); and A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte
(1908). (J- V. B.)

ACTUARY. The name of actuarius, sc. scriba, in ancient
Rome, was given to the clerks who recorded the Acta Publica of
the senate, and also to the officers who kept the military accounts
and enforced the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies.
In its English form the word has undergone a gradual limita-
tion of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clerk or
registrar; then more particularly the secretary and adviser of any
joint-stock company, but especially of an insurance company;
and it is now applied specifically to one who makes those calcula-
tions as to the probabilities of human life, on which the practice
of life assurance and the valuation of reversionary interests,
deferred annuities, &c., are based. The first mention of the word
in law is in the Friendly Societies Act of 1819, where it is used
in the vague sense, " actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation,"
but it has received .still further recognition in the Friendly
Societies Act of 1875 and the Life Assurance Companies Act of
1 870. The word has been used with precision since the establish-
ment of the " Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire-
land " in 1848. The Quarterly Journal, Charter of Incorporation,
and by-laws of this society may be usefully consulted for particu-
lars as to the requirements for membership (see also ANNUITY).
The registrar in the Lower House of Convocation is also called
the actuary.

ACUMINATE (from Lat. acumen, point), sharpened or
pointed, a woid used principally in botany and ornithology, to
denote the narrowing or lance-shaping of a leaf or of a bird's
feather into a point, generally at the tip, though sometimes
(with regard to a leaf) at the base. The poet William Cowper
used the word to denote sharp and keen despair, but other
authors, Sir T. Browne, Bacon, Bulwer, &c., use it to explain
a material pointed shape.

ACUNA, CHRISTOVAL DE (1597-1:. 1676), Spanish missionary
and explorer, was born at Burgos in 1597. He was admitted
a Jesuit in 1612, and afterwards sent on mission work to Chile
and Peru, where he became rector of the college of Cuenca. In
1639 he accompanied Pedro Texiera in his second exploration
of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations, and draw
up a report for the Spanish government. The journey lasted
ten months; and on the explorer's arrival in Peru, Acuna pre-
pared his narrative, while awaiting a ship for Europe. The king
of Spain, Philip IV., received the author coldly, and it is said
even tried to suppress his book, fearing that the Portuguese,
who had just revolted from Spain (1640), would profit by its
information. After occupying the positions of procurator of
the Jesuits at Rome and censor (calificador) of the Inquisition
at Madrid, Acuna returned to South America, where he died,
probably soon after 1675. His Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran
Rio de las Amazonas was published at Madrid in 1641; French
and English translations (the latter from the French, appeared
in 1682 and 1698.

ACUPRESSURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and premere, to
press), the name given to a method of restraining haemorrhage,
introduced by Sir J. Y. Simpson, the direct pressure of a metallic
needle, either alone or assisted by a loop of wire, being used to
close the vessel near the bleeding point.

ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to
prick), a form of surgical operation, performed by pricking the
part affected with a needle. It has long been used by the Chinese
in cases of headaches, lethargies, convulsions, colics, &c. (See
SURGERY.)

ADABAZAR, an important commercial town in the Khoja Hi
sanjak of Asia Minor, situated on the old military road from
Constantinople to the east, and connected by a branch line with
the Anatolian railway. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Chris-
tians, 8000). It was founded in 1540 and enlarged in 1608 by
the settlement in it of an Armenian colony. There are silk and

linen industries, and an export of tobacco, walnut-wood, cocoons
and vegetables for the Constantinople market. Imports are
valued at £80,000 and exports at £480,000.

See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890-1900).
ADAD, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian
pantheon, who is also known as Ramman (" the thunderer ").
The problem involved in this double name has not yet been
definitely solved. Evidence seems to favour the view that
Ramman was the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was
more common in Assyria. To judge from analogous instances
of a double nomenclature, the two names revert to two different
centres for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed
that up to the present it has been impossible to determine
where these centres were. A god Hadad who was a prominent
deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view of this
it is plausible to assume — for which there is also other evidence
— that the name Adad represents an importation into Assyria
from Aramaic districts. Whether the same is the case with
Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us from the Old
Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is not certain though
probable. On the other hand the cult of a specific storm-god
in ancient Babylonia is vouched for by the occurrence of the sign
Im — the " Sumerian " or ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman
— as an element in proper names of the old Babylonian period.
However this name may have originally been pronounced, so
much is certain, — that through Aramaic influences in Baby-
lonia and Assyria he was identified with the storm-god of the
western Semites, and a trace of this influence is to be seen in
the designation Amurru, also given to this god in the religious
literature of Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine
and Syria describes the god as belonging to the Amorite
district.

The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns,
incantations and votive inscriptions. On the one hand he
is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season,
causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the
storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction. He is
pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning
and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of
the god on the whole predominate. His association with the
sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two
deities who alternate in the control of nature, leads to imbuing
him with some of the traits belonging to a solar deity. In Syria
Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from a solar deity. The
process of assimilation did not proceed so far in Babylonia and
Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became in combination the
gods of oracles and of divination in general. Whether the will
of the gods is determined through the inspection of the liver of
the sacrificial animal, through observing the action of oil bubbles
in a basin of water or through the observation of the movements
of the heavenly bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual
connected with divination, are invariably invoked. Similarly
in the annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when oracles
are referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the
gods addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances
is bele biri, " lords of divination." The consort of Adad-Ramman
is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called Aschratum. (See
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.) (M. JA.)

ADAGIO (Ital. ad agio, at ease), a term in music to indicate
slow time; also a slow movement in a symphony, sonata, &c.,
or an independent piece, such as Mozart's pianoforte " Adagio
in B minor."

ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722), Scottish surveyor and map-maker
of the 1 7th century. Nothing is known of his parentage, birth-
place or early life. His name first came before the public in
1683, when a prospectus was published in Edinburgh entitled An
Account of the Scottish Atlas, stating that " the Privy Council
Scotland has appointed John Adair, mathematician and skilfull
mechanick, to survey the shires." In 1686 an act of tonna|
was passed in Adair's favour. He was then employed on a survey
of the Scottish coast and two years later was made a fellow of
the Royal Society. Two other acts of tonnage were passed for

ADALBERON— ADAM

167

Adair, one in 1695 'and the other in 1705. In 1703 he published
the first part of his Description of the Sea Coasts and Islands of
Scotland, for the use of seamen. The second part never appeared.
He is thought to have died in London about the end of 1722.
He must have lost a considerable amount of money in the execu-
tion of his work, and in 1723 some remuneration was made to his
widow by the government. Some of his work is preserved in
the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh and in the King's Library
of the British Museum, London.

ADALBERON, or ASCELIN (d. 1030 or 1031), French bishop
and poet, studied at Reims and became bishop of Laon in 977.
When Laon was taken by Charles, duke of Lorraine, in 988, he
was put into prison, whence he escaped and sought the protec-
tion of Hugh Capet, king of France. Winning the confidence
of Charles of Lorraine and of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims, he
was restored to his see; but he soon took the opportunity to
betray Laon, together with Charles and Arnulf, into the hands
of Hugh Capet. Subsequently he took an active part in ecclesi-
astical affairs, and died on the igth of July 1030 or 1031. Adal-
beron wrote a satirical poem in the form of a dialogue dedicated
to Robert, king of France, in which he showed his dislike of Odilo,
abbot of Cluny, and his followers, and his objection to persons
of humble birth being made bishops. ' The poem was first pub-
lished by H. Valois in the Carmen panegyricum in laudem Beren-
garii (Paris, 1663), and in modern times by J. P. Migne in the
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844). Adalberon must
not be confounded with his namesake, Adalberon, archbishop
of Reims (d. 988 or 989).

See Richer, Histariarum libri III. et IV., which appears in the
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores. Band iii. (Hanover
and Berlin, 1826-1892) ; A. Olleris, (Euvres de Gerbert pape sous le
nom de Sylvestre II. (Paris, 1867) ; Histoire litteraire de la France,
tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869).

ADALBERT, or ADELBERT (c. 1000-1072), German arch-
bishop, the most famous ecclesiastic of the nth century, was
the son of Frederick, count of Goseck, a member of a noble Saxon
family. He was educated for the church, and began his clerical
career at Halberstadt, where he attained to the dignity of provost.
Having attracted the notice of the German king, Henry III.,
Adalbert probably served as chancellor of the kingdom of Italy,
and in 1045 was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen,
his province including the Scandinavian countries, as well as
a larger part of North Germany. In 1046 he accompanied
Henry to Rome, where he is said to have refused the papal chair;
and in 1052 he was made legate by Pope Leo IX., and given the
right to nominate bishops in his province. He sought to increase
the influence of his archbishopric, sent missionaries to Finland,
Greenland and the Orkney Islands, arid aimed at making Bremen
a patriarchal see for northern Europe, with twelve suffragan
bishoprics. He consolidated and increased the estates of the
church, exercised the powers of a count, denounced simony and
initiated financial reforms. The presence of this powerful and
active personality, who was moreover a close friend of the
emperor, was greatly resented by the Saxon duke, Bernard II.,
who regarded him as a spy sent by Henry into Saxony. Adalbert,
who wished to free his lands entirely from the authority of the
duke, aroused further hostility by an attack on the privileges of
the great abbeys, and after the emperor's death in 1056 his lands
were ravaged by Bernard. He took a leading part in the govern-
ment of Germany during the minority of King Henry IV., and
was styled pair onus of the young king, over whom he appears
to have exercised considerable influence. Having accompanied
Henry on a campaign into Hungary in 1063, he received large
gifts of crown estates, and obtained the office of count palatine in
Saxony. His power aroused so much opposition that in 1066
the king was compelled to assent to his removal from court. In
1069 he was recalled by Henry, when he made a further attempt
to establish a northern patriarchate, which failed owing to the
hostility of the papacy and the condition of affairs in the Scan-
dinavian kingdoms. He died at Goslar on the i6th or i7th of
March 1072, and was buried in the cathedral which he had built
at Bremen. Adalbert was a man of proud and haughty bearing,
with large ideas and a strong, energetic character. He made

Bremen a city of importance, and it was called by his biographer,
Adam of Bremen, the New Rome.

See Adam of Bremen, GestaHammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum,
edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Scriptores. Band vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); C.Grunhagen,
Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg und die Idee eines Nordischen
Patriarchal (Leipzig, 1854).

ADALBERT (originally VOYTECH), (c. 950-997), known as
the apostle of the Prussians, the son of a Bohemian prince, was
born at Libice (Lobnik, Lubik), the ancestral seat near the
junction of the Cidlina and the Elbe. He was educated at the
monastery of Magdeburg; and in 983 was chosen bishop of
Prague. The extreme severity of his rule repelled the Bohemians,
whom he vainly strove to wean from their national customs and
pagan rites. Discouraged by the ill-success of his ministry, he
withdrew to Rome until 993, when, in obedience to the command
of the pope, he returned to his own people. Finding little amend-
ment, however, in their course of living, he soon afterwards went
again to Rome, and obtained permission from the pope to devote
himself to missionary labours, which he carried on chiefly in
North Germany and Poland. While preaching in Pomerania
(997) he was assassinated by a heathen priest.

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du-moyen dge,
Bio.-Bibl. (1905); Bolland, Ada Sanctorum, April 23; H. G. Voigt,
Adalbert von Prag (1898), a thoroughly exhaustive monograph.

ADALIA (med. Anlaliyah; the crusaders' Satalia), the ancient
Attalia (q.v.), the largest seaport on the south coast of Asia
Minor, though in point of trade it is now second to Mersina.
The unsuitability of the harbour for modern steamers, the bad
anchorage outside and the extension of railways from Smyrna
have greatly lessened its former importance as an emporium for
west central Anatolia. It is not connected by a chaussee with any
point outside its immediate province, but it has considerable
importance as the administrative capital of a rich and isolated
sanjak. Adalia played a considerable part in the medieval
history of the Levant. Kilij Arslan had a palace there. The
army of Louis VII. sailed thence for Syria in 1148, and the fleet
of Richard of England rallied there before the conquest of Cyprus.
Conquered by the Seljuks of Konia, and made the capital of the
province of Tekke, it passed after their fall through many hands,
including those of the Venetians and Genoese, before its final
occupation by the Ottoman Turks under Murad II. (1432). In
the i8th century, in common with most of Anatolia, its actual
lord was a Dere Bey. The family of Tekke Oglu, domiciled near
Perga, though reduced to submission in 1812 by Mahmud II.,
continued to be a rival power to the Ottoman governor till within
the present generation, surviving by many years the fall of the
other great Beys of Anatolia. The records of the Levant (Turkey)
Company, which maintained an important agency here till 1825,
contain curious information as to the local Dere Beys. The
present population of Adalia, which includes many Christians
and Jews, still living, as in the middle ages, in separate quarters,
the former round the walled mina or port, is about 25,000. The
port is served by coasting steamers of the local companies only.
Adalia is an extremely picturesque, but ill-built and backward
place. The chief thing to see is the city wall, outside which runs
a good and clean promenade. The government offices and the
houses of the better class are all outside the walls.

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie.et de la Pisidie, \.
(1890). (D. G. H.)

ADAM, the conventional name of the first created man
according to the Bible.

1. The Name. — The use of " Adam " (DIN) as a proper name
is an early error. Properly the word adam designated man as
a species; with the article prefixed (Gen. ii. 7, 8, 16, iv. i; and
doubtless ii. 20, iii. 17) it means the first man. Only in Gen. iv.
25 and v. 3-5 is adam a quasi-proper name, though LXX. and
Vulgate use " Adam " (A5a/i) in this way freely. Gen. ii. 7
suggests a popular Hebrew derivation from addmah, " the
ground." Into the question whether the original story did not
give a proper name which was afterwards modified into " Adam "
— important as this question is — we cannot here enter.

2. Creation of Adam. — For convenience, we shall take " Adam "

i68

ADAM

as a symbol for " the first man," and inquire first, what does
tradition say of his creation? In Gen. ii. 4^-8 we read thus: —
''At the time when Yahweh-Elohim1 made earth and heaven, —
earth was as yet without bushes, no herbage was as yet sprouting,
because Yahweh-Elohim had not caused it to rain upon the earth,
and no men were there to till the ground, but a stream2 used to
go up from the earth, and water all the face of the ground, — then
Yahweh-Elohim formed the man of dust of the ground,3 and
blew into his nostrils breath of life,4 and the man became a living
being. And Yahweh-Elohim planted a garden6 in Eden, east-
ward; and there he put the man whom he had formed." (See
EVE.)

How greatly this simple and fragmentary tale of Creation
differs from that in Gen. i. i-ii. 40 (see COSMOGONY) need hardly
be mentioned. Certainly the priestly writer who produced the
latter could not have said that God modelled the first man out
of moistened clay, or have adopted the singular account of the
formation of Eve in ii. 21-23. The latter story in particular (see
EVE) shows us how childlike was the mind of the early men,
whose God is not " wonderful in counsel " (Isa. xxviii. 29), and
fails in his first attempt to relieve the loneliness of his favourite.
For no beast however mighty, no bird however graceful, was a
fit companion for God's masterpiece, and, apart from the serpent,
the animals had no faculty of speech. All therefore that Adam
could do, as they passed before him, was to name them, as a
lord names his vassals. But here arises a difficulty. How came
Adam by the requisite insight and power of observation? For
as yet he had not snatched the perilous boon of wisdom. Clearly
the Paradise story is not homogeneous.

3. How the Animals were named. — Some moderns, e.g. von
Bohlen, Ewald, Driver (in Genesis, p. 55, but cp. p. 42), have
found in ii. 19, 20 an early explanation of the origin of language.
This is hardly right. The narrator assumes that Adam and Eve
had an innate faculty of speech.6 They spoke just as the birds
sing, and their language was that of the race or people which
descended from them. Most probably the object of the story
is, not to answer any curious question (such as, how did human
speech arise, or how came the animals by their names?), but to
dehort its readers or hearers from the abominable vice referred
to in Lev. xviii. 23.' There may have been stories in circulation
like that of Ea-bani (§ 8), and even such as those of the Skidi
Pawnee, in which " people " marry animals, or become animals.
Against these it is said (ver. 206) that " for Adam he found no
helper (qualified) to match him."

4. Three Riddles. — Manifold are the problems suggested by the
Eden-story (see EDEN; PARADISE). For instance, did the original
story mention two trees, or only one, of which the fruit was
taboo? In iii. 3(cp. w. 6, ii) only " the tree in the midst of
the garden " is spoken of, but in ii. 9 and iii. 22 two trees are
referred to, the fruit of both of which would appear to be taboo.
To this we must add that in ii. 17 " the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil " appears to have the qualities of a " tree of life,"
except indeed to Adam. This passage seems to give us the key
to the mystery. There was only one tree whose fruit was for-
bidden; it might be called either " the tree of life " or " the
tree of knowledge," but certainly not " the tree of knowledge
of good and evil." 8 The words " life " and " knowledge "
( = " wisdom ") are practically equivalent; perfect knowledge

1 The English Bible gives " the LORD GOD." This, however, does
not adequately represent the Hebrew.

3 See commentaries of Gunkel and Cheyne. As in v.io, the ocean-
stream is meant. (See EDEN.)

3 A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. COSMOGONY.)

4 See an illustration from Naville's Book of the Dead (Egyptian) in
Jewish Cyclopaedia, {. I74a.

1 Or park. (See PARADISE.)

6 The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall the
animals could speak, and that they had all one language (Jubilees,
iii. 28; Jos. Antiquities, i. I, 4).

7 Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to Dorsey, Traditions of
the Skidi Pawnee, pp. 2, 80 ff.

8 " Good and evil " may be a late marginal gloss. See further
Ency. Bib. col. 3578, and the commentaries (Driver leaves the
phrase); also Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and Ass. p. 553; Sayce,
Hibbert Lectures, p. 242.

(so primitive man believed) would enable any being to escape
death (an idea spiritualized in Prov. iii. 18).

Next, which of the trees is the " tree of life "? Various sacred
trees were known to the Semitic peoples, such as the fig-tree
(cp. iii. 7), which sometimes appears, conventionalized, as a
sacred tree.9 But clearly the tree referred to was more than a
" sacred tree "; it was a tree from whose fruit or juice, as culture
advanced, some intoxicating drink was produced. The Gao-
kerena of the Iranians 10 is exactly parallel. At the resurrection,
those who drink of the life-giving juice of this plant will obtain
" perfect welfare/' including deathlessness. It is not, however,
either from Iran or from India that the Hebrew tree of life is
derived, but from Arabia and Babylonia, where date-wine (cp.
Enoch xxiv. 4) is the earliest intoxicant. Of this drink it may
well have been said in primitive times (cp. Rig Veda, ix. 90. 5,
of Soma) that it " cheers the heart of gods " (in the speech of
the vine, Juclg. ix. 13). Later writers spoke of a " tree of
mercy," distilling the " oil of life," "i.e. the oil that heals, but
4 Esdr. ii. 12 (cp. viii. 53) speaks of the " tree of life," and Rev.
xxii. 2 (virtually) of " trees of life," whose leaves have a healing
virtue (cp. Ezek. xlvii. 12). The oil-tree should doubtless be
grouped with the river of oil in later writings (see PARADISE).
Originally it was enough that there should be one tree of life, i.e.
that heightened and preserved vitality.

A third enigma — why no "fountain of life "? The references
to such a fountain in Proverbs (xiii. 14, &c.) prove that the idea
was familiar,1'2 and in Rev. xxii. i we are told that the river of
Paradise was a " river of water of life " (see PARADISE). The
serpent, too, in mythology is a regular symbol of water. Possibly
the narrator, or redactor, desired to tone down the traces of
mythology. Just as the Gathas (the ancient Zoroastrian hymns)
omit Gaokerena, and the Hebrew prophets on the whole avoid
mythological phrases, so this old Hebrew thinker prunes the
primitive exuberance of the traditional myth.

5. The Serpent. — The keen-witted, fluently speaking serpent
gives rise to fresh riddles. How comes it that Adam's ruin is
effected by one of those very " beasts of the field " which he
had but lately named (ii. 19), that in speech he is Adam's equal
and in wisdom his superior? Is he a pale form of the Babylonian
chaos-dragon, or of the serpent of Iranian mythology who sprang
from heaven to earth to blight the " good creation "? It is true
that the serpent of Eden has mythological affinities. In iii. 14,
15, indeed, he is degraded into a mere typical snake, but iii. 1-5
shows that he was not so originally. He is perhaps best regarded,
in the light of Arabian folk-lore, as the manifestation of a demon
residing in the tree with the magic fruit.13 He may have been a
prince among the demons, as the magic tree was a prince
among the plants. Hence perhaps his strange boldness. For
some unknown reason he was ill disposed towards Yahweh-
Elohim (see iii. 36), which has suggested to some that he may be
akin to the great enemy of Creation. To Adam and Eve, how-
ever, he is not unkind. He bids them raise themselves in the
scale of being by eating the forbidden fruit, which he declares
to be not fatal to life but an opener of the eyes, and capable of
equalizing men with gods (iii. 4, 5). To the phrase " ye shall
be as gods " a later writer may have added " knowing good and
evil," but " to be as gods " originally meant " to live the life
of gods — wise, powerful, happy." The serpent was in the main
right, but there is one point which he did not mention, viz. that
for any being to retain this intensified vitality the eating of the

9 See illustration in Toy's Ezekiel (Sacred Books of the Old
Testament), p. 182.

"Gaokerena is'the mythic white haoma p\a.nt(Zendavesla,Vendidad,
xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization of the yellow
haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices (Yasna, x.
6-10). It corresponds to the soma plant (Asclepias acida) of the
ancient Aryans of India. On the illustrative value of Gaokerena see
Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 400-439.

" See Life of Adam and Eve (apocryphal), §§ 36, 40; Apocal. Mas.

9; Secrets of Enoch, viii. 7, xxii. 8, 9. " Oil of life," in a Bab. hymn,

'»> Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526.

" Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar.

18 W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, pp. 133, 442; Ency. Bib.,

"Serpent," §§3.4-

ADAM

169

fruit would have to be constantly renewed. Only thus could
even the gods escape death.1

6. The Divine Command broken. — The serpent has gone the
right way to work; he comprehends woman's nature better
than Adam comprehends that of the serpent. By her curiosity
Eve is undone. She looks at the fruit; then she takes and eats;
her husband does the same (iii. 6). The consequence (ver. 7)
may seem to us rather slight: "they knew (became sensible)
that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together, and made
themselves girdles (aprons)." But the real meaning is not slight;
the sexual distinction has been discovered, and a new sense
of shame sends the human pair into the thickest shades, when
Yahweh-Elohim walks abroad. The God of these primitive
men is surprised: " Where art thou? " By degrees, he obtains
a full confession — not from the serpent, whose speech might
not have been edifying, but from Adam and Eve. The sentences
which he passes are decisive, not only for the human pair and the
serpent, but for their respective races. Painful toil shall be the
lot of man; subjection and pangs that of woman.2 The serpent
too (whose unique form preoccupied the early men) shall be
humiliated, as a perpetual warning to man — who is henceforth
his enemy — of the danger of reasoning on and disobeying the
will of God.

7. Versions of the Adam-story. — Theologians in all ages have
allegorized this strange narrative.3 The serpent becomes the
inner voice of temptation, and the saying in iii. 15 becomes an
anticipation of the final victory of good over evil — a view which
probably arose in Jewish circles directly or indirectly affected
by the Zoroastrian eschatology. But allegory was far from
the thoughts of the original narrators. Another version of the
Adam-story is given by Ezekiel (xxviii. 11-19), for underneath
the king of Tyre (or perhaps Missor)4 we can trace the majestic
figure of the first man. This Adam, indeed, is not like the first
man of Gen. ii.-iii., but more like the "bright angel" who is
the first man in the Christian Book of Adam (i. 10; Malan, p. 12).
He dwells on a glorious forest-mountain (cp. Ezekiel xxxi. 8,
1 8), and is led away by pride to equalize himself with Elohim
(cp. xxviii. 2, 2 Thess. ii. 4), and punished. And with this
passage let us group Job xv. 7, 8, where Job is ironically de-
scribed as vying with the first man, who was " brought forth
before the hills" (cp. Prov. viii. 25) and " drew wisdom to him-
self " by " hearkening in the council of Elohim." No reference is
made in Job to this hero's fall. The omission, however, is re-
paired, not only in Ezek. xxviii. 16, but also in Isa. xiv. 12-15,
where the king, whose name is given in the English Bible as
" Lucifer " (or margin, " day-star "), " son of the morning," and
who, like the other king in Ezekiel, is threatened with death, is
a copy of the mythical Adam.

The two conceptions of the first man are widely different. The
passages last referred to harmonize with the account given in
Gen. i. 26, for " in our image " certainly suggests a being equal
in brightness and in capacities to the angels — a view which, as
we know, became the favourite one in apocryphal and Haggadic
descriptions of the Adam before the Fall. And though the
priestly writer, to whom the first Creation-story in its present
form is due, says nothing about a sacred mountain as the dwell-
ing-place of the first-created man, yet this mountain belongs to
the type of tradition which the passage, Gen. i. 26-28, imperfectly
but truly represents. The glorious first man of Ezekiel, and the
god-like first men of the cosmogony (cp. Ps. viii. 5) who held the
regency of the earth,6 require a dwelling-place as far above the
common level of the earth as they are themselves above the child-
like Adam of the second creation-narrative (Gen. ii.). On this
sacred mountain, see COSMOGONY.

1 Note the food and drink of the gods in the Babylonian Adapa
(or Adamu?) myth.

2 The mortality of man forms no part of the curse (cp. iii. 19,
" dust thou art ").

3 See H. Schultz, Alttest. Theologie, ed. 4, pp. 679 ff., 720;
)river, Genesis, p. 44.

4 See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus.

6 Cp. the " fair shepherd " Yirna of the Avesta (Vend, ii.), the first
lan and the founder of civilization to the Iranians, though not like
the Yama of the Vedas.

8. Origin of the Adam-story. — That the Hebrew story of the
first man in both its forms is no mere recast of a Babylonian
myth, is generally admitted. The holy mountain is no doubt
Babylonian, and the plantations of sacred trees, one of which
at least has magic virtue, can be paralleled from the monuments
(see EDEN). But there is no complete parallel to the description
of Paradise in Gen. ii., or to the story of the rib, or to that of
the serpent. The first part of the latter has definite Arabian
affinities; the second is as definitely Hebrew. We may now
add that the insertion of iii. 7 (from " were opened") to 19 —
a passage which has probably supplanted a more archaic and
definitely mythological passage — may well have been the conse-
quence of the change in the conception of the first man referred
to above. Still there are four Babylonian stories which may
serve as partial illustrations of the Hebrew Adam-story.

The first is contained in a fragment of a cosmogony in Berossus,
now confirmed in the main by the sixth tablet of the Creation-
epic. It represents the creation of man as due to one of the in-
ferior gods who (at Bel's command) mingled with clay the blood
which flowed from the severed head of Bel (see COSMOGONY).
The three others are the myths of Adapa,6 Ea-bani and Etana.
As to Adapa, it may be mentioned here that Fossey has shown
reason for holding that the true reading of the name is Adamu.
It thus becomes plausible to hold that " Adam " in Gen. ii.-iii.
was originally a proper name, and that it was derived from
Babylonia. More probably, however, this is but an accidental
coincidence; both adam and adamu may come from the same
Semitic root meaning " to make." Certainly Adamu (if it is ncf
more convenient to write " Adapa ") was not regarded as the
progenitor of the human race, like the Hebrew Adam. He was,
however, certainly a man — one of those men who were not, of
course, rival first-men, but were specially created and endowed.
Adamu or Adapa, we are told, received from his divine father
the gift of wisdom,7 but not that of everlasting life. He had a
chance, however, of obtaining the gift, or at least of eating the
food and drinking the water which makes the gods ageless and
immortal. But through a deceit practised upon him by his
divine father Ea, he supposed the food and drink offered to him
on a certain occasion by the gods to be " food of death," " water
of death," just as Adam and Eve at first believed that the fruit
of the magic tree would produce death (Gen. iii. 4, 5).

The second story is that of Ea-bani,8 who was formed by the
goddess Arusu ( = the mother-goddess Ishtar) of a lump of clay
(cp. Gen. ii. 7). This human creature, long-haired and sensual,
was drawn away from a savage mode of life by a harlot, and
Jastrow, followed by G. A. Barton, Worcester and Tennant,
considers this to be parallel to the story which may underlie
the account of the failure of the beasts, and the success of the
woman Eve, as a " help-meet " for Adam. This, however, is
most uncertain.

The third is that of Etana.9 Here the main points are that
Etana is induced by an eagle to mount up to heaven, that he may
win a boon from the kindly goddess Ishtar. Borne by the eagle,
he soared high up into the ether, but became afraid. Downward
the eagle and his burden fell, and in the epic of Gilgamesh we
find Etana in the nether world. According to Jastrow, this
attempted ascension was an offence against the gods, and his fall
was his punishment. We are not told, however, that Etana
had the impious desire of Ezekiel's first man, and if he fell, it was
through his own timidity (contrast Ezek. xxviii. 16). But cer-
tainly the myth does help us to imagine a story in which, for
some sin against the gods, some favoured hero was hurled down
from the divine abode, and such a story may some day be dis-
covered.

To these illustrations it is unsafe to add the scene on a cylinder
preserved in the British Museum, representing two figures, a

6 See Jastrow, Re!, of Bab. and Ass. pp. 548-554; R. J. Harper,
in Academy, May 30, 1891; Jensen, Keilinschr. Bibliothek, vi. 93 ff.

7 The wisdom was probably to qualify him as a ruler. It is too
much to say with Hommel that " Adapa is the archetype of the
Johannine Logos."

8 Jastrow, op. cit. p. 474 ff. ; Jensen, Keil. Bibl. vi. 120 ff.
' Jastrow, p. 522 f.; Jensen, vi. 112 ff.

170

ADAM

man (with horns) and perhaps a woman, both clothed, on either
side of a fruit-tree, towards which they stretch out their hands.1
For the meaning of this is extremely problematical. Some better
monumental illustration may some day be found, for it is clear
that the Babylonian sacred literature had much to tell of offences
against the gods in the primeval age.

The student may naturally ask, Whence did the Israelites (a
comparatively young people) obtain the original myth ? It is
most probable that they obtained it through the mediation either
of the Canaanites or of the North Arabians. Babylonian influence,
as is now well known, was strongly felt for many centuries in
Canaan, and even the cuneiform script was in common use
among the high officials of the country. When the Israelites
entered Canaan, they would learn myths partly of Babylonian
origin. North Arabian influence must also have been strong among
the Israelites, at least while they sojourned in North Arabia. From
the Kenites, at any rate, they may have received, not only a
strong religious impulse, but a store of tales of the primitive
age, and these stories too may have been partly influenced by
Babylonian traditions. We must allow for stages of development
both among the Israelites and among their tutors.

9. Biblical References to the Adam-story. — It is remarkable how
little influence the Adam-story has had on the earlier parts of the
Old Testament. The garden of Eden is referred to in Isa. li. 3,
Ezek. xxxvi. 35, Joel ii. 5; cp. Ezek. xxviii. 13, xxxi. 8, 9, 16,
18, all of which are later. And it is mostly in the " humanistic "
book of Proverbs that we find allusions to the " tree of life "
'Prov. iii. 18, xi. 30, xiii. 12, xv. 4), and to the " fountain of
life " — perhaps (see § 4) an omitted portion of the old Paradise-
story (Prov. x. n, xiii. 14, xiv. 27, xvi. 22), — the only other
Biblical reference (apart from Rev. xxi. 6) being in that exquisite
passage, Ps. xxxvi. 9. One can hardly be surprised at . this.
The Adam-story is plainly of foreign origin, and could not please
the greater pre-exilic prophets. In late post-exilic times, how-
ever, foreign tales, even if of mythical origin, naturally came
into favour, especially as religious symbols. If even now philo-
sophers and theologians cannot resist the temptation to allegorize,
how inevitable was it that this course should be pursued by early
Jewish theologians!

10. Incipient Reflexion on the Story. — Let us give some instances
of this. In Enoch Ixix. 6 we find the story of Eve's temptation
read in the light of that of the fallen angels (Gen. vi. i, 2,4) who
conveyed an evil knowledge to men, and so subjected mankind
to mortality. Evidently the writer fears culture. Elsewhere
eating the fruit of the " tree of wisdom " is given as the cause of
the expulsion of the human pair. In the Wisdom of Solomon
(x. i, 2) we find another view. Here, as in Ezekiel, the first man
is pre-eminently wise and strong; though he transgressed, wisdom
rescued him, i.e. taught him repentance (cp. Life of Adam and
Eve, §§ 1-8). Elsewhere (ii. 24; cp. Jos. Ant. i. i, 4) death is
traced to the envy of the devil, still implying an exalted view of
Adam. It is held that, but for his sin, Adam would have been
immortal. Clearly the Jewish mind is exposed to some fresh
foreign influences. As in the Talmud and the Jerusalem Targum,
the serpent has even become the devil, i.e. Satan. The period of
syncretism has fully come, and Zoroastrianism in particular,
more indirectly than directly, is exercising an attractive power
upon the Jews. For all that, the theological thinking is char-
acteristically Jewish, and such guidance as Jewish thinkers
required was mainly given by Greek culture. On this subject
see further EVE, § 5.

1 1 . Growth of a Theology. — Let us now turn to the Apocalypses
of Baruch and of Ezra (both about 70 A.D.). Different views
are here expressed. According to one (xvii. 3, xix. 8, xxiii. 4)
the sin of Adam was the cause of physical death; according to
another (liv. 15, Ivi. 6), only of premature physical death, while
according to a third (xlviii. 42, 43) it is spiritual death which is
to be laid to his account. Of these three views, it is only the

1 See Smith and Sayce, Chaldaean Genesis, p. 88 ; Delitzsch, Wo lag
das Parodies ? p. 90; Babel and Bible, Eng. trans., p. 56, with note
on pp. 114-118; Zimmern, Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3,
p. 529 ; Jeremias, Das Alte Test, im Lichte d. Allen Orient, pp. 104-106.

second which harmonizes with Gen. ii.-iii. In one of the two
passages which express it we are also told that each member of
the human race is " the Adam of his own soul." Adam, like
Satan in Ecclus. xxi. 27, has become a psychological symbol.
Truly, a worthy development of the seed-thoughts of the original
narrator, and (must we not add ?) entirely opposed to any
doctrine of Original Sin.

In 4 Ezra, too, we find no real endorsement of such a doctrine.
It is true, not only physical death (iii. 7), but spiritual, is traced
to the act of Adam (iii. 21, 22, iv. 30, 31, vii. 118-121). But
two modifying facts should be noticed. One is that Adam is
said to have had from the first a wicked heart, owing to which
he fell, and his posterity likewise, into sin and guilt. All men
have the same seed of evil in them that Adam had; they sin
and die, like him. The other is that, according to iii. 7-12,
there are at least two ages of the world. The first ended with
the Flood, so that any consequences of Adam's sin were, strictly
speaking, of limited duration. The second began with righteous
Noah and his household, " of whom came all righteous men."
It was the descendants of these who " began again to do un-
godliness more than the former ones." Doubtless the problem
of evil is most imperfectly treated, even from the writer's point
of view. But it would be cruel to pick holes in a writer whose
thinking, like that of St Paul, is coloured by emotion.

At this point we might well make more than a passing reference
to St Paul (Rom. v. 14; i Cor. xv. 22, 45, 47), whose doctrine of
sin is evidently of mixed origin. But we cannot find space for
this here. In compensation let it be mentioned that in Rev.
xii. 9 (cp. xx. 2) the " great dragon," who persecuted the woman
" clothed with the sun," is identified with " the old serpent, that
is called the Devil and Satan." The identification is incorrect.
But it may be noticed here that the phrase " the old serpent "
sheds some light on the Pauline phrases " the first man Adam "
and " the last Adam " (i Cor. xv. 45, 47). The underlying idea
is that the new age (that of the new heaven and earth) will be
opened by events parallel to those which opened the first age.
As the old serpent deceived man of old, so shall it be again.
And as at the head of the first age stands the first Adam, whose
doings affected all his descendants to their harm, so at the head
of the second shall stand the second Adam, whose actions shall
be potent for good. There is reason to suspect that the expres-
sion " the second Adam " is the coinage either of St Paul or of
some one closely connected with him (as Prof. G. F. Moore has
shown), for there is no prool that such terms as " the last," or
" the second Adam," were generally current among the Jews.

12. Jewish Legends. — The parallelism between the first and
second Adam in i Cor. xv. 45 is a parallelism of contrast. Jewish
legends, however, suggest another sort of parallelism. The
Haggadah gives the most extravagant descriptions of the glory
of Adam before his fall. The most prominent idea is that being
in the image of God — the God whose essence is light — he must
have had a luminous body (like the angels). " I made thee of
the light," says God in the Book of Adam and Eve (Malan, p. 16),
" and I willed to bring children of light from thee." Similarly
in Baba batra, 580, v/e read, " he was of extraordinary beauty
and sun-like brightness." So glorious was he that even the
angels were commanded through Michael to pay homage to
Adam. Satan, disobeying, was cast out of heaven; hence his
ill-will towards Adam (Life of Adam and Eve, §§ 13-17; cp.
Koran, xvii. 63, xx. 115, xxxviii. 74).

It only remains to give due honour to one of the most beautiful
of legends, that of the deliverance of Adam's spirit from the
nether world by the Christ, the earliest form of which is a
Christian interpolation iaApoc. Moses, § 42 (cp. Malan, Adam and
Eve, iv. 15, end). We may compare a partly parallel passage in
§ 37, where the agent is Michael, and notice that such legendary
developments were equally popular among Jews and Christians.

AUTHORITIES. — On the apocryphal Books of Adam, see Hort,
Diet, of Chr. Biography, i. 37 ff. In English we have Malan's trans-
lation of the Ethiopic Book of Adam (1882), and Issaverden's
translation of another Book of Adam from the Armenian (Venice,
1901). In German, see Fuchs's translations in Kautzsch's Die
Apokryphen, ii. 506 ff. For full bibliography see Schurer, Gesch.

ADAM

171

des jiid. Volkes, ed. 3, iii. 288 f. On Jewish and Mahommedan
iegends, see Jewish Cyclopaedia, " Adam." On the belief in the
Fall, see Tennant, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall, and Original
Sin (1903). . (T. K. C.)

ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably
born in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition)
before 1043- He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely
on the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year
of the latter's episcopate (io43?-io72); in 1069 he appears as
a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral school.
Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, Sweyn
Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 1072, he
began the Historia Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae, which he finished
about 1075. He died on the I2th of October of a year unknown,
perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia — known also as Gesta Hamma-
burgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium praesulum Historia,
and Historia ecclesiastica—is a primary authority, not only for
the great diocese of Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North
German and Baltic lands (down to 1072), and for the Scandi-
navian colonies as far as America. Here occurs the earliest
mention of Vinland, and here are also references of great interest
to Russia and Kiev, to the heathen Prussians, the Wends and
other Slav races of the South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule
or Iceland, Greenland and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada
and the nobles of Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's
own day (before 1066). Adam's account of North European
trade at this time, and especially of the great markets of Jumne
at the mouth of the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard
(Old Novgorod?) in Russia, is also of much value. His work,
which places him among the first and best of German annalists,
consists of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from
written records and partly from oral information, the latter
mainly gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and
Sweyn Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several,
such as Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman,
" bishop of Zealand," formerly chancellor of Canute the Great,
and an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the
most important) book of Adam's History, variously entitled
Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam sunl
regionum, Descriplio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has often been
considered, but wrongly, as a separate work.

Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, Royal
Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of I2th to I3th cents.;
No. 718, of isth cent.; (3) Leyden University, Voss. Lat. 123, of
nth cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library, 2010; (5) Vienna, Hof-
u. Staatsbibliothek, 413, of I3th cent.; (6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal
Library, Gud. 83, of 1 5th cent.

There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the first
published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus or Descriptio
Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615), the best at Hanover,
1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum ; reissued
by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris, 1884 (in Migne's Patrologia
Latina, cxlvi.). There are also three German versions, and one
Danish; the best is by J. C. M. Laurent1 (and W. Wattenbach) in
Geschichtsschreiberd.deutsch, Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888). See
also J. Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg
in Pertz, Archiv, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris,
1895); Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901).

ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French trouvere,
was born at Arras. His patronymic is generally modernized
to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his contemporaries
as Adam d' Arras or Adam le Bossu, sometimes simply as Le
Bossu d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale, was a well-known
citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology and
music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambrai. Father
and son had their share in the civil discords in Arras, and for a
short time took refuge in Douai. Adam had been destined for
the church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain
Marie, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and
jeux-partis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II.,
count of Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou,
brother of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt,
Syria, Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he
became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin el Marion, the
most famous of his works. He died between 1285 and 1288.
Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a

transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given
in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited
as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject. The
pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and re-
mained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old
chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists of dialogue varied
by refrains already current in popular song. The melodies to
which these are set have the character of folk-music, and are
more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music
of his songs and motets. A modern adaptation, by Julien
Tiersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opera
Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1896 in honour of Adam
de le Hale. His other play, Lejeu Adan or Lejeu de la Feuillee
(c. 1262), is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself,
his father and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities.
His works include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of
Arras, and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles of
Anjou, Le roi de Sidle, begun in 1282; another short piece, Le
jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him.

The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is the
La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
dating from the latter half of the I3th century. Many of his pieces
are also contained in Douce MS. 308, in the Bodleian Library,
Oxford. His CEuvres 'completes (1872) were edited by E. de Cousse-
maker. See also an article by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire
de la France (vol. xx. pp. 638-675) ; G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets
franfais des XII' el XIII' siecles (1882); Canchons el Partures des
. . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900), a critical edition by Rudolf
Berger; an edition of Adam's twojeux in Monmerque and Michel's
Theatre franfais au moyen Age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin
et Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A. Guesnon,
La Satire a Arras au XIII' siecle (1900) ; and a full bibliography of
works on the subject in No. 6 of the Bibliotheque de bibliographies
critiques, by Henri Guy.

ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman
antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres,
in Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon
diligence and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding
many difficulties and privations. In 1757 he went to Edinburgh,
where he studied at the university. His reputation as a classical
scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's Hospital
and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became private
tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of Edinburgh, by
whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the rectorship of
the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, whose sub-
stitute he had been for some time before. From this period he
devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office and to the
preparation of his numerous works on classical literature. His
popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated by
the great increase in the number of his pupils, many of whom
subsequently became distinguished men, among them being Sir
Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and Jeffrey. He succeeded in
introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of the school,
notwithstanding the opposition of the university headed by
Principal Robertson. In 1780 the university of Edinburgh
conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
He died on the i8th of December 1809, after an illness of five
days, during which he occasionally imagined himself still at
work, his last words being, " It grows dark, boys, you may go."
Dr Adam's first publication was his Principles of Latin and
English Grammar (1772), which, being written in English in-
stead of Latin, brought down a storm of abuse upon him. This
was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791), A Summary of
Geography and History (1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of
the Latin Tongue (1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin
dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in the library
of the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities,
which has passed through a large number of editions and received
the unusual compliment of a German translation.

See An A ccount of the Life and Character of A . A ., by A. Henderson
(1810).

ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853), British general, was
the son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair- Adam, lord-lieutenant
of Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of four-
teen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich. He became

172

ADAM

captain in 1 799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in Egypt
(1801). In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of
promotion, he obtained command of the 2ist Foot, with which
regiment he served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 1813,
taking part in the battle of Maida in 1806. In 1813 he accom-
panied the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he com-
manded a brigade. He fought a gallant action at Biar (April
12, 1813), and on the following day won further distinction at
Castalla. In the action of Ordal, on the I2th of September,
Adam received two severe wounds. He returned to England to
recover, and was made a major-general in 1814. At Waterloo,
Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne (see SEATON,
LORD) formed part, shared with the Guards the honour of re-
pulsing the Old Guard. For his services he was made a K.C.B.,
and received also Austrian and Russian orders. During the long
peace which followed, Sir Frederick Adam was successively
employed at Malta, in the Ionian Islands as lord high commis-
sioner (1824-1831) and from 1832 to 1837 as governor of Madras.
He became K.C.M.G. in 1820, G.C.M.G. four years later, lieu-
tenant-general in 1830, a privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in
1840, and full general in 1846. He died suddenly on the 1 7th of
August 1853.

ADAM, JULIETTE (1836- ), French writer, known also
by her maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie
(Oise) on the 4th of October 1836. She has given an account
of her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her
parents, in Le roman de man enhance et de ma jeunesse (Eng.
trans., London and New York, 1902). In 1852 she married a
doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her Idi.es
antiproudhoniennes sur I' amour, lafemme et le mariage, in defence
of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George Sand. On her
husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine Edmond Adam
(1816-1877), prefect of police in 1870, and subsequently life-
senator; and she established a salon which was frequented by
Gambetta and the other republican leaders against the conserva-
tive reaction of the 'seventies. In the same interest she founded
in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, which she edited for the first eight
years, and in the administration of which she retained a pre-
ponderating influence until 1899. She wrote the notes on foreign
politics, and was unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in
her advocacy of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also
generally credited with the authorship of papers on various
European capitals signed " Paul Vasili," which were in reality
the work of various writers. The most famous of her numerous
novels is Pa'ienne (1883). Her reminiscences, Mes premieres
armes lilteraires et politiques (1904) and Mes sentiments et nos
idees avant 1870 (1905), contain much interesting gossip about
her distinguished contemporaries.

ADAH, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759), French sculptor,
known as Adam I'aine, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert
Adam, a sculptor of little repute. Adam was thirty-seven when,
on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon the
model of the group of " Neptune and Amphitrite " for the centre
of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found much em-
ployment in the decoration of the royal residences. Among
his more important works are " Nymphs and Tritons," " The
Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves," " Hunter with Lion
in his Net," a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, " The Seine
and the Marne " in stone for St Cloud, " Hunting " and " Fish-
ing," marble groups for Berlin, " Mars embraced by Love " and
" The enthusiasm of Poetry." Adam restored with much ability
the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the so-called Villa of
Marius at Rome, and was elected a member of the Academy of
St Luke. Several of his most important works were executed
for Frederick the Great in Prussia.

His brother, also a sculptor, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN ADAM (1705-
1778), known as Adam le jeune, born in Nancy, worked under
equal encouragement. His first work of importance was his
" Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture," executed in
plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his " reception
piece " when he was elected into the Academy. He produced the
reliefs of the " Birth " and " Agony of Christ " for the Oratory

in Paris, but his chief works are the " Mausoleum of Cardinal
de Fleury " and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine Opalinska,
queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy.

A third brother, FRANCOIS GASPARD BALTHASAH ADAM (1710-
1761), born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the
Great and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that
monarch, and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin. His
chief works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and
Potsdam.

The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win
the approval of the school that immediately followed them, and
found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle.

See Dussieux, Artistes frangais & I'etranger (Paris, 1855, 8vo);
Archives de I' art fran^ais, documents, vol. i. pp. 117-180, chiefly for;
works executed for the king of Prussia; Mariette, Abecedario;
Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, Dictionnaire general des
artistes de I'ecole fran^aise (Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed;
Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors of the iSth century
(London, 410, 1900).

ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer,
was born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the
college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. In 1 598 he went
to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments.
He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of
the i6th century, mostly theologians, which were published in
Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 1615-1620). He dealt with
only twenty divines of other countries. All his divines are
Protestants. His industry as a biographer is commended by
P. Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours;
and his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful.

ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris
on the 7th of December 1862. He was prosecuted for his first
novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted. He collaborated
with Jean Moreas in Le the chez Miranda (1886), and with Moreas
and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symboliste, coming forward
as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism. Among his numer-
ous novels should be noted Le mystere des joules (2 vols., 1895),
a study in Boulangism, Lettres de Malaisie (1897), a fantastic
romance of imaginary future politics. In 1899 he began a novel-
sequence, giving the history of the Napoleonic campaigns, the
restoration and the government of Louis Philippe, comprising
La force (1899), L'enfant d'Austerlitz (1901), La ruse (1902), and
Ausoleil de Juillet (1903). In 1900 he wrote a Byzantine romance,
Basile et Sophia.

ADAM, ROBERT (1728-1792), British architect, the second
son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most cele-
brated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William
Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1 7 28. For few famous men have
we so little biographical material, and contemporary references
to him are sparse. He certainly studied at the university of
Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in archi-
tecture from his father, who gave proofs of his own skill and
taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now demolished). His
mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, the first English
historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we find Robert Adam living
with her in Edinburgh, and making one of the brilliant literary
coterie which adorned it at that period. Somewhere between
1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, where he spent three years study-
ing the remains of Roman architecture. There he was struck
with the circumstance that practically nothing had survived of
the Greek and Roman masterpieces except public buildings, and
that the private palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so
highly, had practically vanished. One example of such work,
however, was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalato,
in Dalmatia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him
the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clerisseau, and
two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, after being
arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to accumulate a
sufficient number of measurements and careful plans and surveys
to produce a restoration of the entire building in a fine work
which he published in 1764, The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,
ffc. Considering the shortness of the time occupied and the
obstacles placed in his way by the Venetian governor and the

ADAM

population of the place, the result was amazing. The influence
of these studies was apparent directly and indirectly in much of
his subsequent work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded
upon them.

After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly
to the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the
king and the Board of Works. Six years later he resigned this
office, in which he was succeeded by his brother James, — who
however, held the office jointly with another, — and entered
parliament as member for the county of Kinross. In 1768 he
and his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames,
upon which the Adelphi now stands, for £1200 on a ninety-nine
years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of Lord
Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the teeth of
public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of buildings
which is imperishably associated with their name, indicating its
joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the' Greek dSeX(£oi, the
Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep
hill led down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan
was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches
and vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets
and stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite
of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking
was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was
raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi
terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought
after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the
terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution,
the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more
remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been
described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the
years that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading
to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand
in double tiers. In time these " streets " obtained a bad name
as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been
enclosed and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers
issued a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the
designs for many of their most important works, which included
several great public buildings and numberless large private
houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remain-
ing years of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most
extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and
when he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey
almost as a matter of course.

The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and
prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it.
As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian in-
fluences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native.
But this does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish
our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal
triumph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt
classical models as to create a new manner of the highest charm
and distinction. Out of simple curvilinear forms, of which he
principally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extra-
ordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail
of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned
with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well as
with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigor-
ously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was
too small and unimportant for him — summer-houses and dog-
kennels came as readily to him as the vast fagades of a terrace
in town or a great country house. But he never permitted
minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design.
Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves
of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place;
it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made
a distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of imparting
the unity of a single imposing structure to a number of private
houses grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature
of modern town building, and though at times he failed in the
breadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large
scale, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accom-

plished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically unde-
sirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it
he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions.
His " compo " was used so successfully that the patent was in-
fringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use.
That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusi-
asm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of it with minute
pains, while his practice showed his grasp of the subject by all
avoidance of bare imitation of the classic masters who first
brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but
it was independently developed by himself. It would be im-
possible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he
executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-emi-
nent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy
Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older
portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of houses in
the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord
Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decora-
tions and additions to many more.

Robert Adam — with, there is reason to suspect, some help from
his brother James — has left as deep and enduring a mark upon
English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time
carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but
thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French
influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted
furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his
designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attractive, mainly
by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt
at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire
to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense
of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with
plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own
taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely
successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most
effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his
favourite decorative motives — wreaths and paterae, the honey-
suckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly.
Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From
facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the carpets, every-
thing originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an
Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room is
to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful
than in mantelpieces and doors. The former, by reason of their
simplicity and the readiness with which the " compo " orna-
ments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms
in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in
a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent
to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear —
indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding
this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art litera-
ture that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published.
John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in
Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was
closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to
have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.)

ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839), British lawyer and politician,
eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and
nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of
August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and
Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon after-
wards he removed to England, where he entered parliament
in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He
withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806
as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and
Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till
1811. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox.
At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice.
He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince
of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren
Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord
Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of
office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and

174

ADAMANT— ADAMS

was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinross-
shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland,
and was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court
for the trial of civil causes, from 1815 to 1830, when it was merged
in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on
the iyth of February 1839.

ADAMANT (from Gr. aBatias, untameable), the modern
diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance.
The Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and
by Hesiod for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus
applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion
with the Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came
to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term
was displaced by " diamond " it has had only a figurative and
poetical use.

ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly
between 6° and 11° N., and 11° and 15° E., about midway
between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided
between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the
chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This
region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger,
and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Yedseram,
flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the
country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the
sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation
of 1600 ft., and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of
mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations,
towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of
these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft.
thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical
hill. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of Yola,
rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to the height of
6000 ft. The country, which is very fertile and is covered with
luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable popu-
lation. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal
products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are
numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the
country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with
crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing
some resemblance to the seal.

Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early
years of the igth century conquered the country. To the Hausa
and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South-
land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the
Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all
fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some
of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among
them in the early years of the 2oth century. The Fula (?.».),
who first came into the country about the isth century as nomad
herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes
holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country
numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and
Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lord-
ship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa,
but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (c. 1900), has
consisted of a number of small states under the control of the
British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benue, 65 m. east of
Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the
region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko
is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in
the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich
Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to
penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It
has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of
Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893-1894).

An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is
given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa
(new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in
S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also CAMEROON and
NIGERIA, and the bibliographies there given.)

ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished in
North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Basing itself prob-
ably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect

pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state
of original innocency. They accordingly rejected the form of
marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin,
and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they
did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the
middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not
itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and
Sisters of the Free Spirit.

ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704), Irish saint and
historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the
year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or lona, being
ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a
mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686,
he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for
celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to lona he
tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He
died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of
St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of
great interest and value. The best editions are those published
by W. Reeves (1857, new edit. Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T.
Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work,
De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymilana
saeculi,ui.-viii., &c., 1898; vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script. Ecc.
Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received
from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy
Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was enter-
tained for a time at lona. This was first published at Ingolstadt
in 1619 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance
of Arculf's narrative against Casaubon. An English translation
by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land,
was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889).

For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Repert. des sources
historiques (1903), p. 40.

ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist
and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Ban-
chory, Aberdeen, was born on the 2ist of March 1827, and was
educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army
Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his oppor-
tunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in
Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the
fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give
special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an ac-
knowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873
he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's
College, Cork, a post which he held until the close of his life. He
died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882.

PUBLICATIONS. — Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley andMalta
(London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British
Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc.), (London. 1877-1881).

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplo-
matist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John
Adams, was born in Boston on the i8th of August 1807. His
father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in
1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity
with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years
spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin
School for four years, and in '1825 graduated at Harvard. He
lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during
his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a
society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph.
Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study,
and wrote for the North American Review. He also undertook
the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively
supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives
for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he
wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled,
after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An Appeal from the
New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts
general court from 1840 to 1845, sitting for three years in the
House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate;
and in 1846-1848 he edited a party journal, the Boston Whig.
In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a " Conscience Whig,"

ADAMS

presiding over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free
Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president and
himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of
the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the sth of
December 1859, and during the second session, from the 3rd of
December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861, he represented Massa-
chusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the
time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selec-
tion by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to
present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon
by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able
speech of the 3ist of January 1861 in the House, served to make
him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together
with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of
concession; and, while he was criticized severely and charged
with inconsistency in view of his record as a "Conscience Whig,"
he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to con-
cede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly
understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He
believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to
show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness
was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result
the holding of the border slave states with the North until the
4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the
government at Washington. With the incoming of the new
administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appoint-
ment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was
shown in England for the South that his path was beset with
difficulties ; but his mission was to prevent the interference of
Great Britain in the struggle; and while the work of Lincoln,
Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended
to this end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding,
and knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity.
He laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of
the "Alabama"; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently
urged upon the British government its responsibility for the
destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In
his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior
were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain
which he underwent during the .Civil War made itself felt in later
years. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell
to stop the "Alexandra," and it was his industry and pertinacity
in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order
the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams in-
tended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in Eng-
land until May 1868. His last important work was as a member,
in 1871-1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which dis-
posed of the "Alabama" claims. His knowledge of the subject
and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and
the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died
at Boston on the 2ist of November 1886.

He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols., 1850-1856), and the
Memoirs oj John Quincy Adams (lavols., 1874-1877). See the excellent
biography (Boston, 1900), in the "American Statesmen Series,"
by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.)

ADAMS, HENRY (1838- ), American historian, son of
Charles Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the i6th of February 1838.
He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was
private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was
assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876
was editor of the North American Review. He is considered to
have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary
work in the United States. His great work is his History of the
United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889-1891), which is incom-
parably the best work yet published dealing with the administra-
tions of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly
notable for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United
States during this period, and for its essential impartiality.
Adams also published : Life of Albert Gallalin (1879), John
Randolph (1882) in the "American Statesmen Series," and
Historical Essays (1891) ; besides editing Documents Relating

to New England Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert
Gallalin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder
brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters oj
Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest
Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876).

His elder brother, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1833-1894), a
graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Demo-
cratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general
court. In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the
Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley.

Another brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Jr. (1835- ),
born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard
in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War,
receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular
army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from
1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an
authority on the management of railways. In 1900-1901 he
was president of the American Historical Association. Among
his writings are : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878);
Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892) ; a biography
of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900) ; Lee at Appomattox
and Other Papers (1902) ; Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles
Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs (1906) ; and Three Phi Beta Kappa
Addresses (1907). .

Another brother, BROOKS ADAMS (1848- ), born in Quincy,
Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard
in 1870, and until 1881 practised law. His writings include :
The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) ; The Law of Civiliza-
tion and Decay (1895) ; America's Economic Supremacy (1900) ;
and The New Empire (1902).

ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852- ), American economist,
was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 3ist of December 1852.
He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University,
of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880-1882). He was
afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became
professor of political economy and finance in the university of
Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Com-
merce Committee and was in charge of the transportation
department in the 1900 census. His principal works are The
State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the
United States, 1787 to 1816 (1884) ; Public Debts (1887) ; The
Science of Finance (1888) ; Economics and Jurisprudence (1897).

ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was
born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858.
He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of
Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in
1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1890-
1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute,
Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president
of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experi-
mented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted
marbles, notably in the "Rabbi's Daughter" and a portrait of
Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress ; and he is at his best in his
portrait busts of women, the best example being the study,
completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards
married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitch-
burg, Massachusetts (1888) ; a number of works for the Con-
gressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors
("Writing ") begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor
Joseph Henry ; memorial tablets for the Boston State House ;
a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.;
statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia,
and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902) ; and the
Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church,
New York.

ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American his-
torian and educationalist, was born at Shutesbury (near
Amherst), Massachusetts, on the i6th of April 1850. He
graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872 ; and
between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and
economics at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, re-
ceiving the degree of Ph.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest

ADAMS

honours (summa cum laude). From 1876 almost until his death
he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878-
1883), an associate professor (1883-1891) and after 1891 pro-
fessor of American and institutional history. In addition he
was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massa-
chusetts, in 1878-1881, and for many years took an active part
in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of
the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary
until 1900. In 1882 he founded the " Johns Hopkins University
Studies in Historical and Political Science," and at the time of his
death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship.
After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Educa-
tion the series of monographs entitled " Contributions to Ameri-
can Educational History," he himself preparing the College of
William and Mary ( 1887) , and Thomas Jefferson and the University
of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams
rendered his most valuable services, and many American his-
torical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent
their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts,
on the 3<Dth of July 1901.

In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he
published: Maryland's Influence in Founding a National
Commonwealth (1877); Methods, of Historical Study (1884);
Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States
(1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols.,
Boston, 1893), his most important work.

See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902),
extra volume (xxiii.) of "Studies in Historical and Political Science."

ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United
States of America, was born on the 3Oth of October 1735 in what
is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer,
also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from
Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to
Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston
Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 17 55,
and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the
office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar.
From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions
of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his
report of the argument of James Otis in the- superior court of
Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance.
This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for
the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an
old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections
of this scene; it is instructive to compare the two accounts.
John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership
which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin,
Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he
influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense
and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his
whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his
pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious
handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were
particularly manifested at a later period — as, for example, during
his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt
and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs
during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765.
In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the
town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts
legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in draw-
ing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he
contributed anonymously four notable articles to the Boston
Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Disser-
tation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he argued that
the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of
the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate
authority; and in December 1765 he delivered^, speech before
the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp
Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without
representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768
he removed to Boston. Two years later, with that degree of

moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics,
as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr.,
defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the "Boston
Massacre," charged with causing the death of four persons, in-
habitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the
officer who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers;
but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These
claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and
released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking the
unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the follow-
ing year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House
of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118.

John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from
1774 to 1778. In June 1775, withaview to promoting the union
of the colonies, lie seconded the nomination of Washington as
commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was
great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a
separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7th of
June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by
Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that " these colonies are, and of a right
ought to be, free and independent states," and no man
championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) so
eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of
June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin,
Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence;
and although that document was by the request of the committee
written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied
the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this
question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of
the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many
other important committees.

In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas
Deane in the American commission there. But just as he em-
barked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance,
and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of com-
missioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he
returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention
which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the
organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and
Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the
first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came
from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed
he was again sent to Europe, having be«n chosen on the 27th of
September 1779 as minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a
treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain.
Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the
French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice,
inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable
and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subse-
quently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and
Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams.
Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took
little part in the negotiations. This left the management of
the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted the
good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin,
they decided to break their instructions, which required them
to ' make the most candid confidential communications on all
subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France;
to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce
without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to
govern yourself by their advice and opinion "; and, instead,
they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without con-
sulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations
Adams was especially determined that the right of the United
States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be
recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment,
made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British
ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able to
secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty
was signed on the 3oth of November 1782. Before these
negotiations began, Adams had spent some time in the Nether-
lands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the

ADAMS

177

duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague
was eminently successful, securing there recognition of the
United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782),
and negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of
amity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the
United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778
with France.

In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line
of able and distinguished American ministers to the court of
St James's. When he was presented to his former sovereign,
George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack of
confidence in the French government. Replying, Mr Adams ad-
mitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: " I must avow
to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own
country " — a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's
sensibilities. While in London Adams published a work entitled
A Defence of the Constitution of Government of the United States
(1787). In this work he ably combated the views of Turgot
and other European writers as to the viciousness of the frame-
work of the state governments. Unfortunately, in so doing,
he used phrases savouring of aristocracy which offended 'many of
his countrymen, — as in the sentence in which he suggested that
" the rich, the well-born and the able " should be set apart from
other men in a senate. Partly for this reason, while Washing-
ton had the vote of every elector in the first presidential
election of 1789, Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty-
nine. As this was the second largest number he was declared
vice-president, but he began his eight years in that office (1780-
1797) with a sense of grievance and of suspicion of .many of the
leading men. Differences of opinion with regard to the policies
to be pursued by the new government gradually led to the forma-
tion of two well-defined political groups — the Federalists and
the Democratic-Republicans — and Adams became recognized
as one of the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the
former.

In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another
election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jeffer-
son; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had
asked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams arid Thomas
Pinckney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order
that Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded
altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should
in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance
with the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he
was intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket.
Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797-1801) were marked
by a succession of intrigues which embittered all his later life;
they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the
Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federal-
ist party. Moreover, factional strife broke out within the party
itself; Adams and Hamilton became alienated, and members
of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked to Hamilton rather
than to the president as their political chief. The United States
was, at this time, drawn into the vortex of European complica-
tions, and Adams, instead of taking advantage of the militant
spirit which was aroused, patriotically devoted himself to
securing peace with France, much against the wishes of Hamilton
and of Hamilton's adherents in the cabinet. In 1800, Adams
was again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the
distrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the
Alien and Sedition Acts and the popularity of his opponent,
Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat. He then re-
tired into private life. On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth
anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence,
he died at Quincy. Jefferson died on the same day. In 1764
Adams had married Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the
daughter of a Congregational minister at Weymouth, Massa-
chusetts. She was a woman of much ability, and her letters,
written in an excellent English style, are of great value to
students of the period in which she lived. President John
Quincy Adams was their eldest son.

AUTHORITIES.— C. F. Adams, The Works of John Adams, with

Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856) ; John and Abigail Adams, Familiar
Letters during the Revolution (Boston, 1875); J. T. Morse, John
Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 1899), in the " American States-
men Series"; and Mcllen Chamberlain, John Adams, the States-
man of the Revolution; with other Essays and Addresses (Boston,
1898). (E. CH.)

ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1819-1892), British astronomer, was
born at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June
1819. His father, Thomas Adams, was a tenant farmer; his
mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at Bad-
harlick. From the village school at Laneast he went, at the age
of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, the Rev.
John Couch Grylls, kept a private school. His promise as a
mathematician induced his parents to send him to the university
of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered as a sizar at St
John's College. He graduated B.A. in 1843 as the senior wrangler
and first Smith's prizeman of his year. While still an under-
graduate he happened to read of certain unexplained irregularities
in the motion of the planet Uranus, and determined to investi-
gate them as soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether
they might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered
planet. Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once proceeded
to attack the novel problem. It was this: from the observed
perturbations of a known planet to deduce by calculation, assum-
ing only Newton's law of gravitation, the mass and orbit of an
unknown disturbing body. By September 1845 ne obtained his
first solution, and handed to Professor Challis, the director of
the Cambridge Observatory, a paper giving the elements of what
he described as " the new planet."

On the 2ist of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory,
for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer-royal, a
similar document, still preserved among the archives. A fort-
night afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point
in the solution. Adams, who thought the query unessential, did
not reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify
by telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's
investigation. Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the loth of November
1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus,
showing that the existing theory failed to account for its motion.
Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, and on
the ist of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the position, but
not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body whose existence
was presumed. The longitude he assigned differed by only i°
from that predicted by Adams in the document which Airy
possessed. The latter was struck by the coincidence, and men-
tioned it to the Board of Visitors of the Observatory, James
Challis and Sir John Herschel being present. Herschel, at the
ensuing meeting of the British Association early in September,
ventured accordingly to predict that a new planet would shortly
be discovered. Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis
that the planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equa-
torial. The search was begun by a laborious method at the end
of the month. On the 4th and i2th of August, as afterwards
appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to the
want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as planet-
ary. Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, presented
on the 3ist of August 1846 a third memoir, giving for the first
time the mass and orbit of the new body. He communicated
his results by letter to Dr Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, who
at once examined the suggested region of the heavens. On the
23rd of September he detected near the predicted place a small
star unrecorded in the map, and next evening found that it had
a proper motion. No doubt remained that " Leverrier's planet "
had been discovered. On the announcement of the fact, Herschel
and Challis made known that Adams had already calculated
the planet's elements and position. Airy then at length published
an account of the circumstances, and Adams's memoir was
printed as an appendix to the Nautical Almanac. A keen contro-
versy arose in France and England as to the merits of the two
astronomers. In the latter country much surprise was expressed
at the apathy of Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown
Englishman were resented as detracting from the credit due to
Leverrier's achievement. As the indisputable facts became

i78

ADAMS

known, the world recognized that the two astronomers had in-
dependently solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each
equal glory. The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. Arago,
received by general consent the neutral name of Neptune. Its
mathematical prediction was not only an unsurpassed intellectual
feat; it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Airy
had almost called in question, prevailed even to the utmost
bounds of the solar system.

The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen
Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a subsequent
occasion, his modesty led him to decline it. The Royal Society
awarded him its Copley medal in 1848. In the same year the
members of St John's College commemorated his success by
founding in the university an Adams prize, to be given biennially
for the best treatise on a mathematical subject. In 1851 he
became president of the Royal Astronomical Society. His lay
fellowship at St John's College came to an end in 1852, and the
existing statutes did not permit of his re-election. But Pembroke
College, which possessed greater freedom, elected him in the
following year to a lay fellowship, and this he held for the rest
of his life. In 1858 he became professor of mathematics
at St Andrews, but lectured only for a session, when he
vacated the chair for the Lowndean professorship of astronomy
and geometry at Cambridge. Two years later he succeeded
Challis as director of the Observatory, where he resided until
his death.

Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which
attracted widest notice, the work he subsequently performed
in relation to gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism
was not less remarkable. Several of his most striking contribu-
tions to knowledge originated .in the discovery of errors or
fallacies in the work of his great predecessors in astronomy.
Thus in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's
parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied
corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A.
Plana and P. G. D. de Pontecoulant. In the following year his
memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion
partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which had
held its place unchallenged for sixty years. At first, Leverrier,
Plana and other foreign astronomers controverted Adams's
result; but its soundness was ultimately established, and its
fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory has
only developed further with time. For these researches the
Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 1866.
The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention to the
Leonids, whose probable path and period had already been
discussed by Professor H. A. Newton. Using a powerful and
elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of
meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elon-
gated ellipse in 335 years, and is subject to definite perturbations
from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These
results were published in 1867. Ten years later, when Mr. G. W.
Hill of Washington expounded a new and beautiful method for
dealing with the problem of the lunar motions, Adams briefly
announced his own unpublished work in the same field, which,
following a parallel course had confirmed and supplemented
Hill's. In 1874-1876 he was president of the Royal Astronomical
Society for the second time, when it fell to him to present the
gold medal of the year to Leverrier. The determination of the
constants in Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied
him at intervals for over forty years. The calculations involved
great labour, and were not published during his lifetime. They
were edited by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and
appear in the second volume of the collected Scientific Papers.
Numerical computation of this kind might almost be described
as his pastime. The value of the constant known as Euler's,
and the Bernoullian numbers up to the 6and, he worked out to
an unimagined degree of accuracy. For Newton and his writings
he had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed,
bear the cast of Newton's thought. He laboured for many years
at the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection of
Newton's unpublished mathematical writings, presented in 1872

to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the account
of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 1888.
The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he
preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research
in Cambridge. He was British delegate to the International
Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884, when he
also attended the meetings of the British Association at Montreal
and of the American Association at Philadelphia. Five years
later his health gave way, and after a long illness he died at the
Cambridge Observatory on the 2ist of January 1892, and was
buried in St Giles's cemetery, near his home. He married in
1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, of Dublin, who survived him. An inter-
national committee was formed for the purpose of erecting a
monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey; and there,
in May 1895, a portrait medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was
placed near the grave of Newton, and adjoining the memorials
of Darwin and of Joule. His bust, by the same sculptor, stands
opposite that of Sir John Herschel in the hall of St John's College,
Cambridge. Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and
Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St
John's. • Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to the Royal
Astronomical Society. A memorial tablet, with an inscriplion
by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the Cathedral at Truro;
and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public institute in his
honour at Launceston, near his birthplace.

The Scientific Papers of John Couch Adams, 4to, vol. i. (1896), and
vol. ii. (1900), edited by William Grylls Adams and Ralph Allen
Sampson, with a memoir by Dr J. W. L. Glaisher, were published
by the Cambridge University Press. The first volume contains his
previously published writings; the second those left in manuscript,
including the substance of his lectures on the Lunar Theory. A col-
lection, virtually complete, of Adams's papers regarding the dis-
covery of Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of
St John's College. A description of them by Professor Sampson
was inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society
(vol. liv. p. 143). Consult: Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc., liii.
184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 565, xlv. 301; Astr.
Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, p. 168;
Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72.

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848), eldest son of President
John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born on
the nth of July 1767, in tnat part of Braintree that is now
Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy (1689-
1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many years a
prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1778,
and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his father to
Europe; studying in Paris in 1778-1779 and at the university of
Leiden in 1780. In 1780, also, he began to keep that diary
which forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself
and his contemporaries. In 1781, at the age of fourteen, he
accompanied Francis Dana (1743-1811), American envoy to
Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana was not received
by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams joined his father
at Paris, where he acted as " additional secretary " to the
American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace
which concluded the War of American Independence. Instead
of accompanying his father to London, he, of his own choice,
returned to Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard College in
1787, three years later was admitted to practise at the bar and
at once opened an office in Boston. A series of papers written
by him in which he controverted some of Thomas Paine's doc-
trines in the Rights of Man, and later another series in which
he ably supported the neutral policy of the administration
toward France and England, led to his appointment by Wash-
ington as minister to the Netherlands in May 1794. There was
little for him to do at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister
at London, he transacted certain public business with the
English foreign secretary. In 1796 Washington appointed him
minister to Portugal, but before his departure thither his father
John Adams became president and changed his destination to
Berlin (1797). While there, he negotiated (1799) a treaty of
amity and commerce with Prussia. On Thomas Jefferson's
election to the presidency in 1800, the elder Adams recalled his
son, who returned home in 1801. The next year, he was elected

ADAMS

179

to the Massachusetts senate, and in 1803 was sent to Washington
as a member of the Senate of the United States.

Up to this time, John Quincy Adams was regarded as belong-
ing to the Federalist party, but he now found its general policy
displeasing to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his father,
by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found himself
nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular
minority. He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict
party man. On the first important question that came before
him in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with
the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own section.
In December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's suggestion
of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, saying:
" The president has recommended the measure on his high
responsibility. I would not consider, I would not deliberate;
I would act!" Within five hours the Senate had passed the
Embargo Bill and sent it to the House. The support of a measure
so unpopular in New England caused him to be hated by the
Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his suc-
cessor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months before
the usual time of filling the vacancy, and five days later Adams
resigned. In the same year he attended the Republican con-
gressional caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency,
and thus definitely joined the Republicans. From 1806 to 1809
Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard.

In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent
the United States. He arrived at St Petersburg at the psycho-
logical moment when the tsar had made up his mind to break
with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable recep-
tion and a disposition to further the interests of American com-
merce in every possible way. On the outbreak of the war
between the United States and England in 1812, he was still at
St Petersburg. In September of that year, the Russian govern-
ment suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator
between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted
this proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to
act as commissioners with Mr Adams; but England would have
nothing to do with it. In August 1814, however, these gentle-
men, with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations
with English commissioners which resulted in the signature of
the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that year. After
this Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of
Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, with
Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) a " Con-
vention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon after-
wards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his father
had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams,
was after him. After accomplishing little in London, he
returned to the United States in the summer of 1817 to become
secretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe.

As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in two
most important episodes, — the acquisition of Florida and the
promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. Ever since the acquisi-
tion of Louisiana successive administrations had sought to
include a part at least of Florida in that purchase. In 1819,
after long negotiations, Adams succeeded in bringing the Spanish
minister to the point of signing a treaty in which the Spaniards
abandoned all claims to territory east of the Mississippi, and the
United States relinquished all claim to what is now known as
Texas. Before the Spanish government ratified the treaty in
1820, Mexico, including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the
mother country, and the United States had occupied Florida by
force of arms. The Monroe Doctrine (q.v.) rightly bears the name
of the president who in 1823 assumed the responsibility for its
promulgation; but it was primarily the work of John Quincy
Adams. The eight years of Monroe's presidency (1817-1825)
are known as the " Era of Good Feeling." As his second term
drew to a close, there was a great lack of good feeling among his
official advisers, three of whom — Adams, secretary of state,
Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the
treasury — aspired to succeed him in his high office. In addition,
Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun

was nominated for the vice-presidency. Of the other four,
Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41,
and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made
by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its
choice to the three candidates who had received the largest
number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude
toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby
secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams
offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted.
The wholly unjust and baseless charge of " bargain and corrup-
tion " followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and
Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States.

Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly
successful, but his presidency (1825-1829) was in most respects
a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of the Jacksonians;
in 1828 Jackson was elected president over Adams. It was
during his administration that irreconcilable differences devel-
oped between the followers of Adams and the followers of Jack-
son, the former becoming known as the National Republicans,
who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors of the Whigs.
In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the town of Quincy;
but only for a brief period, for in 1830, largely by Anti-Masonic
votes, he was elected a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives. On its being suggested to him that his acceptance
of this position would degrade an ex-president, Adams replied
that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a
representative in congress or, he added, as a selectman of his
town. His service in congress from 1831 until his death is, in
some respects, the most noteworthy part of his career. Through-
out he was conspicuous as an opponent of the extension of slavery,
though he was never technically an abolitionist, and in particular
he was the champion in the House of Representatives of the
right of petition at a time when, through the influence of the
Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that
body. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called " Gag
Laws " is one of the most dramatic contests in the history of
congress. The agitation for the abolition of slavery, which really
began in earnest with the establishment of the Liberator by
William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led to the sending of
innumerable petitions to congress for the abolition of slavery
in the District of Columbia, over which the Federal government
had jurisdiction, and for other action by congress with respect
to that institution. These petitions were generally sent to
Adams for presentation. They aroused the anger of the pro-
slavery members of congress, who, in 1836, brought about the
passage of the first " Gag Rule," the Pinckney Resolution,
presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South Carolina. It pro-
vided that all petitions relating to slavery should be laid on the
table without being referred to committee or printed; and, in
substance, this resolution was re-adopted at the beginning of
each of the immediately succeeding sessions of congress, the
Patton Resolution being adopted in 1837, the Atherton Resolu-
tion, or " Atherton Gag," in 1838, and the Twenty-first Rule in
1840 and subsequently until repealed. Adams contended that
these " Gag Rules " were a direct violation of the First Amend-
ment to the Federal Constitution, and refused to be silenced on
the question, fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in
spite of the bitter denunciation of his opponents. Each year
the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented by
him increased; perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams
presented a petition from twenty-two slaves, and, when threat-
ened by his opponents with censure, defended himself with
remarkable keenness and ability. At each session, also, the
majority against him decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal
the Twenty-first Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his
battle was won. On the 2ist of February 1848, after having
suffered a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on
the floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later
died. Few men in American public life have possessed more
intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit and more
ability than Adams, but throughout his political career he was

i8o

ADAMS

handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity and cool-
ness of manner, and by his consequent inability to appeal to the
imaginations and affections of the people as a whole. He had,
indeed, few intimate political or personal friends, and few men
in American history have, during their lifetime, been regarded
with so much hostility and attacked with so much rancour by
their political opponents.

AUTHORITIES. — 1. T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1883;
new edition, 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John
Quincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John
Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 1795 to 1848
(12 vols., Philadelphia, 1874-1877). (E. CH.)

ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803), American statesman, was
born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1722.
He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams. His father,
whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a wealthy and
prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active part in
the politics of the town, and was a member of the Caucus (or
Caulker's) Club, with which the political term "caucus" is
said to have originated; his mother was Mary Fifield. Young
Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1740, and three years
later, on attaining the degree of A.M., chose for his thesis,
"Whether it be Lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." Which side he
took, and how the argument proceeded, is not known, but the
subject was one which well forecasted his career. He began the
study of law in response to his father's advice; he discontinued
it in response to his mother's disapproval. He repeatedly failed
in business, notably as manager of a malt-house, largely because
of his incessant attention to politics; but in the Boston town-
meeting he became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of
that institution for training in statecraft. He has, indeed, been
called the "Man of the Town Meeting." About 1748 he began
to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and became
a leader in the debates of a political club which he was largely
instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly publication,
the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous articles. From
1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's tax-collectors, but in this
office he was unsuccessful, his easy business methods resulting
in heavy arrears.

Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the begin-
ning of the Stamp Act episode, in 1 764, when as author of Boston's
instructions to its representatives in the general court of Massa-
chusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of
parliament. The next year he was for the first time elected to
the lower house of the general court, in which he served until
1774, after 1766 as clerk. As James Otis's vigour and influence
declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the
revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis and
Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation in
parliament was out of the question and advised against any form
of compromise. Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary docu-
ments, including the famous "Massachusetts Resolves" and the
circular letter to the legislatures of the other colonies, are from
his pen; but owing to the fact that he usually acted as clerk to
the House of Representatives and to the several committees
of which he was a member, documents were written by him
which expressed the ideas of the committee as a whole. There
can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams was one of
the first, if not the first, of American political leaders to deny
the legislative power of parliament and to desire and advocate
separation from the mother country.

To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-im-
portation, instituted the Boston committees of correspondence,
urged that a Continental Congress be called, sought out and
introduced into public service such allies as John Hancock,
Joseph Warren and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of
articles for the newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over
a multitude of signatures. He was, in fact, one of the most
voluminous and influential political writers of his time. His
style is clear, vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are
characterized by strength of logic, and, like those of other
patriots, are, as the dispute advances, based less on precedent

and documentary authorities and more on " natural right."
Although he lacked oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like
his writings, were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways
helped to make him extremely popular with the common people,
in whom he had much greater faith than his cousin John had;
and, above all, he was an eminently successful manager of men.
Shrewd, wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts
of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any
other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War
of Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his
community.

The intense excitement which followed the "Boston Massacre"
Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers from
the town to a fort in the harbour. He it was, also, who managed
the proceedings of the "Boston Tea Party," and later he was
moderator of the convention of Massachusetts towns called to
protest against the Boston Port Bill. One of the objects of the
expedition sent by Governor Thomas Gage to Lexington (q.v.)
and Concord on April 18-19, 1775, was the capture of Adams and
John Hancock, temporarily staying in Lexington, and when
Gage issued his proclamation of pardon on June 1 2 he excepted
these two, whose offences, he said, were "of too flagitious a
Nature to admit of any other Consideration than that of condign
Punishment."

As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 1781,
Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to
the British government; strove for harmony among the several
colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees,
among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and signed
the Declaration of Independence. But he was rather a de-
structive than a constructive statesman, and his most important
service was in organizing the forces of revolution before 1775.
In 1779 he was a member of the convention which framed the
constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 1780, and is
still, with some amendments, the organic law of the commonwealth
and one of the oldest fundamental laws in existence. He was
one of the three members of the sub-committee which actually
drafted that instrument; and although John Adams is generally
credited with having performed the principal part of that task,
Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of the bill of
rights. In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the Massa-
chusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of 'the United
States. When he first read that instrument he was very much
opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but
was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed at
a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or "tradesmen" — his own
firmest supporters — and by the suggestion that its ratification
should be accompanied by a recommendation of amendments
designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of rights. With-
out his aid it is probable that the constitution would not have
been ratified by Massachusetts. From 1789 to 1794 Adams was
lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1794 to 1797 was
governor. After the formation of parties he became allied with
the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the Federalists.
He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston.

AUTHORITIES. — Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 vols.,
Boston, 1865), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson — a valuable
biography, containing a mass of information, but noticeably biassed ;
I, K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), an excellent short
biography in the "American Statesmen Series"; M. C. Tyler's
Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897) ;
and H. A. Gushing (ed.), The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols.,
New York, 1904-1908). (E. CH.)

ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612,
"a preacher of the gospel at Wellington," in Bedfordshire, where
he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth
Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet and other works. In 1614-1615
he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and
published a number of works in quick succession; in 1618 he held
the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and
was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henry Montague, the lord
chief justice of England. These bare facts we gather from
epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages.

ADAMS— ADAMSON

181

These epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms
with some of the 'foremost men in state and church, though his
ardent protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment.
His " occasionally " printed sermons, when collected in 1629,
placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of
England, and had something to do with shaping John
Bunyan. He equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies, and
Thomas Fuller in wit. Robert Southey calls him " the prose
Shakespeare of Puritan theologians." His numerous works dis-
play great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in
their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns.

His works were edited in J. P. Nichol's Puritan Divines, by
J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862).

ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born at
Gillingham, near Chatham, England. When twelve years old
he was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards entering
the British navy, and later serving the company of Barbary
merchants for a number of years as master and pilot. Attracted
by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped as pilot major with
a little fleet of five ships despatched from the Texel in 1598 by a
company of Rotterdam merchants. The vessels, boats ranging
from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the
coast of Guinea, where the adventurers attacked the island of
Annabon for supplies, and finally reached the straits of Magellan.
Scattered by stress of weather the following spring the " Charity,"
with Adams on board, and the " Hope," met at length off the
coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost their lives
in an encounter with the Indians. In fear of the Spaniards, the
remaining crews determined to sail across the Pacific. On this
voyage the " Hope " was lost, but in April 1600 the " Charity,"
with a crew of sick and dying men, was brought to anchor off the
island of Kiushiu, Japan. Adams was summoned to Osaka and
there examined by lyeyasu, the guardian of the young son of
Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just died, His knowledge of ships
and shipbuilding, and his nautical smattering of mathematics,
raised him in the estimation of the shogun, and he was subse-
quently presented with an estate at Hemi near Yokosuka; but
was refused permission to return to England. In 1611 news
came to him of an English settlement in Bantam, and he wrote
asking for help. In 1613 Captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in
the ship " Clove " with the object of establishing a trading factory
for the East India Company, and after obtaining the necessary
concessions from the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home
(permission for which had now been given him) in order to take
a leading part, under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this
new English settlement. He had already married a Japanese
woman, by whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life
was spent in the service of the English trading company, for
whom he undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and
Cochin China in 1617 and 1618. He died on the. i6th of May
1620, some three years before the dissolution of the English
factory. His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory
was preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot
Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour.

See England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary
(1905) ; Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by
N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters reprinted from
Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt
Society, 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Mura-
kami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883); R.
Hildreth's Japan (1855) ; J. Harris's Navigantium atque Ilinerantium
BMiotheca (1764), i. 856; Voyage of John Saris, ed. by Sir E. M.
Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900) ; Asiatic Society of Japan Trans-
actions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four more hitherto
unpublished letters of Adams are' given ; Collection of State Papers;
East Indies, Cltina and Japan. The MS. of his logs writtqfh during
his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire county,
N.W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 23 sq. m. Pop.
(1880) 5591; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were
foreign-born; (1910, census) 13,026. It includes a portion
of the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac
Range on the E., and on the W. to Mt. Williams (3040 ft.), and
^reylock Mountain (3535 ft.), partly in Williamstown, and the

f

highest point in the state. The valley portion is level and con-
tains several settlement centres, the largest of which, a busy
industrial village (manufactures of cotton and paper), bears the
same name as the township, and is on a branch of the Boston
and Albany railroad. The village is the nearest station to Grey-
lock, which can be easily ascended, and affords fine views of the
Hoosac and Housatonic valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the
Green Mountains; the mountain has been a state timber reser-
vation since 1898. The township's principal industry is the manu-
facture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261)
was 84-1% of the value of the township's total factory pro-
ducts; in 1905 no other place in the United States showed so
high a degree of specialization in this industry. The township
(originally "East Hoosuck") was surveyed and defined in 1749.
Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, was de-
stroyed in 1746 by the French. An old Indian trail between the
Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the township, and
was once a leading outlet of the Berkshire country. Adams was
incorporated in 1778, and was named in honour of Samuel Adams,
the revolutionary leader. Part of Adams was included in the
new township of Cheshire in 1793, and North Adams was set off
as a separate township in 1878.

ADAM'S APPLE, the movable projection, more prominent
in males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The name was given from a
legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's' throat.
The "Adam's apple" is one of the particular points of attack
in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu.

ADAM'S BRIDGE, or RAMA'S BRIDGE, a chain of sandbanks
extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of
Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, and
lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. and Palk Strait
on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers a serious
impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry;
and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 ft. at
high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels which
have recently been dredged to a sufficient depth to admit the
passage of vessels, so as to obviate the long journey round the
island of Ceylon which was previously necessary. Geological
evidence shows that this gap was once bridged by a continuous
isthmus which according to the temple records was breached
by a violent storm in 1480. Operations for removing the ob-
stacles in the channel and for deepening and widening it were
begun as long ago as 1838. A service of the British India Steam
Navigation Company's steamers has been established between
Negapatam and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow
passage.

ADAM SCOTUS (fl. 1180), theological writer, sometimes called
Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of
Scotland in the first half of the iath century. About 1150 he
was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some
twenty years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn)
in Galloway. He gained a European reputation for his writings,
which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account of the
Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival sermons, and
a Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, formerly attributed to his
contemporary, Adam of St Victor.

ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537-1592), Scottish divine, arch-
bishop of St Andrews, was born at Perth. He studied philo-
sophy, and took the degree of M.A. at St Andrews. After being
minister of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 1566 he set out for
Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the clerk-
general. In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem on
the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as
serenissimus princeps of France and England. The French court
was offended, and he was confined for six months. He was
released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of Scotland
and some of the principal nobility, and retired with his pupil to
Bourges. .He was in this city at the time of the massacre of St
Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed for seven months in
a public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his
charity to a heretic, was thrown from the roof. While in this*

182

ADAMSON— ADANA

" Sepulchre," he wrote his Latin poetical version of the book
of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same language. In 1572
or 1573 he returned to Scotland, and became minister of Paisley.
In 1575 he was appointed by the General Assembly one of the
commissioners to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church;
and the following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to
report their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent. In
1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise
to a protracted conflict with the Presbyterian party in the
Assembly. He had previously published a catechism in Latin
verse dedicated to the-king, a work highly approved even by his
opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish Confession
of Faith. In 1 578 he submitted himself to the General Assembly,
which procured him peace for a little time, but next year fresh
accusations were brought against him. He took refuge in St
Andrews Castle, where " a wise woman," Alison Pearson, who
was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him of a serious
illness. In 1 583 he went as James's ambassador to the court of
Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather badly. On his
return he took strong parliamentary measures against Presby-
terians, and consequently, at a provincial synod held at St
Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of heresy and excom-
municated, but at the next General Assembly the sentence was
remitted as illegal. In 1587 and 1588, however, fresh accusa-
tions were brought against him, and he was again excommuni-
cated, though afterwards on the inducement of his old opponent,
Andrew Melville, the sentence was again remitted. Meanwhile
he had published the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the book
of Revelation in Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king,
complaining of his hard usage. But James was unmoved by
his application, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of
Lennox. For the rest of his life Adamson was supported by
charity; he died in 1592. His recantation of Episcopacy (ispo)
is probably spurious. Adamson was a man of many gifts,
learned and eloquent, but with grave defects of character. His
collected works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course
of which it is said that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather
seemed to be the immediate production of God Almighty than
born of a woman," were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas
Wilson, in 1619.

ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1902), Scottish philosopher, was
born in Edinburgh on the igih of January 1852. His father
was a solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew
Buist, factor to Lord Haddington. In 1855 Mrs Adamson was
left a widow with small means, and devoted herself entirely to
the education of her six children. Of these, Robert was successful
from the first. At the end of his school career he entered the
university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four years
later graduated with first-class honours in mental philosophy,
with prizes in every department of the faculty of Arts. He
completed his university successes by winning the Tyndall-
Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), the Ferguson
scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship (1873). After a short
residence at Heidelberg (1871), where he began his study of
German philosophy, he returned to Edinburgh as assistant first
to Henry Calderwood and later to A. Campbell Fraser; he
joined the staff of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (gth ed.) (1874)
and studied widely in the Advocates' Library. In 1876 he came
to England as successor to W. S. Jevons in the chair of logic and
philosophy, at Owens College, Manchester. In 1883 he received
the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1893 he went to Aberdeen,
and finally in 1895 to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he
held till his death on the sth of February 1902. His wife,
Margaret Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was
a woman of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy.

It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active
labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic pro-
duction. His writings consisted of short articles, of which many
appeared in the Encyclopaedia Brilannica (gth ed.) and in Mind,
a volume on Kant and another on Fichte. At the time of his
death he was writing a History of Psychology, and had promised
a work on Kant and the Modern Naturalists. Both in his life

and in his writings he was remarkable for impartiality. It was
his peculiar virtue that he could quote his opponents without
warping their meaning. From this point of view he would have
been perhaps the first historian of philosophy of his time, had his
professional labours been less exacting. Except during the first
few years at Manchester, he delivered his lectures without manu-
scripts. In 1903, under the title The Development of Modern
Philosophy and Other Essays, his more important lectures were
published with a short biographical introduction by Prof. W. R.
Sorley of Cambridge University (see Mind, xiii. 1904, p. 73 foil.).
Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the note-book of
one of his students. Under the same editorship there appeared,
three years later, his Development of Greek Philosophy. In
addition to his professional work, he did much administrative
work for Victoria University and the university of Glasgow. In
the organization of Victoria University he took a foremost part,
and, as chairman of the Board of Studies at Owens College,
he presided over the general academical board of the Victoria
University. At Glasgow he was soon elected one of the repre-
sentatives on the court, and to him were due in large measure
the extension of the academical session and the improved
equipment of the university.

Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical and his-
torical method without formulating a constructive theory of his own.
He felt that any philosophical advance must be based on the Kantian
methods. It was his habit to make straight for the ultimate issue,
disregarding half-truths and declining compromise. He left a hypo-
thesis to be worked out by others; this done, he would criticize with
all the rigour of logic, and with a profound distrust of imagina-
tion, metaphor and the attitude known as the will-to-believe. As
he grew older his metaphysical optimism waned. He felt that the
increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical science.
But this empirical tendency as regards science never modified his
metaphysical outlook. He has been called Kan tian a nd Neo-Kantian ,
Realist and Idealist (by himself, for he held that appearance and
reality are co-extensive and coincident). At the same time, in his
criticism of other views he was almost typical of Hegelian idealism.
All processes of reasoning or judgment (i.e. all units of thought) are
(l) analysable only by abstraction, and (2) are compound of deduc-
tion and induction, i.e. rational and empirical. An illustration of
his empirical tendency is found in his attitude to the Absolute and
the Self. The " Absolute " doctrines he regarded as a mere disguise
of failure, a dishonest attempt to clothe ignorance in the pretentious
garb of mystery. The Self as a primary, determiningentity, he would
not therefore admit. He represented an empiricism which, so far
from refuting, was -actually based on, idealism, and yet was alert to
expose the fallacies of a particular idealist construction (see his
essay in Ethical Democracy, edited by Dr Stanton Coit).

ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from
Colombo, in N. lat. 6° 55', E. long. 80° 30'. It rises steeply to
a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect.
Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 74 ft. by
24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human
foot, 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; and this has been consecrated
as the footprint of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint,
is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it
from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the Sinhalese,
and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred spot, where a
priest resides to receive their offerings and bless them on their
departure. By the Mahommedans the impression is regarded
as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according to their tradition,
fulfilled a penance of one thousand years; while the Hindus
claim it as that of their god Siva.

ADANA. (i) A vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which '
includes the ancient Cilicia. The mountain districts are rich in
unexploited mineral wealth, and the fertile coast-plain, which
produces cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, and affords
abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers that descend
from the Taurus range. Imports and exports pass through
Mersina (q.ii.). (2) The chief town of the vilayet, situated in the
alluvial plain about 30 m. from the sea in N. lat. 37° r', E. long.
35° 18', on the right bank of the Seihan (Sihun, ant. Sarus),
which is navigable by small craft as far as the town. Adana is
connected with Tersus and Mersina by a railway built in 1887,
and has a magnificent stone bridge, which carries the road to
Missis and the east, and dates in parts from the time of Justiniaji,
but was restored first in 743 A.D. and called Jisr al-Walid after

ADANSON— ADDAX

the Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 by the
Caliph Mutasim. There are, also, a ruined castle founded by
Harun al-Rashid in 782, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side
quays, cotton mills and an American mission with church and
schools. Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to import-
ance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, and
was at one time a rival of Tarsus. The town was largely rebuilt
by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries it often
changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes. Its position,
commanding the passage of the mountains to the north of Syria,
rendered it important as a military station in the contest between
the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the
Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim Pasha,
and though the firman announcing his appointment named him
only muhassil, or collector of the crown revenue, it continued to
be held by the Egyptians till the treaty of July 1840 restored
it to the Porte. The chief productions of the province are
cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely exported. The
population of the town is greatly mixed, and, having a large
element of nomads in it, varies much from time to time. At its
maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.)

ADANSON, MICHEL (1727-1806), French naturalist, of
Scottish descent, was born on the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in
Provence. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in Paris, he
was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard
de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. At the end of
1748 he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, which
from the unhealthiness of its climate was a terra incognita to
naturalists. His ardour remained unabated during the five years
of his residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater
or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; col-
lected specimens of every object of commerce; delineated maps
of the country; made systematic meteorological and astrono-
mical observations; and prepared grammars and dictionaries
of the languages spoken on the banks of the Senegal. After his
return to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the
materials he had collected in his Histoire naturelle du Senegal
(Paris, 1757). This work has a special interest from the essay
op shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his
universal method, a system of classification distinct from those
of Buffon and Linnaeus. He founded his classification of all
organized beings on the consideration of each individual organ.
As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a
corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings
possessing the greatest number of similar organs were referred
to one great division, and the relationship was considered more
remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. In 1763 he
published his Families naturelles des plantes. In this work he
developed the principle of arrangement above mentioned, which,
in its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on the
system of J. P. Tournefort, and had been anticipated to some
extent nearly a century before by John Ray. The success of
this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms,
which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular sexual
system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the way for the
establishment, by means principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera
Planlarum (1789), of the natural method of the classification of
plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the
Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all known
beings and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of
manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations of all
these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more,
occupied with the alphabetical . arrangement of 40,000 species;
a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations;
and a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000
specimens of the three kingdoms of nature. The committee to
which the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly
recommended Adanson to separate and publish all that was
peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation.
He obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at
which he continued to labour, was never published. He had been
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1750, and he

latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on him.
Of this he was deprived in the dissolution of the Academy by
the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced to such
a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before the French
Institute when it invited him to take his place among its mem-
bers. Afterwards he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve
his simple wants. He died at Paris after months of severe
suffering, on the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only'
decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the
fifty-eight families he had differentiated — " a touching though
transitory image," says Cuvier, " of the more durable monument
which he has erected to himself in his works." Besides the books
already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the
baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin of
the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees.

ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to), a process of
fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering its
form or original purpose. In literature there may be, e.g., an
adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an arrangement
of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c. In biology, ac-
cording to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation plays a prominent
part as the process by which an organism or species of organisms
becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change
in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life
consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external
relations. Every living organism reacts to its environment;
if the reaction is unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate
extinction is the result. If the reaction is favourable, its result
is called an adaptation. How far such adaptations are produced
afresh in each generation, whether or no their effects are trans-
mitted to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what
extent adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have
come about by selection of individuals capable, in each genera-
tion, of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of
individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how
far, possibly by the inheritance of the responses to the environ-
ment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved.

ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of North Italy. Its true source
is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele glen, but its
volume is increased by the union with several smaller streams,
near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian Alps. Thence it flows
first S.W., then due W., through the fertile Valtellina (q.v.),
passing Tirano, where the Poschiavino falls in on the right, and
Sondrio, where is the junction with the Malero, right. It falls
into the Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that
lake. On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it crosses
the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course of about
150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona. The lower course of
the Adda was formerly the boundary between the territories of
Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several important battles
have been fought, notably that of Lodi, where Napoleon defeated
the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.)

ADDAMS, JANE (1860- ), American sociologist, was born
at Cedarville, Illinois, on the 6th of September 1860. After
graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now Rock-
ford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the study of
economic and sociological questions in both Europe and America,
and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established in Chicago,
Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull House, of which she
became the head-worker. The success of this settlement, which
became a great factor for good in the city, was principally due to
Miss Addams's rare executive skill and practical common-sense
methods. Her personal participation in the life of the community
is exemplified in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets
and alleys under the municipal government. She became widely
known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published
Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace
(1907), and The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909).

ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. nasomacu-
latus) from North Africa and Arabia. It is a little over 3 ft.
high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane and a
fringe of the same hue on the throat. Both sexes carry horns,

1 84

ADDER— ADDISON

which are ringed and form an open spiral. The addax is a desert
antelope, and in habits probably resembles the gemsbuck. It is
hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test the speed of their
horses and greyhounds; it is during these hunting parties that
the young are captured for menagerie purposes.

ADDER, a name for the common viper ( Viper a cevus), ranging
from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness to the north
of Spain. The puff-adder (Bitis s. Echidna arietans) of nearly
the whole of Africa, and the death-adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very poisonous (see
VIPER). The word was in Old Eng. natdre, later nadder or
naddre; in the i4th century " a nadder " was, like" a napron,"
wrongly divided into " an adder." It appears with the generic
meaning of " serpent " in the older forms of many Teutonic
languages, cf. Old High Ger. natra; Goth, nadrs. It is
thus used in the Old Eng. version of the Scriptures for the
devil, the " serpent " of Genesis.

ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1710), English essayist, poet and
man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of
Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire,
on the ist of May 1672. After having passed through several
schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he went to
Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first
entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two years was
elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having been recom-
mended by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's
degree in 1693, and subsequently obtained a fellowship which
he held until 1711. His first literary efforts were poetical, and,
after the fashion of his day, in Latin. Many of these are pre-
served in the Musae Anglicanae (1691-1699), and obtained aca-
demic commendation from academic sources. But it was a poem
in the third volume of Dryden's Miscellanies, followed in the
next series by a translation of the fourth Georgic, which brought
about his introduction to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably
through Tonson) to Lord Somers and Charles Montagu. To both
of these distinguished persons he contrived to commend himself
by An Account of the Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to
King William (1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled
Pax Gulielmi (1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result
that in 1699 he obtained a pension of £300 a year, to enable
him (as he afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown)
" to travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty." In the
summer of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the
purpose of learning the language, he remained till the end of
1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland,
on his way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was
to attend the army under Prince Eugene, then engaged in the
war in Italy, as secretary from the king. But his Whig friends
were already tottering in their places; and in March 1702 the
death of King William at once drove them from power and put
an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never
received but one year's payment of it, and that all the other
expenses of his travels were defrayed by himself. He was able,
however, to visit a great part of -Germany, and did not reach
Holland till the spring of 1703. His prospects were now suffi-
ciently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an
engagement as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in
one of these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom-
mended him as the best person to attend in this character Lord
Hertford, the son of the duke of Somerset, commonly called
" The Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp,
was economical in questions of education. He wished Addison
to name the salary he expected; this being declined, he an-
nounced, with great dignity, that in addition to travelling
expenses he would give a hundred guineas a year; Addison
accepted the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could
not find his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's
future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated that
he would look out for some one else. In the autumn of 1703
Addison returned to England.

The works which belong to his residence on the continent
were the earliest that showed him to have attained maturity

of skill and genius. There is good reason for believing that
his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have
suffered, was in great part written while he lived in France, that
is, when lie was about twenty-eight years of age. In the winter
of 1701, amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across
Mt. Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter
from Italy to Charles Montagu. This contains some fine touches
of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical
enthusiasm. While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues nn
Medals, which, however, were not published till after his death.
These have much liveliness of style and something of the gay
humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning
or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between passages
cf the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear in ancient
sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of inquiry which
was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, with the appa-
ratus of spirited metrical translations from the classics, gave the
work a likeness to his account of his travels. This account,
entitled Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, &c. (1705), he sent
home for publication before his own return. It wants altogether
the interest of personal narrative: the author hardly ever
appears. The task in which he chiefly busies himself is that of
exhibiting the illustrations which the writings of the Latin poets,
and the antiquities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and re-
ceive. Christian antiquities and the monuments of later Italian
history had no interest for him.

With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life,
which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was thirty-
eight. This was the first term of his official career; and though
very barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from
indigence, but settled definitely his position as a public man.
His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, he had
been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists and
men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled in the
Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into communica-
tion with the gentry of the Whig party. Although all accounts
agree in representing him as a shy man, he was at least saved
from all risk of making himself disagreeable in society, by his
unassuming manners, his extreme caution and that sedulous
desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a
positive fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so
highly as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of
his usefulness in public business; and the literary fame he had
already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommending
him to public employment. Though the Whigs were out of
office, the administration which succeeded them was, in all its
earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncertain that
the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost. Not long
after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, it is said that
Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord Halifax a
desire to have the great duke's fame extended by a poetical
tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recommending
AddisoVi as the fittest man for the duty; stipulating, we are told,
that tne service should not be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfy-
ing the minister that his protege possessed other qualifications
for office besides dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Cam-
paign (December 1704), the poem thus written to order, was
received with extraordinary applause; and it is probably as
good as any that ever was prompted by no more worthy in-
spiration. It has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Dryden
threw into occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish
that would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make
such uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing;
and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several
others, there is even something of force and imagination.

The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was
faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of another
celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one
of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise. The duties of the
place must have been as light for him as they had been for his
predecessor, for he continued to hold it with all the appointments

ADDISON

185

he subsequently received from the same ministry. But there
is no reason for believing that he was more careless than other
public servants in his time; and the charge of incompetency
as a man of business, which has been brought so positively
against him, cannot easily be true as to this first period of his
official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively
to the last years of his. life; and, if he had not really shown
practical ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to
see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or fashion-
able liveliness and of family interest, could have been promoted,
for several years, from office to office, as he was, till the fall of
the administration to which he was attached. In 1 706 he became
one of the under-secretaries of state, serving first under Sir
Charles Hedges, who belonged to the Tory section of the govern-
ment, and afterwards under Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's
son-in-law, and a zealous follower of Addison's early patron,
Soraers. The work of this office, however, like that of the
commissionership, must often have admitted of performance
by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs having become stronger,
Lord Halifax was sent on a mission to the elector of Hanover ;
and, besides taking Vanbrugh the dramatist with him as king-
at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 Addison
entered parliament, sitting at first for -Lostwithiel, but after-
wards for Malmesbury, which he represented from 1710 till his
death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he may
have taken in the details of business we are not informed; but
he was always a silent member, unless it be true that he once
attempted to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1708 Lord
Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, having been named
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison became his secretary, re-
ceiving also an appointment as keeper of records. This event
happened only about a year and a half before the dismissal of
the ministry.

But there are letters showing that Addison made himself
acceptable to some of the best and most distinguished persons
in Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with
Swift, his acquaintance with whom had begun some time before.

In his literary history those years of official service are almost
a blank, till we approach their close. Besides furnishing a pro-
logue to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband (1705), he
admittedly gave him some assistance in its composition; he
defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The
Present State of the War (1707); he united compliments to the
all-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical
poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and during the last few
months of his tenure of office he contributed largely to the Taller.
His entrance on this new field nearly coincides with the beginning
of a new period in his life. Even the coalition-ministry of
Godolphin was too Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and
the Tories, the favourites of the court, gained, both in parlia-
mentary power and in popularity out of doors, by a combination
of lucky accidents, dexterous management and divisions and
double-dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the
prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the
ruin of the Whigs; and in August 1710 an entire revolution in
the ministry had been completed. The Tory administration
which succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 1714,
and Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years of his
life, from his thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, to occupations
less lucrative than those in which his time had recently been
frittered away, but much more conducive to the extension of
his own fame and to the benefit of English literature. Although
our information as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we
are entitled to believe that he was now independent of literary
labour. He speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost)
property in the West Indies; and he is understood to have
inherited something from a younger brother, who had been
governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for £10,000, the
estate of Bilton, near Rugby — the place which afterwards be-
came the residence of Mr Apperley, better known by his assumed
name of " Nimrod."

During those four years he produced a few political writings.

Soon after the fall of the ministry, he started the Whig Examiner
in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then conducted by Prior,
and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invectives
against the party he had once belonged to. These are certainly
the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but they are neither
lively nor vigorous, and the paper died after five numbers (i4th
September to i2th October 1710). There is more spirit in his
allegorical pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff.

But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his principal
employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical
essays. The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions,
as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, belongs
to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of Addison at the
Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate terms with him after-
wards and attached himself with his characteristic ardour to
the same political party. When, in April 1709, Steele published
the first number of the Taller, Addison was in Dublin, and knew
nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his friend's
authorship only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical
remark which he remembered having himself communicated to
Steele. Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and sugges-
tions, assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly. Accord-
ing to Mr Aitken (Life of Sleele, i. 248), he contributed 42 out
of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 more.
The Taller exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms of being
an experiment. For some time the projector, imitating the news-
sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in each number, news
in addition to the essay; and there was a want, both of unity
and of correct finishing, in the putting together of the literary
materials. Addison's contributions, in particular, are in many
places as lively as anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its
more familiar moods at least, had been fully formed before he
returned from the continent. But, as compared with his later
pieces, these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches
are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of them.
In his invention of incidents and characters, one thought after
another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as if he were putting
his own powers to the test or trying the effect of various kinds of
objects on his readers; his most ambitious flights, in the shape of
allegories and the like, are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite
field of literary criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he
still wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public.

The Taller was dropped in January 1711, but only to be
followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the ist day of
March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December
1712. It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected
in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 to
Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from the
very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole space
to the essays. They relied, with a confidence which the extra-
ordinary popularity of the work fully justified, on their power of
exciting the interest of a wide audience by pictures and reflexions
drawn from a field which embraced the whole compass of ordi-
nary life and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes
being positively excluded except such as were political, and all
literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed possible
to command attention from persons of average taste and infor-
mation. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and
curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors,
by the happy invention of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele
made the first sketch. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, how-
ever, the best even in the opening group, is the only one that was
afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of
most of the papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so
admirably delineated. Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir
Roger's love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting
party.

To Addison the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant,
if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human
character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires
on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in
public taste; these topics, however, making up a department

i86

ADDISON

in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more famous co-
adjutor. But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical
acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching the series with
such literary disquisitions as those which Addison insinuated so
often into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave
an elaborate specimen in his criticism on Paradise Lost. Still
farther beyond the powers of Steele were those speculations on
the theory of literature and of the processes of thought analogous
to it, which, in the essays " On the Pleasures of the Imagination,"
Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical
depth, but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall
undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy
was to be found in any critical views previously propounded in
England. To Addison, further, belong those essays which (most
frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of
Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious meditation,
and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful as to allure
the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as in the " Walk
through Westminster Abbey," enlivening solemn thought by
gentle sportiveness; sometimes flowing on with an uninterrupted
sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes shrouding
sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as in the " Vision
of Mirza." While, in short, the Spectator, if Addison had not
taken part in it, would probably have been as lively and humor-
ous as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of posterity,
by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less abundant in
literary knowledge and much less vigorous and expanded in
thinking. In point of style, again, the two friends resemble each
other so closely as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are
dealing with familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising
above that of conversation. But in the higher tones of thought
and composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising
him very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his con-
temporaries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any
age of English literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the
colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an accom-
plished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of
expression nobly and eloquently dignified.

On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the Guar-
dian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end in October,
with its 1 7 5th number. To this series Addison gave 53 papers,
being a very frequent writer during the latter half of its progress.
None of his essays here aim so high as the best of those in the
Spectator; but he often exhibits both his cheerful and well-
balanced humour and his earnest desire to inculcate sound
principles of literary judgment. In the last six months of the
year 1714, the Spectator received its eighth and last volume;
for which Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison
to have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, in
the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of their manner,
a contrast to the majority of his essays in the earlier volumes;
but several of them, both in this vein and in one less lofty, are
among the best known, if not the finest, of all his essays. Such
are the " Mountain of Miseries " ; the antediluvian novel of
" Shalum and Hilpa"; the " Reflections by Moonlight on the
Divine Perfections."

In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly,
as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of Cato.
Its success was dazzling; but this issue was mainly owing to the
concern which the politicians took in the exhibition. The Whigs
hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of constitutional free-
dom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show themselves
enemies of despotism, and professed to find in Julius Caesar a
parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even with such ex-
trinsic aids, and the advantage derived from the established
fame of the author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good
dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and
insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its poetical
elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of its
moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable smooth-
ness of its diction. That it obtained the applause of Voltaire

must be ascribed to the fact that it was written in accordance
with the rules of French classical drama.

The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed
soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August
1714, when he had lately completed his 42nd year. His own
life extended only five years longer; and in this closing portion
of it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but
a few happy inventions interspersed in political pamphlets,
and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of
George I.

The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the
elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's
demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They
appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held, for
a very short time, his former office under the Irish lord-lieu-
tenant; and, late in 1716. he was made one of the lords of trade.
In the course of the previous year had occurred the first of the
only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent, good-
tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been betrayed.
His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a few years
before, had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness,
Addison 's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism (Spectator,
No. 253); but who, though still very young, was already very
famous, and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies
and his personal and party hatreds. Several little misunder-
standings had paved the way for a breach, when, at the same
time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there appeared a
translation of the first book of the poem bearing the name of
Thomas Tickell. Tickell, in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry
with Pope, and declared that he wished only to bespeak favour-
able attention for his contemplated version of the Odyssey. But
the simultaneous publication was awkward; and Tickell, though
not so good a versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being
a good Greek scholar. Further, he was Addison's under-secre-
tary and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he
was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's trans-
lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger could
not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which he de-
scribes Addison under the name of Atticus; and although it
seems doubtful whether he really sent a copy to Addison himself,
he afterwards went so far as to profess a belief that the rival
translation was really Addison's own. Addison, it is pleasant
to observe, was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty
approbation of the Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after
Addison's death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant
verses in the" Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot." In 1716 there was acted,
with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or the
Haunted House. It contributes very little to his fame. From
September 1715 to June 1716 he defended the Hanoverian
succession, and the proceedings of the government in regard
to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, which he
wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th number. It is
much better tempered, not less spirited and much more able in
thinking than his Examiner. The finical man of taste does
indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of discussing con-
stitutional questions; but be aims many enlivening thrusts at
weak points of social life and manners; and the character of
the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative
of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force that
we regret not being allowed to see more of him.

In August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year, Addison
married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of
fifteen years' standing. She seems to have forfeited her jointure
by the marriage, and to have brought her husband nothing but
the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington. The assertion
that the courtship was a long one is probably as erroneous as
the contemporary rumour that the marriage was. unhappy.
Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the contrary.
What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes, — among which
it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was one, — Addison's
health was shattered before he took the last, and certainly the
most unwise, step in his ascent to political power.

ADDISON'S DISEASE

187

a,
hir

I

For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the ministry;
and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when those who had
been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the opposition.
Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated dismissal
by resignation. There was now formed, under the leadership
f General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an administration
ich, as resting on court-influence, was nicknamed the "German
nistry." Sunderland, Addison's former superior, became one
the two principal secretaries of state; and Addison him-
f was appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post
,d been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre-
inted, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on
e authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only
the influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there
•obably is not, for the allegation of Addison's inefficiency in
details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such
ircumstances was undeniable and glaring. It was impossible
that a government, whose secretary of state could not open
his lips in debate, should long face an opposition headed by
Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison's health, too, was going
on rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by
anxiety, if no worse causes were at work. Ill-health was the
reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which
he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months after his
ipointment. He received a pension of £1500 a year.
Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated
im from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, introduced in
February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, in a
weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by Steele. Addison
answered the attack in the Old Whig, and this bellum plusquam
civile — as Johnson calls it — was continued, with increased
.crimony, through two or three numbers. How Addison, who
s dying, felt after this painful controversy we are not told
rectly; but the Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous
collection of his works (1721-1726) for which his executor Tickell
had received from him authority and directions. It is said that
the quarrel in politics rested on an estrangement which had been
growing for some years. According to a rather nebulous story,
for which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's
lawyer, put an execution for £100 in Steele's house by way of
reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance. This well-meant
interference seems to have been pardoned by Steele, but his
letters show that he resented the favour shown to Tickell by
Addison and his own neglect by the Whigs.

The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have
been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement from
office, and was now accompanied by dropsy. His deathbed was
placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes
which he had so often suggested to others, and the value of
which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to have
now inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son. He died
at Holland House on the i7th of June 1719, six weeks after
having completed his 47th year. His body, after lying in state,
was interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.

Addison's life was written in 1843 by LucyAikin. This was reviewed
by Macaulay in July of the same year. A more modern study is that
m the " Men of Letters " series by W. J. Courthope (1884). There
is a convenient one- volume edition of the Spectator, by Henry Morley
(Routledge, 1868), and another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory
Smith. Of the Taller there is an edition by G. A. Aitkeri in 8 vols.
(1898). A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon Kurd)
is included in Bohn's British Classics. (W. S. ; A. D.)

ADDISON'S DISEASE, a constitutional affection manifesting
itself in an exaggeration of the normal pigment of the skin,
asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and weakness
and irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms being
due to loss of function of the suprarenal glands. It is important
to note, however, that Addison's Disease may occur without
pigmentation, and pigmentation without Addison's Disease.
The condition was first recognized by Dr Thomas Addison of
Guy's Hospital, who in 1855 published an important work on
The Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of the Suprarenal
Capsules. Sir Samuel Wilks worked zealously in obtaining re-

cognition for these observations in England, and Brown-Sequard
in France was stimulated by this paper to investigate the
physiology of these glands. Dr Trousseau, many years later,
first called the condition by Addison's name. Dr Headlam
Greenhow worked at the subject for many years and embodied
his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 1875. But from
this time on no further work was undertaken until the discovery
of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid extract, and the
consequent researches into the physiology of the ductless glands.
This stimulated renewed interest in the subject, and work was
carried on in many countries. But it remained for Schafer and
Oliver of University College, London, to demonstrate the in-
ternal secretion of the suprarenals, and its importance in normal
metabolism, thereby confirming Addison's original view that
the disease was due to loss of function of these glands. They
demonstrated that these glands contain a very powerful extract
which produces toxic effects when administered to animals, and
that an active principle " adrenalin " can be separated, which
excites contraction of the small blood vessels and thus raises
blood pressure. The latest views of this disease thus stand: (i)
that it is entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the
result of a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else
of a perversion of their secretion; or (2) that it is of nervous
origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large
sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a
combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation.
The morbid anatomy shows (i) that in over 80% of the
cases the changes in the suprarenals are those due to tuber-
culosis, usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more
or less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually
secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of the
spinal column. In the remaining cases (2) simple atrophy has
been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation which would
lead to atrophy: and finally (4) an apparently normal condition
of the glands, but the neighbouring sympathetic ganglia diseased
or involved in a mass of fibrous tissue. Other morbid conditions
of the suprarenals do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's
Disease.

The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but
increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the
patient. There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart
resulting in attacks of syncope which may prove fatal. Blood
pressure is extremely low. From time to time there may be
severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea. The best
known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease
has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing pig-
mentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to brown
or even occasionally black. This pigmentation shows itself (i)
over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever pigment
appears normally, as in the axillae and round the nipples; (3)
wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; and (4) occa-
sionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth.

The patient's temperature is usually somewhat subnormal.
The disease is found in males far more commonly than in females,
and among the lower classes more than the upper. But this
latter fact is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic
conditions rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to
tuberculosis.

The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, and
often in the later, is by no means easy. Pigmentation of the skin
occurs in many conditions — as in normal pregnancy, uterine
fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart disease,
exophthalmic goitre, &c., and after the prolonged use of certain
drugs — as arsenic and silver. But the presence of a low blood
pressure with weakness and irritability of the heart and some
of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis fairly certain.
The latest researches on the subject tend to indicate a more
certain diagnosis in the effect on the blood pressure of adminis-
tering suprarenal extract, the blood pressure of the normal
subject being unaffected thereby, that of the man suffering from
suprarenal inadequacy being markedly raised. The disease is
treated by promoting the general health in every possible way ;

ADDRESS— ADELAIDE

by diet; by tonics, especially arsenic and strychnine; by atten-
tion to the hygienic conditions; and always by the adminis-
tration of one of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland
extract.

"ADDRESS, THE," an English parliamentary term for the
reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the House
of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the opening
of a new parliament or session. There are certain formalities
which distinguish this stage of parliamentary proceedings. The
" king's speech " itself is divided into three sections: the first,
addressed to " My Lords and Gentlemen," touches on foreign
affairs; the second, to the " Gentlemen of the House of Com-
mons," has reference to the estimates; the third, to " My
Lords and Gentlemen," outlines the proposed legislation for
the session. Should the sovereign in person open parliament,
he does so in the House of Lords in full state, and the speaker
and members of the House of Commons are summoned there
into the royal presence. The sovereign then reads his speech.
If the sovereign is not present in person, the speech is read by
commission. The Commons then return to their House, and an
address in answer is moved in both Houses. The government
of the day selects two of its supporters in each House to move
and second the address, and when carrying out this honourable
task they appear in levee dress. Previous to the session of 1890-
1891, the royal speech was answered paragraph by paragraph, but
" the address " is now moved in the form of a single resolution,
thanking the sovereign for his most gracious speech. The debate
on the address is used as a means of ranging over the whole
government policy, amendments being introduced by the opposi-
tion. A defeat on an amendment to the address is generally
regarded by the government as a vote of no-confidence. After
the address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the
sovereign. The thanks of the sovereign for the address are then
conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household and
to the Commons by the comptroller of the household.

ADELAER, or ADELER (Norwegian for " eagle "), the surname
of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivertsen (1622-
1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander. He
was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen
became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a
few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which
was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he
had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various
victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most
brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the I3th of May 1654.
when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line of
Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, causing
a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. The following day he entered
Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the Turks.
On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, and became
admiral-lieutenant in 1660. Numerous tempting offers were
made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice
to return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by
the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the
command of the Danish fleet from Frederick III. Under
Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish
fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of November
1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When in the
Venetian service, Adelaer was known by the name of Curzio
Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for " naval cadet ").

ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999), queen of Italy and
empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy and of
Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia. On the death of
Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to whose
son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed. She was
married to him in 947; but after an unhappy union of three
years Lothair died (November 22, 950). The young widow, re-
markable for her character and beauty, was seized by Lothair's
successor, Berengar II., margrave of Ivrea, who, angered probably
at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert and thus secure his title
to the Italian kingdom, kept her in close confinement at Como.
After four months (August 951), she escaped, and took refuge at

Canossa with Atto, count of Modena-Reggio (d. 981). Mean-
while Otto I., the German king, whose English wife Edgitha
had died in 946, had formed the design of marrying her and
claiming the Italian kingdom in her right, as a step towards the
revival of the empire of Charlemagne. In September 951,
accordingly, he appeared in Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted
his invitation to meet him at Pavia and at the close of the
year the fateful union was celebrated. From the first her part
in German affairs was important. To her are ascribed the in-
fluences which led in 953 to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by
his first marriage, the crushing of which in the following year
established Adelaide's power. On the 2nd of February 962 she
was crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately
after her husband, and she accompanied Otto in 966 on his third
expedition to Italy, where she remained with him for six years.
After Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some
years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor,
Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are ob-
scure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish expenditure
in charity and church building, which endeared her to ecclesiastics
but was a serious drain on the imperial finances. In 978 she left
the court and lived partly in Italy, partly with her brother
Conrad, king of Burgundy, by whose mediation she was ulti-
mately reconciled to her son. In 983, shortly before his death,
she was appointed his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in
concert with the empress Theophano, widow of Otto II., and
Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant
grandson, Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions
of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In June 984 the
infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two
empresses; but the masterful will of Theophano soon obtained
the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, on the
1 5th of June 991, Adelaide had no voice in German affairs. She
now assumed the regency, in concert with £ishop Willigis and a
council of princes of the Empire, and held it until in 995 Otto
was declared of age. In 996 the young king went to Italy to
receive the imperial crown; and from this date Adelaide ceased
to concern herself with worldly affairs, but devoted herself to
pious exercises, to intimate correspondence with the abbots
Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, and the foundation of churches
and religious houses. She died on the 1 7th of December 999, and
was buried in the convent of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite
foundation, at Salz in Alsace. She was proclaimed a saint by
the grateful German clergy; but her name has never found a
place in the Roman calendar. Like her daughter-in-law Theo-
phano and other exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed
considerable literary attainments (liter atissima craf), and her
knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I., who only learned the
language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar.

By the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II.
(d. 983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 999), Adelheid
(Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who married
Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 955.

Adelaide's life (Vita or Epiiaphium Adalheidae imperatricis) was
written by St Odilo of Cluny. It is valuable only for the latter
years of the empress, after she had retired from any active share in
the world's affairs. The rest of her life is merely outlined, though
her adventures in escaping from Berengar are treated in more detail.
The best edition is in Duchesne, Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, pp. 353-
362. See Giov. Batt. Semeria, Vita politico-religiosa di s. Adeleida,
&c. (Turin, 1842); Jul. Bentzingcr, Das Leben der Kaiserin Adelheid
. . . wahrend der Regierung Ottos III., Inaug. Dissertation (Breslau,
1883); J. J. Dey, Hist, de s. Adelaide, fife. (Geneva, 1862); F. P
Wimmer, Kaiserin Adelheid, Gemahlin Ottos I. des Grossen (Regensb.
1889); Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart and
Berlin, 1904). Further references in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources
historiques (Paris, 1903).

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. It is situated in
the county to which it gives name, on the banks of the river
Torrens, 7 m. from its mouth. Its site is a level plain, near the
foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself
reaches 2334 ft. The broad streets of the city intersect at right
angles. It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, and
South Adelaide, the business quarter. A broad strip of park

ADELARD— ADELSBERG

189

lands lies between them, through which runs the river Torrens,
crossed by five bridges and greatly improved by a dam on the
west of the city. The banks are beautifully laid out. Broad,
belts of park lands surround both North and South Adelaide,
and as the greater portion of these lands is planted with fine
shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of the most
attractive cities in Australasia. South Adelaide is bounded by
four broad terraces facing north, south, east and west. The
main thoroughfare, King William Street, runs north and south,
passing through Victoria Square, a small park in the centre of
the city. Handsome public buildings are numerous. Govern-
ment House stands in grounds on the north side of North Ter-
race, with several other official buildings in the vicinity; but
the majority are in King William Street. Here are the town
hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the general post office,
with the Victoria Tower — which, with the old and new Govern-
ment offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Francis Xavier
and the court houses, surround Victoria Square. On North
Terrace are the houses of parliament, and the institute, containing
a public library and museum. Here is also Adelaide University,
established by an act of 1874, and opened in 1876. The existing
buildings were opened in 1882. Munificent gifts have from time
to time assisted in the extension of its scope, as for example that
of Sir Thomas Elder (d. 1897), who took a leading part in the
foundation of the university. This gift, among other provisions,
enabled the Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established,
the building for which was opened in 1000. In 1903 a building
for the schools of engineering and science was opened. The total
number of students in the university approaches 1000. To the
east of the university is the building in which the exhibition was
held in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 1887.
This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural and Horti-
cultural Society, a technical museum, &c. The school of mines
and industries (1903) stands east of this again. The buildings
of the numerous important commercial, social and charitable
institutions add to the dignity of the city. The Anglican cathe-
dral of St Peter (1878) is in North Adelaide. The Botanical
Park, which has an area of 84 acres, lies on the south bank of
the Torrens, on the east of the city. It includes the Zoological
Garden, is beautifully laid out and forms one of the most
attractive features of Adelaide. The city has a number of
good statues, chief among which are copies of the Farnese
Hercules (Victoria Square) and of Canova's Venus (North
Terrace), statues of Queen Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas
Elder's statue at the university, and a memorial (1905) over the
grave of Colonel Light, founder of the colony, in Light Square.
Adelaide is governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by
the whole body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city
in which the mayor is so elected. The chief industries are the
manufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing,
starch-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling. Adelaide is also
the central share market of Australia, for West Australian gold-
mines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, and for the copper-
mines at Wallaroo, Burra Burra and Moonta; while Port
Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent Gulf, ranks
as the third in the Commonwealth. Adelaide is the terminus
of an extensive railway system, the main line of which runs
through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to Rockhampton. In
summer the climate is often oppressively hot under the influence
of winds blowing from the interior, but the proximity of the sea
on the one side and of the mountains on the other allows the
inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; at other seasons,
however, the climate is mild and pleasant; with a mean annual
rainfall of 20-4 ins. The vice-regal summer residence is at
Marble Hill, on the Mount Lofty range. Adelaide was founded
in 1836 and incorporated in 1843. It received its name at the
desire of King William I V. , in honour of Queen Adelaide. Round
the city are many pleasant suburbs, connected with it by rail
and tramways; the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont,
Unley, Mitcham, Goodwood, Plymton, Hindmarsh, Prospect,
St Peters, Norwood and Kensington. Glenelg is a favourite
watering-place. The population of the city proper was 39,240

in 1901; of the city and suburbs within a lo-miles radius,
162,261.

ADELARD (or AETHELARD) of Bath (i2th century), English
scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of
medieval England. He studied in France at Laon and Tours,
and travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and
Asia Minor, during a period of seven years. At a time when
Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intel-
lectual eminence, he gained so high a reputation that he was
described by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosophus Anglomm.
He lived for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned
to England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31
Henry I. 1130) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant
of money from the revenues of Wiltshire. The great interest of
Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that he made
a special study of Arabian philosophy during his travels, and,
on his return to England, brought his knowledge to bear on the
current scholasticism of the time. He has been credited with a
knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his translation of Euclid's
Elements was made from the original Greek. It is probable,
however, from the nature of the text, that his authority was an
Arabic version. This important work was published first at
Venice in 1482 under the name of Campanus of Novara, but the
work is always attributed to Adelard. Campanus may be re-
sponsible for some of the notes. It became at once the text-book
of the chief mathematical schools of Europe, though its critical
notes were of little value. His Arabic studies he collected under
the title Perdifficiles Quaestiones Nalurales, printed after 1472.
It is in the' form of a dialogue between himself and his favourite
nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop of Bayeux from
1113 to 1133. He wrote also treatises on the astrolabe (a copy
of this is in the British Museum), on the abacus (three copies
exist in the Vatican library, the library of Leiden University
and the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris), translations of the
Kharismian Tables and an Arabic Introduction to Astronomy.
His great contribution to philosophy proper was the De Eodem
et Diver so (On Identity and Difference), which is in the form of
letters addressed to his nephew. In this work philosophy and
the world are personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia in
conflict for the soul of man. Philosophia is accompanied by the
liberal arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world
by Power, Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune. The work
deals with the current difficulties between nominalism and
realism, the relation between the individual and the genus or
species. Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent,
and yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus
and the species. He was either the founder or the formulator
of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus and
species retain their identity in the individual apart altogether
from particular idiosyncrasies. For the relative importance
of this doctrine see article SCHOLASTICISM.

See Jourdain, Recherches sur les tradtictions d'Aristote (2nd ed.,
1843); Haureau, Philosophic scolastique (2nd ed., 1872), and works
appended to art. SCHOLASTICISM.

ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina), a market-town in Carniola,
Austria, 30 m. S.S.W. of Laibach by rail. Pop. (1900) 3636,
mostly Slovene. About a mile from the town is the entrance
to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and
most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four
grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the dis-
tance of about a mile and a half from the entrance. The river
Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is heard
murmuring in its recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the
third of the chain, a great ball is annually held on Whit- Monday,
when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz- Joseph-
Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest from
the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft. in breadth and more
than 100 ft. high. Besides the imposing proportions of its
chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the variegated beauty
of its stalactite formations, some resembling transparent drapery,
others waterfalls, trees, animals or human beings, the more
grotesque being called by various fanciful appellations. These

ADELUNG— ADENES

subterranean wonders were known as far back as 1213, but the
cavern remained undiscovered in modern times until 1816, and
it is only in still more recent times that its vast extent has been
fully ascertained and explored. The total length of the passages is
now estimated at over sJ m. The connexion with the Ottokar
grotto was established in 1890. The Magdalene grotto, about an
hour's walk to the north, is celebrated for the extraordinary
subterranean amphibian, the proteus dnguinus, first discovered
there. It is about a foot in length, lives on snails and worms
and is provided with both lungs and gills.

ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732-1806), German
grammarian and philologist, was born at Spantekow, in Pomer-
ania, on the 8th of August 1732, and educated at the public
schools of Anklam and Klosterbergen, and the university of
Halle. In 1759 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium of
Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years later and went
to reside in a private capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted him-
self to philological researches. In 1787 he received the appoint-
ment of principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden,
where he continued to reside until his death on the loth of
September 1806.

The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there is not
one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some proofs of the
genius, industry and erudition of the author. By means of his
excellent grammars, dictionary and various works on German
style, he contributed greatly towards rectifying the ortho-
graphy, refining the idiom and fixing the standard of his native
tongue. His German dictionary — Grammalisch-kritisches Worter-
buch der hochdeutschen Mundarl (1774-1786) — bears witness to
tha patient spirit of investigation which Adelung possessed in so
remarkable a degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history
of the different dialects on which modern German is based. No
man before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of
Germany. Shortly before his death he issued Mithridates, oder
allgemcine S prachenkunde (1806). The hint of this work appears
to have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub-
lished by Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565) in 1555; but the plan
of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately he did not
live to finish what he had undertaken. The first volume, which
contains the Asiatic languages, was published immediately after
his death; the other two were issued under the superintendence
of Johann Severin Vater (1771-1826). Of the very numerous
works by Adelung the following may be noted: Directorium
diplomaticum (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche Sprachlehre fiir Schulen
(Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, Magazin fur die deutsche
Sprache (Leipzig, 1782-1784).

ADEMPTION (Lat. ademptio, from adimere, a taking away),
in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see LEGACY).

ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically part of
British India, under the governor of Bombay. The seaport is
situated in 12° 45' N. lat., and 45° 4' E. long., on a peninsula
near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 m. E. of the strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a
mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles
from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras
Sanailah or Cape Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected
with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet
high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft.
above the level of the sea. The town is built on the eastern
coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and
is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable
natural defence. There are two harbours, an outer, facing the
town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially choked
with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, by the
Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the peninsula,
which at all periods of the year admits vessels drawing less
than 20 ft. On the whole, Aden is a healthy place, although
it suffers considerably from the want of good water, and the heat
is often very intense. From time to time additional land on the
mainland has been acquired by cession or purchase, and the
adjoining island of Perim, lying in the actual mouth of the
strait, was permanently occupied in 1857. Farther inland,

and along the coast, most of the Arab 'chiefs are under the
political control of the British government, which pays them
regular allowances. The area of the peninsula is only 15 sq. m.,
but the total area of British territory is returned at 80 sq. m.,
including Perim (5 sq. m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate
is about 9000 sq. m. The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified.
Modern science has converted " Steamer Point " into a seem-
ingly impregnable position, the peninsula which the " Point "
forms to the whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which
runs from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs.
The administration is conducted by a political resident, who is
also the military commandant. All food requires to be imported,
and the water-supply is largely derived from condensation. A
little water is obtained from wells, and some from an aqueduct
7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of £30,000, besides an
irregular supply from the old reservoirs.

From its admirable commercial and military position, Aden
early became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and
Asia. It is the 'Apa/Sia tvdalfjiuv of the Periplus. It was known
to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Attanae, and was captured
by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. In 1513 it was unsuccess-
fully attacked by the Portuguese under Albuquerque, but sub-
sequently it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1538. In the
following century the Turks themselves relinquished their con-
quests in Yemen, and the sultan of Sana established a supremacy
over Aden, which was maintained until the year 1735, when
the sheikh of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line
of independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours
was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously
maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of the outrage being
demanded by the Bombay government, the sultan undertook to
make compensation for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed
to sell his town and port to the English. Captain Haines of the
Indian navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the
sultan's son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had
made. A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon
despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to British
India on the i6th of January 1839. The withdrawal of the
trade between Europe and the East, caused by the discovery of
the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovern-
ment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state
of comparative insignificance; but about the time of its capture
by the British the Red Sea route to India was reopened, and
commerce soon began to flow in its former channel. Aden was
made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling stations
of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Its im-
portance as a port of call for steamers and a coaling station has
grown immensely since the opening of the Suez Canal. It also
conducts a considerable trade with the interior of Arabia, and
with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Red
Sea. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company
here diverge — on the one hand to India, the Far East and
Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape.

In 1839 the population was less than 1000, but in 1901 it had
grown to 43, 974. The gross revenue(i9Oi-i9O2) was Rs. 37,25,915.
There are three printing-presses, of which one is in the gaol and
the other two belong to a European and a Parsee firm of mer-
chants. The port is visited yearly by some 1300 steamers with a
tonnage of 25 million tons. The principal articles of import are
coffee, cotton-piece goods, &c., grain, hides, coal, opium, cotton-
twist and yarn. The exports are, in the main, a repetition of
the imports. Of the total imports nearly one-third come from
the east coast of Africa, and another third from Arabia. Of the
total exports, nearly one- third again go to the east coast of
Africa. The Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps
of India.

ADENES (ADENEZ or ADANS), surnamed LE ROI, French
trouvere, was born in Brabant about 1240. He owed his educa-
tion to the kindness of Henry III., duke of Brabant, and he re-
mained in favour at court for some time after the death (1261) of
his patron. In 1 269 he entered the service of Guy de Dampierre,
afterwards count of Flanders, probably as roi des menestrels,

ADENINE— ADHEMAR

191

and followed him in the next year on the abortive crusade in
Tunis in which Louis IX. lost his life. The expedition returned
by way of Sicily and Italy, and Adenes has left in his poems
some very exact descriptions of the places through which he
passed. The purity of his French and the absence of provincial-
isms point to a long residence in France, and it has been suggested
that Adenes may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on
her marriage with Philip the Bold. He seems, however, to have
remained in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent
visits to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey
of St Denis. The poems written by Adenes are four: the
Enfances Ogier, an enfeebled version of the Chevalerie Ogicr de
Danemarche written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning of
the century; Berte aus granspies, the history of the mother of
Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which are also
preserved in the anonymous Chronique de France, and in the
Chronique rimee of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de Comarchis,
belonging to the cycle of romance gathered round the history of
Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long roman d'aventures, Cleomades,
borrowed from Spanish and Moorish traditions brought into
France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who after the death
of her Spanish husband returned to the French court. Adenes

ibably died before the end of the 1 3th century.
The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academic Imperiale

Royale of Brussels by A. Scheler and A. van Hasselt in 1874;
Berte was rendered into modern French by G. Hecq (1897) and by
R. Perie(i9Oo) ; Cleomades, by Le Chevalier de Chatelain (1859). See
also the edition of Berte by Paulin Paris (1832); an article by the
same writer in the Hist, litt. de la France, vol. xx. pp. 679-718;
Leon Gautier, Les epopees Jrangaises, vol. iii., &c.

ADENINE, or 6-AniNO-PURiN, CsHsNs, in chemistry, a basic
substance which has been obtained as a decomposition product
of nuclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of oxen. It has
been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1897, 30, p. 2238) by
heating 2.6.8-trichlorpurin with 10 times its weight of ammonia
for six hours at 100° C.; by this means 6-amino-2.8-dichlor-
purin is obtained, which on reduction by means of hydriodic
acid and phosphonium iodide is converted into adenine. In
1898 E. Fischer also obtained it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin
(Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104). It crystallizes in long needles; forms
salts C6H6N5-2HI and (CsHiNs^-ftSO^^O, and is converted
by nitrous acid into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin. On heating
with hydrochloric acid at 180-200° C. it is decomposed; the
products of the reaction being glycocol), ammonia, formic acid
and carbon dioxide. Various methyl derivatives of adenine have
been described by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104) and
by M. Kruger (Zeit. fur physiol. Chemie, 1894, 18, p. 434). For
the constitution of adenine see PURIN.

ADENOIDS, or ADENOID GROWTHS (from Gr. d5ec oaSijs, glandu-
lar), masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose
and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the
air- way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the
proper development of the chest. The growths are apt to keep
up a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating tubes
which pass from the throat to the ear, and so render the child
dull of hearing or even deaf. They also give rise to asthma, and
like enlarged tonsils — with which they are often associated — •
they impart to the child a vacant, stupid expression, and hinder
his physical and intellectual development. They cause his
voice to be " stuffy," thick, and unmusical. Though, except in
the case of a cleft palate, they cannot be seen with the naked
eye, they are often accompanied by a visible and suggestive
granular condition of the wall at the back of the throat. Their
presence may easily be determined by the medical attendant
gently hooking the end of the index-finger round the back of
the soft palate. If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to post-
pone this digital examination of the throat until the child is
under the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the
tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at the
same time that the tonsils are dealt with. Though the disease
is a comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer in its treatment
being Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably existed as long as
tuberculosis itself, with which affection it is somewhat distantly

connected. In the unenlightened days many children must have
got well of adenoids without operation, and even at the present
time it by no means follows that because a child has these post-
nasal vegetations he must forthwith be operated on. The con-
dition is very similar to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time,
patience and attention to general measures, operation is often
rendered unnecessary. But if the child continues to breathe
with his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf
and dull, and is troubled with a chronic " cold in his head," the
question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx and of
a surgical operation should most certainly be considered. In
recent years the comparatively simple operation for their re-
moval has been very frequently performed, and, as a rule, with
marked benefit, but this treatment should always be followed
by a course of instruction in respiratory exercises; the child
must be taught regularly to fill his lungs and make the tidal air
pass through the nostrils. These respiratory exercises may be
resorted to before operation is proposed, and in some cases they
may render operative treatment unnecessary. Operations should
not be performed in cold weather or in piercing east winds,
and it is advisable to keep the child indoors for a day or two
subsequent to its performance. To expose a child just after
operating on his throat to the risks of a journey by train or
omnibus is highly inadvisable. Although the operation is not
a very painful one, it ought not to be performed upon a child
except .under the influence of chloroform or some other general
anaesthetic. (E.O.*)

ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as
an adjective adept; from Lat. odeptus, one who has attained),
completely and fully acquainted with one's subject, an expert.
The word implies more than acquired proficiency, a natural
inborn aptitude. In olden times an adept was one who was
versed in magic, an alchemist, one who had attained the great
secrets of the unknown.

ADERNO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 22 m.
N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1901) 25,859. It occupies
the site of the ancient Adranon, which took its name from
Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman times
identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated here,
and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps
some substructures of this building still extant outside the town.
The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius I.; very
fine remains of its walls are preserved. For a time it was the
headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town taken by the
Romans in the First Punic War (263 B.C.). In the centre of the
modern town rises the castle, built by Roger I.; in the chapel
are frescoes representing his granddaughter, Adelasia, who
founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157, taking the veil. The
columns in the principal church are of black lava.

See P. Russo, Illustrazione storica di Adernb (Aderno, 1897).

ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Miiller to imply the
denial of gods (Sans, deva), on the analogy of Atheism, the
denial of God. Max Miiller used it particularly in connexion
with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative of ignorance or
nescience (Gifford lectures, 1892, c. ix.).

ADHEMAR DE CHABANNES (c. 988-c. 1030), medieval his-
torian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in the French
department of Haute-Vienne. Educated at the monastery of
St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as a monk, either at this
place or at the monastery of St Cybard at Angouleme. He died
about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, whither he had gone
on a pilgrimage. Adhemar's life was mainly spent in writing
and transcribing chronicles, and his principal work is a his-
tory entitled Chronicon Aquitanicum el Francicum or Historia
Francorum. This is in three books and deals with Prankish
history from the fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks,
to A.D. 1028. The two earlier books are scarcely more than a
copy of the Gesta regum Francorum, but the third book, which
deals with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable his-
torical importance. This is published in the Monumcnla Ger-
maniae historica. Scriplores. Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-
1892). He also wrote Commemoratio abbatum Lemovicensium

192

ADHEMAR— ADIRONDACKS

basilicae S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) and Epistola ad
Jordanum Lemovicensem episcopum et alias de aposlolatu S.
Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne in the
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844-1855).

See F. Arbellot, ittude historiaue et litteraire sur Ademar de Cha-
bannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne, Dissertation sur le lieu
de naissance et sur la famille du chroniqueur Ademar, moine de
I'abbaye de St Cybard d'Angouttme (Angoulgme, 1850).

ADHEMAR (ADEMAR, AIMAR, AELARZ) DE MONTEIL (d.
1098), one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was
bishop of Puy en Velay from before 1087. At the council of
Clermont in 1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and hav-
ing been named apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied
Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, to the east. He negotiated
with Alexis Comnenus at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea
some discipline among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch
to be raised and died in that city of the plague on the ist of
August 1098.

See the article by C. Kohler in La Grande Encyclopedic; Biblio-
graphic du Velay (1902), 640-650.

ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere), the process of
adhering or clinging to anything. In a figurative sense, adhesion
(like "adherent") is used of any attachment to a party or move-
ment; but the word is also employed technically in psychology,
pathology and botany. In psychology Bain and others use it of
association of ideas and action; in pathology an adhesion is an
abnormal union of surfaces; and in botany "adhesion" is used of
dissimilar parts, e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to "cohesion,"
which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl.

ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. d&d<£opos, indifferent) . The Adiaphorist
controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional
scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a
general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the diet
of Augsburg, 1 5th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg
Interim. It satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants. As
head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of
Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig,
on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the
Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points neither
enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture. This sanctioned jurisdic-
tion of Catholic bishops, and observance of certain rites, while
all were to accept justification by faith (relegating sola to the
adiaphora). This modification was known as the Leipzig In-
terim; its advocates were stigmatized as Adiaphorists. Pas-
sionate opposition was led by Melanchthon's colleague, Matth.
Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial power was not the
judge of adiaphora, and that the measure was a trick to bring
back popery. From Wittenberg he fled, April 1549, to Magde-
burg, making it the headquarters of rigid Lutheranism. Practi-
cally the controversy was concluded by the religious peace
ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which left princes a free
choice between the rival confessions, with the right to impose
either on their subjects; but much bitter internal strife was
kept up by Protestants on the theoretical question of adiaphora;
to appease this was one object of the Formula Concordiae, 1577.
Another Adiaphorist controversy between Pietists and their
opponents, respecting the lawfulness of amusements, arose in
1681, when Anton Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as
antichristian.

See arts, by J. Gottschick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1896) ;
by Fritz in I. Goschler's Diet. Encyelop. de la Theol. Calk. (1858);
other authorities in I. C. L. Gieseler, Ch. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868,
vol. iv.) ; monograph by Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich
und historisch untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view.

ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Alhesis), a considerable river in North
Italy. The true source of the Adige is in some small lakes on
the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and it is
swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, where the roads
over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall in. It thence flows east
to Meran, and then south-east to Botzen, where it receives the
Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes navigable. It then turns south-west,
and, after receiving the Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves
Tirol, and enters Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto. After
traversing North Italy, in a direction first southerly and then

easterly, it falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles
north of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on
its banks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol,
and Verona and Legnago, in Italy. It is a very rapid river,
and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause
great damage to the surrounding country. It is navigable from
the heart of Tirol to the sea. In Lombardy it has a breadth
of 200 yds., and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength of the
current renders its navigation very difficult, and lessens its
value as a means of transit between Germany and Italy. The
Adige has a course of about 220 m., and, after the Po, is the
most important river in Italy. In Roman times it flowed, in its
lower course, much farther north than at present, along the
base of the Euganean hills, and entered the sea at Brondolo.
In A.D. 587 the river broke its banks, and the main stream took
its present course, but new streams opened repeatedly to the
south, until now the Adige and the Po form conjointly one
delta. (W. A. B. C.)

ADIPOCERE (from the Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a
substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted,
and so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both
fat and wax. When the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris was
removed in 1786-1787, great masses of this substance were found
where the coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed
very closely together. The whole body had been converted
into this fatty matter, except the bones, which remained, but
were extremely brittle. Chemically, adipocere consists princi-
pally of a mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent. Saponi-
fication with potash liberates a little ammonia (about i%),
and gives a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margaric
and oxymargaric acids. The insoluble residue consists of lime,
&c., derived from the tissues. The artificial formation of adipo-
cere has been studied; it appears that it is not formed from
albuminous matter, but from the various fats in the body
collecting together and undergoing decomposition.

ADIRONDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern
New York, U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton
counties, often included by geographers in the Appalachian
system, but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands
of Canada. They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain,
which separates them from the Green Mountains. Unlike the
Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected range,
but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, arranged
with little appearance of system. There are about one hundred
peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; the highest peak,
Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or "cloud-splitter"),
is near the eastern part of the group and attains an elevation of
5344 ft. Other noted peaks are M'Intyre (5210 ft.), Haystack
(4918), Dix (4916) and Whiteface (4871). These mountains,
consisting of various sorts of gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro,
have been formed partly by faulting but mainly by erosion, the
lines of which have been determined by the presence of faults
or the presence of relatively soft rocks. Lower Palaeozoic strata
lap up on to the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain
group. The region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though
mined for many years are not yet fully developed. Other
mineral products are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite
and zinc ore. The mountains form the water-parting between the
Hudson and the St Lawrence rivers. On the south and south-
west the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises
in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the Mohawk.
On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence by way
of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they flow directly
into that stream or reach it through Lake Ontario. The most
important streams within the area are the Hudson, Black,
Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausable rivers.
The region was once covered, with the exception of the higher
summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, while perhaps
having little effect on the larger features of the country, has
greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and ponds, whose
number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many falls and rapids
in the streams. Among the larger lakes are the Upper and Lower

ADIS ABABA— ADJUTANT

Saranac, Big and Little Tupper, Schroon, Placid, Long, Raquette
and Blue Mountain. The region known as the Adirondack
Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces between 5000
and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and forest, which
for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in any other part of the
United States. The mountain peaks are usually rounded and
easily scaled, and as roads have been constructed over their
slopes and in every direction through the forests, all points of
interest may be easily reached by stage. Railways penetrate
the heart of the region, and small steamboats ply upon the
larger lakes. The surface of most of the lakes lies at an elevation
of over 1500 ft. above the sea; their shores are usually rocky
and irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has
made them very attractive to the tourist. The mountains are
easily reached from Plattsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone
and Saratoga Springs. Every year thousands spend the summer
months in the wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas
and hotels are numerous. The resorts most frequented are in
the vicinity of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake
Placid. In the Adirondacks are some of the best hunting and
fishing grounds in the eastern United States. Owing to the
restricted period allowed for hunting, deer and small game are
abundant, and the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well
stocked with trout and black bass. At the head of Lake Placid
stands Whiteface Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest
views of the Adirondacks may be obtained. Two miles south-
east of this lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist
John Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented
by visitors. Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable
river, which for a part of its course flows through a rocky chasm
from 100 to 175 ft. deep and rarely over 30 ft. wide. At the
head of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, where the
stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft. Another impressive
feature of the Adirondacks is Indian Pass, a gorge about eleven
miles long, between Mt. M'Intyre and Wallface Mountain.
The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically from the pass to
a height of 1300 ft. Keene Valley, in the centre of Essex county,
is another picturesque region, presenting a pleasing combination
of peaceful valley and rugged hills. Though the climate during
the winter months is very severe — the temperature sometimes
falling as low as -42° F. — it is beneficial to persons suffering
from pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have
been established. The region is heavily forested with spruce,
pine and broad-leaved trees. Lumbering is an important
industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of a
state forest preserve, containing in 1907, 1,401,482 acres, and
by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and recreation
grounds by private clubs. The so-called Adirondack Park,
containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the state
preserve and large areas held in private ownership.

For a description of the Adirondacks, see S. R. Stoddard, The
Adirondacks Illustrated (24th ed., Glen Falls, 1894); and E. R.
Wallace, Descriptive Guide to the Adirondacks (Syracuse, 1894). For
geology and mineral resources consult the Reports of the New York
State Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York State Museum.

ADIS ABABA ("the new flower"), the capital of Abyssinia
and of the kingdom of Shoa, in 9° i' N., 38° 56' E., 220 m. W. by
S. of Harrar, and about 450 m. S.W. of Jibuti on the Gulf of
Aden. Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes of the Entotto
range, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on bare, grassy undulations,
watered by small streams flowing S.S.E. to the Hawash. It is
a large straggling encampment rather than a town, with few
buildings of any architectural merit. The Gebi or royal enclosure
completely covers a small hill overlooking the whole neighbour-
hood, while around it are the enclosures of the abuna and principal
nobles, and the residences of the foreign ministers. The principal
traders are Armenians and Hindus. About a mile north-east of
the palace is the military camp. On the hills some five miles to
the north, 1 500 ft. above the camp, are the ruins of an old fortress,
and the churches of St Raguel and St Mariam. The town is in
telegraphic communication with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti.
It was founded by Menelek II. in 1892 as the capital of his king-
*• 7

'93

dom in succession to Entotto, a deserted settlement some ten
or twelve miles north of Adis Ababa.

ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectivus, added), a word used
chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the noun
to which it refers. Formerly grammarians used not to separate
a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of them to-
gether as a noun-adjective. In the art of dyeing, certain colours
are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing with
some basis to render them permanent. " Adjective law " is that
which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to " sub-
stantive law," the rules of right administered by a court.

ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat.
adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day) , the act
of postponing a meeting of any private or public body, par-
ticularly of parliament, or any business, until another time, or
indefinitely (in which case it is an adjournment sine die). The
word applies also to the period during which the meeting or
business stands adjourned.

ADJUDICATION (Lat. adjudicatio; adjudicare, to award),
generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise of
judicial power; a judgment. In a more technical sense, in
English and American law, an adjudication is an order of the
bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt and
his property vested in a trustee. It usually proceeds from a
resolution of the creditors or where no composition or scheme of
arrangement has been proposed by the debtor. It may be said
to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then does a debtor's
property actually vest in a trustee for division among the
creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy till adjudica-
tion it is protected by a receiving order. As to the effect which
adjudication has on the bankrupt, see under BANKRUPTCY.
The same process in Scots law is called sequestration. In Scots
law the term " adjudication " has quite a different meaning,
being the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the
heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir,
in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security
of his debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of the
same nature by which the holder of a heritable right, labouring
under any defect in point of form, gets that defect supplied by
decree of a court.

ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, zndjungere, to join), that which
is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it
in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies
it. Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they
qualify. Learning, says Shakespeare, is an " adjunct to our-
self " (Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314). Twelve members of
the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris are called " adjuncts."

ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxtare, derived from juxla,
near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from
Justus, right), regulating, adapting or settling; in commercial
law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods.
The calculation of the amounts to be made good to and paid by
the several interests is a complicated matter. It involves much
detail and arithmetic, and requires a full and accurate knowledge
of the principles of the subject. Such adjustments are made by
men called adjusters, who make the subject their profession. In
Great Britain they are for the most part members of the Average
Adjusters' Association (1870), a body which has done much
careful work with a view to making and keeping the practice
uniform and in accord with right principles. This association
has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body of
practical rules which the individual members undertake to
observe. (See AVERAGE and INSURANCE, Marine.)

ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join on; an
older English form was " adjustage "), a mouthpiece or nozzle,
so formed as to facilitate the outflow of liquids from a vessel or
pipe. (See HYDRAULICS.)

ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjulare, to aid), a helper or junior
in command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer
who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of
troops. In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held
by a captain or lieutenant. The adjutant acts as staff officer to

5

ADJUTANT-GENERAL—ADMIRAL

194

the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the work
of the orderly room and the general administration of the corps,
and is responsible for musketry duties and the training of recruits.
Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all units of the
auxiliary forces. On the European continent the word is not
restricted to the lower units of organization; for example, in
Germany the Adjutantur includes all " routine " as distinct from
" general " staff officers in the higher units, and the aides-de-
camp of royal persons and of the higher commanders are also
styled adjutant-generals, fliigel-adjutanten, &c. For the so-called
adjutant bird see JABIRU.

ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as
indicated by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuvare)
staff-officer to a general in command, but now a distinct high
functionary at the head of a special office in the British and
American war departments. In England the second military
member of the Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the
forces. He is a general officer and at the head of his department
of the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to
personnel. The adjutant-general of the United States army is
one of the principal officers in the war department, the head of
the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the
records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual Ameri-
can states also have their own adjutant-general, with cognate
duties regarding the state militia. In many countries, such as
Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original meaning
of an officer on the personal staff, and is the designation of per-
sonal aides-de-camp to the sovereign.

By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of provinces,
in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials under the superin-
tendence of and auxiliary to the general, are sometimes called
adjutants-general.

ADLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was
born at Alzey, Germany, on the I3th of August 1851. His
father, a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857,
and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870. After
completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in
1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell
University. In 1876 he established in New York City the Society
for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension of which
he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and before which he
delivered a regular Sunday lecture. In 1902 he became professor
of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He also
acted as one of the editors of the International Journal of Ethics.
Under his direction the Society for Ethical Culture became an
important factor in educational reform in New York City,
exercising through its technical training school and kinder-
garten (established in January 1878) a wide influence. Dr Adler
also took a prominent part in philanthropic and social reform
movements, such as the establishment of a system of district
nursing, the erection of model tenement houses, and tenement
house reform. He published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral
Instruction of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1903), Marriage
and Divorce (1905), and The Religion of Duty (1905).

ADHETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in
Thessaly. By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave —
either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of
affection for his mortal master — he won the hand of Alcestis,
the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of lolcus.
When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to
lead to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates)
to prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his
place. His parents refused, but Alcestis consented. She is
said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles,
who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later
story represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill.

Homer, Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9; Euripides, Alcestis;
Plutarch, Amatorius, 17; Dissel, Der Mythus von Admetos und
Alkestis, progr. Brandenburg, 1882.

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the perform-
ance or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for
the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person

(see WILL OR TESTAMENT). It is also used generally for " govern-
ment," and specifically for " the government " or the executive
ministry, and in such connexions as theadmmistration(administer-
ing or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c.

Letters of Administration. — Upon the death of a person intestate
or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, or when
the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the
Probate Division of the High Court is obliged to appoint an
administrator who performs the duties of an executor. This is
done by the court granting letters of administration to the
person entitled. Grants of administration may be either general
or limited. A general grant is made where the deceased has
died intestate. The order in which general grants of letters will
be made by the court is as follows: (i) The husband, or widow,
as the case may be; (2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a
creditor; (5) a stranger. Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the
administrator is the real as well as the personal representative
of the deceased, and consequently when the estate to be ad-
ministered consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will
grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of
kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin the crown is
entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to the reality
by escheat. If a creditor claims and obtains a grant he is com-
pelled by the court to enter into a bond with two sureties
that he will not prefer his own debt to those of other creditors.
The more important Cases of grants of special letters of ad-
ministration are the following: —

Administration cum testamenlo annexo, where the deceased
has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor
appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will
make the grant to the person (usually the residuary legatee)
with the largest beneficial interest in the estate.

Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs in two
cases — (a) where the executor dies intestate after probate with-
out having completely administered the estate; (b) where an
administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administra-
tion cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general
grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted

Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor or
the person entitled to the general grant is under age.

Administration durante absentia, when the executor or ad-
ministrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year.

Administration pendenle lite, where there is a dispute as to the
person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court
appoints an administrator till the question has been decided.

ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the
Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the
ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the sover-
eign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the goods of a
person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad-
ministrators is derived from the civil law. Their establishment
in England is owing to a statute made in the 3ist year of Edward
I- (r3°3)- Till then no office of this kind was known besides
that of executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the
disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c. (See also EXECUTORS,
and, for intestate estates, INTESTACY.) ^

ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, is a person legally empowered
to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for
himself, as a father for a pupil child.

ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a
fleet, or subdivision of a fleet. The origin of the word is un-
doubtedly Arabic. In the 1 2th century the Mediterranean states
which had close relations with the Moslem powers on the shores
or in the islands of that sea, found the title amir or emir
in combination with other words used to describe men in au-
thority; the amir-al-mumenin — prince of the faithful — or amir-
al-bahr — commander of the sea. They took the substantive
" amir " and the article " al " to form one word, " amiral " or
"ammiral" or " almirante." The Spaniards made mirama-
molin, out of amiral-mumenin, in the same way. " Amiral,"
the name of an eastern ruler, became familiar to the northern
nations during the crusades. Layamon, writing in the early

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

years of the I3th century, speaks of the " ammiral of Babilon,"
and the word was for long employed in this sense. As a naval
title it was first taken by the French from the Genoese during
the crusade of 1 249. By the end of the I3th century it had come
to be used in England as the name of the officer who commanded
the Cinque Port ships. The English form " admiral " arose from
popular confusion with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were
naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle
ages. In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of
laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for the
Spanish form " almirante " by its supposed derivation from
the Latin admirari, since the admiral is " to be admired " for
the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and because he is the
chief of those who see the wonders of the Lord in the deep —
mirabilia ejus (sc. Domini) in profundo. Both in Spanish and in
Elizabethan English the word has been applied to the flagship
of an officer commanding a fleet or part of one. The Spanish
almiranta is the ship of the second in command, and the capilana
of the first. In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the
narratives of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so
used by Milton in Paradise Lost — " the mast of some tall
ammiral."

As the title of an office it was borne by the great military,
judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand
amiral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirante
mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally
absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided
among judicial and administrative officials (see NAVY, History;
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION).
The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour by the
descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in Spain. It is
a purely honorific distinction representing the admiralship of
the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the discoverer by the
Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella.

In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to the
general officers in the army. Where, as in Russia, the grand
admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank is that of
lieutenant admiral general. In Great Britain there is the rank
of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to field-marshal. It is,
however, little more than an honorary distinction. The three
active ranks are those of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral,
corresponding to general, lieutenant-general and major-general
in the army. They are found in all navies under very slightly
varied forms. The only difference which is not one of mere
spelling is in the equivalent for rear-admiral, which is centre
amiral in French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe
involves some slight variation of the word " centre " (first used
at the time of the French Revolution). The vice- and rear-
admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, without the
active functions, conferred in compliment on senior naval officers.
" Admiral " is also the name given to the chief of fishery fleets.
On the banks of Newfoundland it was given to officials who had
powers conferred by the state. In the case of an ordinary fishing-
fleet in European waters, it is of private origin, and is of merely
customary use.

AUTHORITIES. — Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy;
La Ronciere, Histoire de la marine fran$ aise ; Yonge, Geschiedenis
van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; C. Fernandez Duro, Historia de
la' Armada de Castilea. (D. H.)

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION, i. The Administrative
System. — That the navy (q.v.) is the only real defence of the
British islands has been recognized by English people ever since
the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his successors
the admirable lesson that " he who would be secure on land must
be supreme at sea." The truth of the lesson thus learnt is sanc-
tioned by all the experience of English history, and parliament
has repeatedly enforced the fact. The navy is the only force that
British can safeSuard the British islands from hostile descents;
Empire. it is the only force that can protect their vast sea-borne
commerce and food supplies; by giving safety to the
home country it sets British troops free for operations abroad,
and makes their passage secure; and thus, as also by giving

command of the sea, the fleet is the means by which the empire
is guarded and has become a true imperial bond. It is natural
for British admiralty administration to be taken here as the
type of an efficient system.

British naval administration is conducted by the Board of
Admiralty, and the function of that board is the maintenance
and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy
of the government, and the supplying of it with trained B"ara of
officers and men; its distribution throughout the Admiralty.
world; and its preservation in readiness and efficiency
in all material and personal respects. The character of the
Admiralty Board is peculiar to the British constitution, and it
possesses certain features which distinguish it from other depart-
ments of the state. The business it conducts is very great and
complex, and the machinery by which its work is done has grown
with the expansion of that business. The whole system of naval
administration has been developed historically, and is not the
product of the organizing skill of one or a few individuals, but
an organic growth possessing marked and special characteristics.
The Admiralty Board derives its character from the fact that it
represents the lord high admiral, and that its powers and opera-
tion depend much more upon usage than upon those instruments
which actually give it authority, and which, it may be remarked,
are not in harmony among themselves. The executive operations
are conducted by a series of civil departments which have under-
gone many changes before reaching their present constitution
and relation to the Board. The salient characteristic of the
admiralty is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it
works. Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of depart-
ments. Subject to the necessary and constitutional supremacy
of the cabinet minister at their head, they are jointly and co-
equally " commissioners for executing the office of high admiral
of the United Kingdom, and of the territories thereunto belong-
ing, and of high admiral of the colonies and other dominions."
The members of the Board are in direct and constant communi-
cation with the first lord and with one another, as also with the
civil departments which work under their control. It was en-
joined by James I. that the principal officers and commissioners
of the navy should be in constant communication among them-
selves, consulting and advising " by common council and argu-
ment of most voices," and should live as near together as could
conveniently be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice
a week. This system of intercommunication still exists in a
manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be
remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, that a
Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a
secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there. Such an
emergency board was actually constituted some years ago on
board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant with
an event which had just occurred in the fleet. At the same time
it must be remarked that, in practice, the first lord being person-
ally responsible under the orders in council, the operations of
the Board are dependent upon his direction.

The present system of administering the navy dates from
the time of Henry VIII. The naval business of the country had
so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the
Admiralty and Navy Board reorganized or established;
and it is worthy of remark that there existed at the time an
ordnance branch, the navy not yet being dependent in that
matter upon the War Department.1 The Navy Board adminis-
tered the civil departments under the admiralty, the directive
and executive duties of the lord high admiral remaining with
the admiralty office. A little later the civil administration was
vested in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord
high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil

1 The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the navy,
but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment of the navy
— the only navy of any nation that has not full authority over its
own ordnance. In 1653, according to Oppenheim, it was, owing to
its inefficiency, placed under the admiralty. In 1632 it appears to
have been independent, but " still retained that evil pre-eminence
in sloth and incapacity it had already earned and has never since
lost."

History,

196

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

administration being conducted under the navy and victualling
boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself. This
was a system which continued during the time of all the great
wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James Graham,
by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided control.
Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, it sufficed
to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest achievements,
and through all the wars which were waged with the Spaniards,
the Dutch and the French. The original authority for the
present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found in a
declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1690), in which it is enacted
that " all and singular authorities, jurisdictions and powers
which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been lawfully
vested " in the lord high admiral of England had always apper-
tained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners for
executing the office for the time being " to all intents and pur-
poses as if the said commissioners were lord high admiral of
England." The admiralty commission was dissolved in 1701,
and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of Denmark,
lord high admiral in 1709. From that time forward, save for a
short period in 1827-1828, when the duke of Clarence was lord
high admiral, the office has remained in commission.

A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation
of the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in
1832 (see NAVY, History), but the general principle remains the
same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil
departments is described below. The Board consists of the
first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in theory
are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet sometimes
daily, but at all times frequently; and the system developed
provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for the co-ordi-
nated exertion of effort. The system has worked well in practice,
and has certainly won the approval and the admiration of many
statesmen. Lord George Hamilton said, before the Royal
Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, that " It has this
advantage, that you have all departments represented round a
table, and that if it is necessary to take quick action, you can
do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under
another system to do "; and the report of the Royal Commis-
sion of 1889 remarked that " The constitution of the Board of
Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be placed under
present regulations on a satisfactory footing."

The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have
been described are accompanied by a very peculiar and note-
Powers worthy feature, which is not without relation to the
untrammelled and undefined operations of the ad-
miralty. This feature arises from the discrepancy between the
admiralty patent and the orders in council, for the admiralty
is not administered according to the terms of the patent which
invests it with authority, and its operations raise a singular point
in constitutional law.

The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord and
the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure. Under the patent
the full power and authority are conferred upon " any two or
more " of the commissioners, though, in the patent of Queen
Anne, the grant was to " any three or more of you." It was
under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords received the
necessary authority to legalize any action of the Board; but
already, under an act of 1822, two lords had been empowered
to sign so long as the Board consisted of six members. We
therefore find that the legal authority of the Board under the
patent is vested in the Board; but in the order in council of the
1 4th of January 1869 the sole responsibility of the first lord was
officially laid down, and in the order in council of the igth of
March 1872 the first lord was made " responsible to your Majesty
and to parliament for all the business of the admiralty. " As a
matter of fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his
colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient
times. Before a select committee of the House of Commons in
1 86 1 the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the first
lord responsible, that he had always " acted under that impres-
sion," and that he believed " all former first lords were of this

opinion " ; while Sir James Graham said that " the Board of
Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might be,
unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise constantly
supreme and controlling authority." It is not, therefore, sur-
prising to find that there has been undoubtedly direct govern-
ment without a Board. Thus, in the operations conducted
against the French channel ports in 1803-1 804, Lord Melville, then
first lord, took steps of great importance without the knowledge
of his colleagues, though he afterwards bowed to their views,
which did not coincide with his own. Again, when Lord Gambier
was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he was instructed to obey all
orders from the king, through the principal secretary of state for
war, and in this way received orders to attack Copenhagen,
which were unknown to all but the first lord. In a similar way
the secretary of the admiralty was despatched to Paris in 1815
with instructions to issue orders as if from the Board of Admiralty
when directed to do so by the foreign secretary who accompanied
him, and these orders resulted in Napoleon's capture. These
instances were cited, except the first of them, by Sir James
Graham before the select committee of the House of Commons
in 1 86 1, in order to illustrate the elastic powers under the patent
which enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters
that concerned the public safety. It is not surprising that this
peculiar feature of admiralty administration should have at-
tracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds to regard
the Board as " a fiction not worth keeping up."

Between 1860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased to
have the effective character they had once possessed. During
the administration of Mr Childers,1 first lord from 1868 to 1871
in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system was introduced by
which the free intercommunication of the members of the Board
was hampered, and its sittings were quite discontinued. The
case of the " Captain " led, however, to a return to the older
practice. The " Captain " was a low freeboard masted turret
ship, designed by Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, R.N. Competent
critics believed that she would be unsafe, and said so before she
was built; but the admiralty of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866
gave their consent to her construction. She was commissioned
early in 1870, and capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of
September of that year. Mr Childers, who was nominally re-
sponsible for allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame
right and left, largely upon men who had not approved of the
ship at all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsi-
bility for allowing her to be built. The disaster was justly held
to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the advan-
tage of constant communication with his professional advisers.
When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in March 1871,
his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), reverted to the
original system. It cannot be said, however, that the question
of ultimate responsibility is well defined. The duke of Somerset,
Sir James Graham and Sir Charles Wood, afterwards Lord
Halifax, held the view that the first lord was singly and person-
ally responsible for the sufficiency of the fleet. Sir Arthur
Hood expressed before the House of Commons committee in
1888 the view that the Board collectively were responsible;
whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins assigned the responsibility to the
first lord alone with certain qualifications, which is a just and
reasonable view.

2. Admiralty Organization. — Under the organization which
now exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord,
the first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and
controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord, who are
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, and
with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and
the permanent secretary. As has been explained, the first lord
is responsible under the orders in council to the crown and to
parliament for all admiralty business. In the hands of the

1 Admiral Sir Cooper Key, when director of naval ordnance
during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer that no
first lord of the admiralty knew so little of the working of the ad-
miralty as Mr Childers, because, owing to the discontinuance of
board meetings, he lost the great advantage of hearing the dis-
cussion. (R. v. H.)

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

197

other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully denned,
and they direct the civil departments which are the machinery
of naval administration. The first naval lord, the second naval
lord and the junior naval lord are responsible to the first lord
in relation to so much of the business concerning the personnel
of the navy and the movements and condition of the fleet as is
confided to them, and the additional naval lord or controller is
responsible in the same way for the material of the navy; while
the parliamentary secretary has charge of finance and some other
business, and the civil lord of all shore works — i.e. docks, build-
ings, &c. — and the permanent secretary of special duties. The
first lord of the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom
the navy receives its political direction in accordance with im-
perial policy. He is the representative of the navy in parliament,
which looks to him for everything concerned with naval affairs.
The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their advice
is not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or resigna-
tion. It cannot be denied that the responsibility of the members
of the Board, if their advice should be disregarded, must cease,
and it is sufficiently obvious that the remedy of resignation will
not always commend itself to those whose position and advance-
ment depend upon the favour -of the government. Something
will be said a little later concerning the working of the system
and the relation of the first lord to the Board in regard to the
navy estimates. In addition to general direction and supervision,
the first lord has special charge of promotions and removals from
the service, and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as
well as the appointments of flag officers, captains and other
officers of the higher ranks. With him rests also the nomination
for the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships.

Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most
important officer of the Board of Admiralty. It seems to be
unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing
the senior naval lord as his " first naval adviser." Theoretically,
the first naval lord is responsible for the personnel of the fleet;
but in practice he is necessarily concerned with the material
also as soon as it is put into commission, and with the actual
commissioning of it. It is correct to say that he is chiefly con-
cerned with the employment of the fleet, though his advice has
weight in regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always
sought in relation to the shipbuilding programme. Broadly
speaking, the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the
fighting efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him
and upon the controller the naval business of the country largely
falls. He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent
of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the
director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo
training establishments are concerned, and the naval intelligence
department, and he has charge of all matters relating to dis-
cipline. The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard to personnel
and material, also falls to him, and among a mass of other busi-
ness in his department are necessary preparations for the pro-
tection of trade and the fisheries. It will thus be seen that the
first naval lord is the chief officer of the Board of Admiralty,
and that the operations of the other members of the Board all
have relation to his work, which is no other than preparation
for war. It may here be remarked that it appears most necessary
to change the naval lords frequently, so that there may always be
in the Board some one who possesses recent touch with the
service afloat.

The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of
the first naval lord, with whose operations his duties are very
closely related, though, like every other member of the Board,
he is subordinate only to the first lord. The duties of the second
naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel of the fleet,
the manning of the navy and mobilization. In his hands rests
the direction of naval education, training and the affairs of the
royal marine forces. The training establishments and colleges
are in his hands. He appoints navigating officers and lieutenants
to ships (unless they be to command), sub-lieutenants, midship-
men and cadets, engineer officers, gunners and boatswains,
and supervises the management of the reserve. In his province

is the mobilization of the personnel, including the coastguard
and the royal naval reserve. Necessarily, the first and second
naval lords work together, and upon occasion can replace each
other.1

Most important are the duties that fall to the additional naval
lord and controller. He has charge of everything that concerns
the material of the fleet, and his operations are the complement
of the work of the first naval lord. A great number of civil
departments are directed by the controller, and his survey and
supervision extend to the dockyards and building establishments
of the fleet. He submits plans to the Board for new ships, and is
responsible for carrying into effect its decisions in regard to all
matters of construction and equipment. The building operations
both in the dockyards and in private yards are therefore under
his supervision. In regard to all these matters the director of
naval construction and the engineer-in-chief are the heads of
the civil departments that carry on the work. Again, the con-
troller is responsible in regard to armament — both gunnery and
torpedo — and it is the work of his department to see to all
gunnery and torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms
and electric apparatus. The officer in immediate charge of
this branch of the controller's work, under his direction, is the
director of naval ordnance. In regard to work at the dockyards
(q.v.) the controller is aided by the director of dockyards. He
supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done
in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and its
appropriation to particular work in accordance wrth the pro-
gramme. Other officers who conduct great operations under
the authority and responsibility of the controller are the director
of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of coal and
stores at home and abroad, and examines the store accounts of
ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who has
charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure and seeing that
outlay is charged as directed. In regard to the navy estimates,
the controller, through his subordinates, is responsible for the
preparation and administration of the votes for shipbuilding and
naval armaments, except in regard to some sub-headings of the
former, and thus in recent years for the expenditure of some-
thing like £15,000,000 or over.

The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important
duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and
victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, the
charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other duties
that conduce to the practical efficiency of the navy. He also
appoints chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers (except in
special cases) and officers of the accountant branch. A vast
business in regard to the internal economy of ships greatly occu-
pies the junior lord. He has charge, for example, of uniforms,
prize-money, bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to
seamen and marines and the widows of naval and marine
officers. The work of the junior naval lord places under his
direction the director of transports, the director-general of the
medical department, the director of victualling, and, in regard
to particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant-
general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence Depart-
ment, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned.

The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, the
Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and
works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of
building stores and land. He is also responsible for the civil
staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to certain
officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich Hospital,
compassionate allowances, charitable funds, and business of like
character. The accountant-general, in regard to these matters,
is directed by him, and the director of Greenwich Hospital is
under his authority.

The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for
the finance of the department, the navy estimates and matters
of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard to all matters
involving reference to the treasury. His position in regard to

1 The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by
throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work.

198

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

estimates and expenditure is very important, and the accountant-
general is his officer, while he has financial control over the
director of contracts. The financial secretary also examines
proposals for new expenditure.

A most important official of the Board is the permanent
secretary, whose office has been described as the " nerve-centre "
of the admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers
for the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication
of departments and for the correspondence of the Board. The
tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the perma-
nent secretary, and it is most important that he should be
chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in as
many of them as possible, in order that he may possess a thorough
knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty system.
In addition to the secretarial duties of the permanent secretary's
department, the permanent secretary has charge of the military,
naval and legal branches, each under a principal clerk, the civil
branch and the record office. The various branches deal with
matters concerning the commissioning of ships and the distribu-
tion of the fleet, and the manning and discipline of the navy,
with other associated matters, being the channels for the opera-
tions of the naval lords. It is a highly important function of
the department of the permanent secretary to preserve the
inter-related working of the various departments, and to keep
unbroken the thread of administration when a new Board is
constituted.

3. Business and Responsibility. — The manner in which the
Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its charge
has been indicated. It would be impossible here to describe
it in detail, though something concerning the civil departments,
which are the machinery of naval administration, will be found
below. It will, however, indicate the character of admiralty
administration if we explain to some extent the conditions
which surround the preparation of the estimates and the ship-
building programme, the more so because this matter has been
the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the admiralty.
It has already been pointed out that the naval lords, if they
dissent from the estimates that are presented, have no remedy
but that of protest or resignation. Into the controversies that
have arisen as to the responsibility of the several lords it is
unnecessary to enter here. The Admiralty Board possesses, in
fact, the character of a council, and its members can only be
held responsible for their advice. It has even been contended
that, in the circumstances, it should not be incumbent upon
them to sign the navy estimates, and there have been instances
in which the estimates have been presented to parliament
without the signature of certain naval lords. It is in any case
obvious, as has been explained above, that the ultimate responsi-
bility must always rest with the first lord and the cabinet, by
whom the policy of the country is shaped and directed. In the
report of the Hartington Commission in 1890 (the chairman of
which became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the
civil and professional administration of the Naval and Military
Departments, and the relation of these departments to each
other and to the treasury, the following recommendation
occurs: "On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility
of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval re-
quirements of the empire, and the existence of a council should
be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility."

Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the
strength of the navy. They are, the foreign policy of the cabinet,
and, on the ground of practical expediency, the amount of money
available. "The estimates and strength of the navy," said
Rear-Admiral Hotham before the select committee on the navy
estimates, 1888, " are matters for the cabinet to determine."
" Expense," said Sir Anthony Hoskins, " governs everything."
The needs of the empire and financial considerations, as it is
scarcely necessary to remark, may prove to be antithetical
conditions governing the same problem, and in practice it follows
that the Admiralty Board directs its operations in accordance
with the views of the government, but limited by the public
funds which are known to be available. Such considerations

suggest a practical limitation of responsibility, so far as the
several lords of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be
presumed to be their duty individually or collectively to place
their views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton
told the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should
represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable
for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize that all
financial considerations should be put on one side. The commis-
sioners reported that this was the only common-sense view of the
matter, and that it was difficult to see on what other footing
the control of navy expenditure, consistently with responsibility
to parliament, could be placed.

Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuild-
ing programme — the carrying forward of the work in hand and
the new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary
that proper provision should be made for the employment and
distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase of
necessary materials. Through the director of naval construction
and the director of dockyards, the controller is kept informed as
to the progress of work and the amount of labour required, as
also in regard to the building facilities of the yards. These
matters, in a general way, must form a subject of discussion
between the first naval lord and the controller, who will report
on the subject to the first lord. The accountant-general, as the
financial officer of the Board, will be called upon to place the
proposed estimates upon a financial basis, and when the views
of the cabinet are known as to the amount of money available, the
several departments charged with the duty of preparing the
various votes will proceed with that work. The financial basis
alluded to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous
year, modified by the new conditions that arise. There has been
in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding pro-
grammes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence Act of
1889, which looked ahead and was not content with hand-to-
mouth provision, a better state of things has grown up, and,
with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy characterized by
something of continuity has been developed. Certainly the
largest factor in the better state of things has been the growth
of a strong body of public opinion as to the supreme value of the
navy for national and imperial welfare.

Another important and related matter that comes before the
Board of Admiralty is the character and design of ships. The
naval members of the Board indicate the classes and qualities
desired, and it is the practice that the sketch-design, presented
in accordance with the instructions, is fully discussed by the first
naval lord and the controller, and afterwards by the Board. The
design then takes further shape, and when it has received the final
sanction of the Board it cannot be altered without the sanction
of the same authority. A similar procedure is found in the other
business of the Admiralty Board, such as shore-works, docks and
the preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare — the
last being a very important matter that falls into the operations
of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been described,
though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly in no large sense,
as " the brain of the navy." That department is under the
direction of the first naval lord.

The shipbuilding programme may be described as the corner-
stone of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it
depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes relat-
ing to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But if the
Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord for the
preparation of the estimates, it is also charged with the business
of supervising expenditure. In this matter the financial secretary
plays a' large part, and is directed to assist the spending depart-
ment of the admiralty in their duty of watching the progress of
their liabilities and disbursements. Some notes on admiralty
finance will be found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes
set the larger machinery of the admiralty in motion. The execu-
tive departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery
of ships and the special requirements of the director of works,
do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the
director of navy contracts. Most of the important executive and

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

199

spending branches are in the department of the controller, and
it will be well, while we are dealing with the material side of the
navy, to describe briefly their character and duties. The civil
branches of the navy tributary to the controller are those of the
director of naval construction, the engineer-in-chief, the directors
of naval ordnance, of dockyards and of stores, and the inspector
of dockyard expense accounts. The first duty of the controller
is, as has been explained, in relation to the design and construc-
tion of ships and their machinery, and the executive officials who
have charge of that work are the director of naval construction
and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely inter-
related. A vast administrative stride has been made in this
particular branch of the admiralty. The work of design and con-
struction now go forward together, and the admiralty designers
are in close touch with the work in hand at the dockyards. This
has been largely brought about by the institution, in 1883, of the
royal corps of naval constructors, whose members interchange
their duties between the designing of ships at the admiralty
and practical work at the dockyards. It is through the director
of naval construction that many of the spending departments
are set in motion, since he is responsible both for the design of
ships and for their construction. ' It deserves to be noticed, how-
ever, that a certain obscurity exists in regard to the relative
duties of the director of naval construction and the director of
dockyards touching constructive works in the yards. The former
officer has also charge of all the work given out to contract,
though it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that
the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled. In all this
work the director of naval construction collaborates with the
engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a sub-
ordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely
resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships.

The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the Con-
troller's Department whose operations are very closely related
to the duties of the director 6f naval construction, and the rela-
tion is both intimate and sustained, for in the Ordnance Depart-
ment everything that relates to guns, gun-mountings, magazines,
torpedo apparatus, electrical fittings for guns, and other elec-
trical fittings is centred. A singular feature of this branch of
administration is that the navy long since lost direct control of
ordnance matters, through the duties connected with naval
gunnery, formerly in the hands of the master-general of the
ordnance, and those of the Board of Ordnance — a department
common to the sea and land services — being vested in 1835 in
the secretary of state for war. A more satisfactory state of things
has grown up through the appointment of the director of naval
ordnance, taking the place of the naval officer who formerly
advised the director of artillery at the War Office. Expenditure
on ordnance has also been transferred from the army to the navy
estimates, and a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been
created. It cannot be said that the condition is yet satisfactory,
nor can it be until the navy has control of and responsibility for
its own ordnance. The assistant-director of torpedoes is an
officer instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his
duty is to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo
matters.

The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards
in 1885, at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense
accounts was instituted. It is upon the director of dockyards
(g.v.) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in regard
to the management of dockyards and naval establishments at
home and abroad, and to the performance of work in these estab-
lishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and
refits. In this department the programme for work in the dock-
yards is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates.

We now come to the Stores Department, with the director of
stores as its chief. This officer, about the year 1869, took over
the storekeeping duties previously vested in the storekeeper-
general. The Naval Store Department is charged with the cus-
tody and issue of naval, as distinguished from victualling and
ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards and establish-
ments for the building, fitting and repairing of warships. It

has, however, no concern with stores that belong to the Depart-
ment of Works. The business of the director of stores is also to
receive and issue the stores for ships of all classes in commission
and reserve, and he deals with a vast array of objects and
materials necessary for the fleet, and with coals and coaling.
He frames the estimates for his department, but his purchases
are made through the director of navy contracts. In practice
the main business of the Stores Department is to see to the pro-
vision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply of these
at all the establishments, and for this purpose its officials direct
the movements of storeships, and arrange for the despatch of
colliers, the director being charged to be " careful to provide
for His Majesty's ships on foreign stations, and for the necessary
supplies to foreign yards." Another important business of the
director of stores is the examination of the store accounts of
ships as well as some other accounts. Although the director of
stores is really in the department of the controller, he is super-
vised in regard to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord.
The inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded
to. He is the officer charged with keeping a record of expendi-
ture at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts.

It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the
money. Within the controller's department, as has been ex-
plained, are centred the more important spending
branches of the admiralty. While the work of design- tun."'
ing ships and preparing plans is in progress, the director
of stores, the director of dockyards and other officials of that
department concerned are making preparation for the work.
The necessary stores, comprising almost every imaginable class
of materials, are brought together, and the director of stores is
specially charged to obtain accurate information in regard to re-
quirements. He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work
being undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is con-
cerned with the whole business of supply, except in regard to
hulls and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special
requirements of the director of works. At the same time, the
civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible for the
administration of the votes they compile, it is their duty to watch
the outlay of money, and to see that it is well expended, the ac-
countant-general being directed to assist them in this work. The
system is closely jointed and well administered, but it possesses
a very centralized character, which interferes to some extent
with flexible working, and with the progress of necessary repairs,
especially in foreign yards. In so far as ships given out to con-
tract are concerned (and the same is the case in regard to pro-
pelling machinery built by contract), the director of navy con-
tracts plays no part, the professional business being conducted
through the controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the
director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief. The
work conducted in private establishments is closely watched by
the admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis
mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is practi-
cally the same as that which prevails in the dockyards.

4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General's Department. —
The subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of
vast importance. The. large sums of money with which the
admiralty deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure,
amounting recently to about £30,000,000 annually, implies the
existence of the great organization which is found in the depart-
ment of the accountant-general of the navy. Under the authority
of the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is
responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and for
the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the pur-
chases, and for all matters which concern the relations of the
admiralty to the treasury and to other departments of the
government; and in all the practical and advisory work the
accountant-general is his officer, acting as his assistant, with the
director of naval contracts who, under the several lords, is con-
cerned with the business of purchase.

The organization of the accountant-general's department has
undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the out-
come of various modifications which have had for their purpose

200

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

to give to this officer a measure of financial control. There
have been various views as to what the duties of the accountant-
general should be. After the reorganization of the admiralty
by Sir James Graham in 1832, the accountant-general was re-
garded as a recording and accounting officer, wholly concerned
with receipt and expenditure. His duties were limited to the
auditing of accounts, payments and expenditure generally.
Owing to changes effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary
secretary, assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the
admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments
into his charge, the accountant-general was invested with the
power of criticizing these accounts financially, though he did not
as yet possess any financial control, and the position was little
changed by fresh rules made in 1876. It was not until 1880 that
the powers of the accountant-general were enlarged in this direc-
tion. It was then ordered that he should be consulted before
any expenditure which the estimates had not provided for was
incurred, and before any money voted was applied to other pur-
poses than those for which it was provided. The effect of this
order was not happy, for the accountant-general could not under-
take these duties without setting up friction with the departments
whose accounts he criticized. It was contemplated by the
admiralty in 1885 to make the accountant-general the assistant
of the financial secretary, and to raise him to the position of a
permanent officer of finance instead of being an officer of account
invested with imperfect authority in the direction of control.
A select committee of the House of Commons reported that the
accountant-general possessed no financial control over the de-
partments, and that there was an urgent need for establishing
such a control. At the time the position of that officer did not
enable him to exercise any sufficient general supervision over
expenditure, and there was no permanent high official expressly
charged with finance. Accordingly, after being submitted to
a departmental committee, a fresh arrangement was made in
November 1885, whereby the accountant-general, under the
authority of the financial secretary, was given a direct share in the
preparation of the estimates. His written concurrence was re-
quired before the final approval of the votes, and each vote was
referred to him for his approval or observations, and he was to
exercise a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was
properly accounted for. He became, in fact, " the officer to be
consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of naval
funds." It was believed that economical administration would
result; but much opposition was raised to the principle that was
involved of submitting the proposals of responsible departments
to the inexpert criticism of a financial authority. Mr Main, assist-
ant accountant-general, stated before the Royal Commission on
Civil Establishments, 1887, that the effect had been to develop
a tendency to withhold information or to afford only partial
information, as well as to cause friction when questions were
raised affecting expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in
those cases in which these questions were manifestly of a legiti-
mate character. The result was discouraging, and in the opinion
of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to
defeat the purpose of the order. It is unnecessary to detail the
various changes that have been made by the institution of dock-
yard expense accounts in the department of the controller, and
by various other alterations introduced. The treasury instituted
an independent audit of store accounts which greatly affected
the position of the accountant-general, and the Royal Commission
• on Civil Establishments reported that the Board of Admiralty
were of opinion that they could dispense with the accountant-
general's review altogether. The commission was, however, of
opinion that the accountant-general should be the permanent
assistant and adviser, on all matters involving the outlay of
public money, of the financial secretary.

The operations of the accountant-general are now conducted
in accordance with the order in council of the i8th of November
1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly afterwards.
He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the parliamentary and
financial secretary, and works with a finance committee within
the admiralty, of which the financial secretary is president and

the accountant-general himself vice-president. The duties of
the department are precisely defined as consisting in the criticism
of the annual estimates as to their sufficiency before they are
passed, and in advising the financial and parliamentary secre-
tary as to their satisfying the ordinary conditions of economy.
The accountant-general also reviews the progress of liabilities
and expenditure, and in relation to dockyard expenditure he
considers the proposed programme of construction as it affects
labour, material and machinery. He further reviews current
expenditure, or the employment of labour and material, as dis-
tinguished from cash payments of the yard, as well as proposals
for the spending of money on new work or repairs of any kind for
which estimates are currently proposed. The accountant-general's
department has three principal divisions: the estimates division,
the navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division. In
the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the work of
accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of votes, and with
preparing the navy appropriation account, as well as the esti-
mates and liabilities branch, in which the navy estimates are
largely prepared after having been proposed and worked out in
the executive departments of the admiralty. There are also
ships' establishments and salaries branches. The navy pay
division includes the full and half-pay branch and a registry
section. There is also the seamen's pay branch, which audits
ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge of all matters concerning
the wages of seamen. The victualling audit is also in this branch,
and is concerned with payments for savings in lieu of victual-
ling and some other matters. Further, the navy pay division
examines ships' ledgers, and is concerned with the service, char-
acters, ages, &c., of men as well as with allotments and pensions.
The third division of the accountant-general's department,
known as that of invoices and claims, conducts a vast amount
of clerical work through many branches, and is concerned with
the management of naval savings banks and matters touching
prize-money and bounties.

The importance of this great department of the admiralty
cannot be overrated. It is, in the first place, of supreme im-
portance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a sound
financial basis; and in practice the Board requires the concur-
rence of the accountant-general to the votes before they are
approved, and thus in greater or less degree this officer is con-
cerned in the preparation of every one of the votes. He does not
concern himself with matters of larger policy outside the domain
of finance, and it must be confessed that there appears to be
something anomalous in his " review " of naval expenditure.
It is, however, a mark of the flexibility or elasticity of the ad-
miralty system that in practice the operations of the accountant-
general's department work easily, and that admiralty finance is
recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient
basis. There are important financial officers outside the ac-
countant-general's department concerned with assisting the
controller. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who
is entirely in the controller's department, enables him to exercise
careful supervision over expenditure and the distribution of
funds to special purposes. This work, however, though highly
important, is merely one part of the system of financial control.
Within recent years the bonds have been considerably tightened,
and the work is untainted by corruption. It is true that in
exercising rigid supervision over expenditure the work has
become more centralized than is desirable, and it is a mark of
change within recent years that local officers have been in larger
measure deprived of independent powers. This, indeed, is a
necessary condition of financial control, or at least a condition
which it is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary.

5. Mobilization of the Fleet. — By the mobilization of the fleet
is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, in
readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile opera-
tions. A complete mobilization for purposes of practice in peace
time would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which would be
justifiable only by actual war. Thus no country in peace
manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes use of the
auxiliary cruisers — merchant ships for which a subvention is

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION

201

paid, and which are constructed with a view to use in warfare.
Experience has shown that when vessels are commissioned they
are liable to numerous small breakdowns of their machinery if
they are manned by crews who have no familiarity with them.
Many accidents of this kind had occurred in the British navy at
manoeuvres, though it could not be shown that the vessel was
defective, or that the crew was either untrained or negligent.
These experiments led the admiralty to adopt a new system in
1904, designed to obviate the risk that vessels would be crippled
at a critical moment by want of acquaintance on the part of
the crew with their machinery. Under this system all vessels
which are considered to be available for war are divided into two
classes: — first, those in full commission which constitute the
different squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those
which form the reserve and are kept in partial commission — or
rather partially manned though in commission. These are kept
at the home ports — Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth — in re-
serve squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in
war. Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a
proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating and
torpedo officers. Two-fifths of her full complement of crew are
always on board, and they include the most skilled men needed
for the proper management of the machinery of all kinds — more
especially that of the torpedoes and guns. These vessels go to
sea for periodical practice. When therefore the fleet must be
mobilized for war it will only be necessary to fill up the number
of trained men by the less skilled hands from the naval barracks
occupied by the sailors not belonging to any particular ship, or
from the naval reserve. All ranks of the navy are placed on a
roster by which they successively serve in ships in full commission,
are quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to
the ships of the reserve, from which they return to the sea-going
ships. It is calculated that there are always men enough in the
barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for emer-
gency service without disturbing the regular routine of the peace
establishment. The British admiralty may claim that though
the machinery at its command in the past was not perfect it
has commonly been able to send a squadron to sea more rapidly
than any other power in Europe. Much depends on the arrange-
ment of the stores as well as the disposition of the men. The
introduction at the end of the i8th century of the businesslike
practice of keeping the fittings of each ship together by them-
selves, did much to facilitate the rapid mobilization of a portion
of the British fleet in 1790 which impressed all Europe. The
prompt manning of a special service squadron in 1895 in conse-
quence of the troubles then arising in connexion with the former
South African Republic, showed that even before its plans for
mobilization were completed the admiralty had its resources
well in hand. (R .V. H.)

As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain,
their government is in the hands of ministers or departments

variously constituted. The Russian admiralty is a
countries, highly organized bureau, divided into departments, and

under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually a
grand duke of the Imperial House. The German admiralty was,
till 1872, a branch of the War Office, though governed by a vice-
admiral under a naval prince of the reigning family. In 1872 it
was severed from the War Office, though remaining an appanage
thereof, and a general of the army was placed at its head. The
French minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls
the navy of France on a highly centralized system of adminis-
tration; but the departments are well organized, and work well.
The Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the
French, but with a large admixture of the English representative
element. The American system is worth describing in more detail.
The president of the United States is commander-in-chief of
the navy — a constitutional prerogative which he seldom asserts.
united The Navy Department is administered by a civilian
states secretary of the navy — a cabinet officer appointed by
iavyDe- tjje president — who exercises general supervision.

Next in authority is the assistant-secretary, also a
civilian nominee, who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, cer-

tain specific duties, including general supervision of the marine
corps, naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental
limits of the United States. The details of administration are
supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are eight.
They are appointed by the president from the navy list for a
period of four years, and have the rank of rear-admiral while
serving in this capacity. They have direct control of the business
and correspondence pertaining to their respective bureaus;
and orders emanating from them have the same force as though
issued by the secretary.

The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau,
and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulations
prescribed by the secretary; it has general direction of the
procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the per-
sonnel. It also controls the movements of ships, including the
authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target practice.
The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical appliances,
compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all that relates to
the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those articles that come
naturally under the cognizance of other bureaus. It has charge
of the naval observatory, where the Ephemeris is prepared annu-
ally, and of the hydrographic office, where charts, sailing direc-
tions, notices to mariners, &c., are issued. The bureau of ord-
nance has charge of the gun factory, proving ground, and torpedo
station, and all naval magazines; all the details that pertain
to the manufacture, tests, installation or storage of all offensive
and defensive apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists,
ammunition rooms, &c., though much of the actual installation
is performed by the bureau of construction after consultation
with the bureau of ordnance. The bureau of construction and
repair has charge of the designing, building and repairing of
hulls of ships, including turrets, spars and many other acces-
sories. It builds all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels
and the care of ships in reserve. The chief of this bureau is
usually a naval constructor. The bureau of steam engineering
has charge of all that relates to the designing, building and
repairing of steam machinery, and of all the steam connexions
on board ship. The bureau of supplies and accounts procures
and distributes provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay
department afloat, and acts as the purchasing agent for all
materials used at naval stations, except for the medical depart-
ment and marine corps. It also has charge of the disbursement
of money and keeping of accounts. The chief of this bureau is
a pay officer. The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of
all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, and of all
that pertains to the care of sick afloat and ashore. The chief of
this bureau is a medical officer. The bureau of yards and docks
has charge of construction and maintenance of wet and dry
docks, buildings, railways, cranes, and generally all permanent
constructions at naval stations. The chief of this bureau is often
a civil engineer.

Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office of
the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the president
from the navy list for a term of four years, with the rank of
captain while so serving. He is legal adviser to the department,
and reviews the records of all courts and statutory boards.
Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's office is the
office of naval intelligence, which collates information on naval
matters obtainable at home and abroad. The staff is composed
of naval officers on shore duty, the senior in charge being usually
a captain, and known as chief intelligence officer. Several
boards are employed under the various bureaus, or directly as
advisers to the secretary. Some are permanent in character,
while others are composed of officers employed on other duty,
and are convoked periodically or when required. The naval
policy board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once
a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in
armies. The board of construction consists of the chiefs of
bureaus of ordnance, equipment, construction and repair,
steam engineering, and the chief intelligence officer. Its duty
is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the con-
struction policy in detail. The general construction policy is

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ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION *

suggested by the naval policy board. The board of inspection
and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who in-
spect vessels soon after commission and on return from a cruise,
and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency of its per-
sonnel; it also conducts the official trials of new vessels. The
boards for the examination of officers for promotion are com-
posed of officers of the corps to which the candidate belongs
and of medical officers. Every officer is examined professionally,
morally and physically at each promotion. The Navy Depart-
ment is located at Washington, D.C., and occupies a building
together with the State and War Departments (the latter being
charged solely with army affairs).

The personnel (see also under NAVY) is limited in number by
law. The engineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then en-
gineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective relative
grades. Line officers are the military and executive branch,
and are required besides to perform engineer duties. They are
graduates of the Naval Academy. Vacancies occurring in the
construction corps are filled from the graduates of the Naval
Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, who are
given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, on being
graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed assistant
naval constructors. All other staff officers are appointed
directly from civil life by the president, from candidates passing
prescribed examinations. Each representative and delegate in
Congress has authority to nominate a candidate for naval cadet
whenever his congressional district has no representative in
the Naval Academy. The candidate must be a resident of the
district which the congressman represents, between fifteen and
twenty years old, and must pass prescribed mental and physical
examinations. The president is allowed ten representatives
at the Academy at all times, appointed " at large," and one
appointed from the District of Columbia.

The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, each
comprising eight months' study, three months' practice cruise,
and one month's furlough. At the expiration of four years,
cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' further instruc-
tion, and are then commissioned ensigns. After three years'
further sea service, ensigns are promoted to lieutenants (junior
grade). After this, promotion is dependent upon seniority
alone, the senior officer in any grade being promoted to the lowest
number in the next higher grade when a vacancy occurs in the
higher grade, and not before. All officers are retired on three-
fourths sea pay at the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of
medical officers certifies that an officer is not physically qualified
to perform all duties of his grade. A few officers are allowed to
retire voluntarily in certain circumstances, tostimulate promotion.
Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by the secretary
to such duty as he may be able to perform: this is a legal pro-
vision to provide for emergencies. Promotion in the staff corps
is dependent upott seniority, though relative rank in the lower
grades in some corps somewhat depends upon promotion of line
officers of the same length of service, and accounts for the exist-
ence of staff officers in the same grade having different ranks.
All sea-going officers, after commission, are required to spend
three years at sea, and are then usually employed on shore-duty
for a time, according to the needs of the service — short terms of
shore-duty thereafter alternating with three-year cruises. This
rule is adhered to as strictly as circumstances will permit.
Shore-duty includes executive or distinctly professional duties
in the Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards
and stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c.,
under construction by private firms; duty on numerous tempo-
rary or permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy;
recruiting duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; in-
spection duty in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical
schools; as attach6s with United States legations; and many
others. Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and pro-
fessors of mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty
connected with their professions, the Naval Observatory,
Nautical Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of
the last.

Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, sailmakers,
warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the
secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy
who have shown marked ability for the positions. They must
be between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an
examination. After serving satisfactorily for one year under an
acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the
permanency of their office. Ten years after appointment,
boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible for
examination for a commission as chief-boatswain, &c., and as
such they rank with, but next after, ensigns. Mates are rated
by the secretary from seamen or ordinary seamen. They have
no relative rank, but take precedence of all petty officers. Their
duties approximate to those of boatswains, though they seldom
serve on large cruising vessels. Clerks to pay officers are ap-
pointed by the secretary on the nominations of the pay officers.
They have no rank and are not promoted or retired. Their
appointments are revoked when their services are no longer
needed.

Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good char-
acter, who can read and write and pass the physical examination,
may enlist for the term of their minority. They enlist as third-
class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a
training station, and thence go to sea in apprentice training
vessels. When proficient they are transferred to regular cruising
vessels as second class, and when further qualified are rated first
class. All other enlistments are for four years. Recruits must
speak English. Landsmen are usually sent to sea on special
training-ships until proficient, and are then sent into general
service. Raw recruits may enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers
or mess attendants. Ordinary seamen must have served two
years, and seamen four years before the mast, prior to first
enlistment as such; and before enlistment in any other rating
allowed on first enlistment, applicants must prove their ability
to hold such rating. Landsmen, coal-passers, &c., as soon as
they become proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if
American citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking
with army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments.
In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is estab-
lished, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an acting
appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. Permanent
appointments are not revokable except by sentence of court-
martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which he held a
permanent appointment in his previous enlistment. All persons
re-enlisting within four months after expiration of previous
enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four months' pay,
and in addition receive a " continuous service certificate,"
which entitles them to higher pay and to other special considera-
tions. The same is true for each re-enlistment. When an en-
listed man completes thirty years' service and is over fifty years
of age he may retire on three-fourths pay.

The Marine corps (see MARINES) is a wholly separate military
body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department.

United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at private yards
under contracts awarded after competition. The government
is not committed to any fixed policy or building programme.
Each year the secretary recommends certain new construction.
The final action rests with Congress, which must appropriate
money for the new ships before the construction can be com-
menced. Repairing and reconstruction are usually done at
government navy yards.

Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (i)
the North Atlantic, i.e. the Atlantic coast of the United States,
Central America, and South America as far as the Amazon, also
the West Indies; (2) the South Atlantic, i.e. the remainder of the
Atlantic coast of South America and both coasts of South Africa;
(3) the European, comprising the coast of Europe, including
the inland seas, and the North Atlantic coast of Africa; (4) the
Asiatic station, comprising the coast of Asia, including the
islands north of the equator, also the east coast of North Africa;
(5) the Pacific station, comprising the Pacific coast of North and
South America, and Australia and the adjacent islands lying

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

203

south of the equator. Each station is commanded by a flag
officer, and the number of ships under the command varies
according to circumstances. Ships in commission on special
service, such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c., are
not attached to stations. The shore stations of the navy are
enumerated in the article on DOCKYARDS. (W. T. S.)

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF. The High Court of Ad-
miralty of England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant
of the admiral. It is supposed in the Black Book of the Admiralty
to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would
appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that it was
established as a civil court by Edward III. in the year 1360; the
power of the admiral to determine matters of discipline in the
fleet, and possibly questions of piracy and prize, being somewhat
earlier. Even then the court as such took no formal shape; but
the various admirals began to receive in their patents express
grants of jurisdiction with powers to appoint lieutenants or de-
puties. At first there were separate admirals or rear-admirals of
the north, south and west, each with deputies and courts. A list
of them was collected by Sir H. Spelman. These were merged in
or absorbed by one high court early in the isth century. Sir
Thomas Beaufort, afterwards earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter
(appointed admiral of the fleet 1407, and admiral of England,
Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, which latter office he held till his
death in 1426), certainly had a court, with a marshal and other
officers, and forms of legal process — mandates, warrants, citations,
compulsories, proxies, &c. Complaints of encroachment of
jurisdiction by the Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts,
13 Ric. II. c. 5 (1389), 15 Ric. II. c. 3 (1391) and 2 Hen. IV. c. n
(1400).

The original object of the institution of the courts or court seems
to have been to prevent or punish piracy and other crimes upon
the narrow seas and to deal with questions of prize;
U0a but civil jurisdiction soon followed. The jurisdiction

in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences
at Sea Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three
or four other substantial persons appointed by the lord chan-
cellor, who were to proceed according to the course of the common
law. By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of
crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty was
given to the central criminal court. By an act of 1844 it has been
also given to the justices of assize; and crimes done within the
jurisdiction of the admiralty are now tried as crimes committed
within the body of a county. See also the Criminal Law Con-
solidation Acts of 1861.

From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting the
civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till the time of
Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, enabling the
admiral or his lieutenant to decide on certain complaints of
freighters against shipmasters for delay in sailing, and one of
1562, giving the lord high admiral of England, the lord warden
of the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants and judges, co-ordinate
power with other judges to enforce forfeitures under that act —
a very curious and miscellaneous statute called " An Act for the
Maintenance of the Navy. "

In an act of 1534, with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from
the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided that the
appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, " and that upon every
such appeal a commission shall be directed under the great seal
to such persons as shall be named by the king's highness, his heirs
or successors, like as in cases of appeal from the Admiralty
Court. " The appeal to these " persons, " called delegates, con-
tinued until it was transferred first to the privy council and then
to the judicial committee of the privy council by acts of 1832
and 1833.

The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been exer-
cised very much under the same procedure as that used by the
courts of common law. Juries are mentioned, sometimes of the
county and sometimes of the county and merchants. But the
connexion with foreign parts led to the gradual introduction of
a procedure resembling that coming into use on the continent
and based on the Roman civil law. The Offences at Sea Act

1536 states the objection to this application of the civil law to
the trial of criminal cases with much force: " After the course
of the civil laws, the nature whereof is that before any judgment
of death can be given against the offenders, either they must
plainly confess their offences (which they will never do without
torture or pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly
proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences com-
mitted, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times. "

The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as
follows: — An act of 1389 (13 Ric. II. c. 5) provided that " the
admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from
henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only
of a thing done upon the sea, as it hath been used in
the time of the noble prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord
the king that now is. " Theactof 1391 (15 Ric. II. c. 3) provided
that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other
things rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as
by water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court
shall have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction;
but all such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other
things rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land as by
water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be tried, deter-
mined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the land, and not
before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in any wise. Never-
theless, of the death of a man, and of a maihem done in great
ships, being and hovering in the main stream of great rivers, only
beneath the [bridges] of the same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in
none other places of the same rivers, the admiral shall have
cognizance, and also to arrest ships in the great flotes for the
great voyages of the king and of the realm; saving always to
the king all manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming;
and he shall have also jurisdiction upon the said flotes, during
the said voyages only; saving always to the lords, cities, and
boroughs, their liberties and franchises. " The act of 1400 (2
Hen. IV. c. u) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction,
but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments,
providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the court,
and those officials of the court who improperly assert juris-
diction. It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 1861.
The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the second,
were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879.
The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete.

In the reign of James I. the chronic controversies between the
courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the limits
of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute stage. We find
the records of it in the second volume of Marsden's Select Pleas
in the Court of Admiralty, and in Lord Coke's writings: Reports,
part xiii. 51; Institutes, part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage
Lord Coke records how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted
to have been made in 1575 between the justices of the King's
Bench and the judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common
law courts successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits
in admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens,
or creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body of
any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for torts
committed within the body of a county, whether on land or
water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas. It is
due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to say that,
at any rate as regards contracts made in partibus transmarinis,
the same rule appears to have been applied at least as early as
1544, the judges then holding that " for actions transitory abroad
action may lie at common law. "

All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty judge
purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction than the
jealousy of the other courts would concede to him.
The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert
Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867,
styles him " Lieut. Off1. Princ1. and Commissary Gen1, and Special
in our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge
of the same, " and gives to him power to take cognizance of " all
causes, civil and maritime, also all contracts, complaints, offences
or suspected offences, crimes, pleas, debts, exchanges, accounts,

Judge's
patent.

204

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

policies of assurance, loading of ships, and all other matters and
contracts which relate to freight due for the use of ships, trans-
portation, money or bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime
between merchants or between proprietors of ships and other
vessels for matters in, upon, or by the sea, or public streams, or
fresh-water ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever
within the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or
upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the first
bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland and the
dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas." Power is also
given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also "to arrest . . .
according to the civil laws and ancient customs of our high court
. . . all ships, persons, things, goods, wares and merchandise";
also " to enquire by the oaths of honest and lawful men
. . . of all . . . things which . . . ought to be enquired after,
and to mulct, arrest, punish, chastise and reform "; also " to
preserve the public streams of our admiralty as well for the pre-
servation of our royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our
kingdom . . . as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers" ;
also " to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and
instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes "; also to take
cognizance " of the wreck of the sea ... and of the death,
drowning and view of dead bodies," and the conservation of the
statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office of coroner
[1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and " the cognizance of
mayhem " within the ebb and flow of the tide; all in as ample
manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr David Lewis
[judge from 155810 1584], Sir Julius Caesar, and the other judges
in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert Phillimore. This form of
patent differs in but few respects from the earlier Latin patents
— tempore Henry VIII. — except that they have a clause non
obstantibus statutis.

As has been said, however, the contention of the common law
judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for a tem-
porary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative
insignificance during the lyth century. The great
maritime wars of the i8th century gave scope to the
exercise of its prize jurisdiction; and its international import-
ance as a prize court in the latter half of the i8th and the first
part of the ipth centuries is a matter of common historical
knowledge. There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each year
between 1803 and 1811, in some years upwards of 2000.

There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, after-
wards Lord Stowell, is the most famous. Before his time there
were no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's
prize decisions. But from his time onwards there has been a
continuous stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find
important cases decided on the instance as well as on the
prize side.

In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840 and
1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the
court. The manner in which these statutes were administered
by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose tenure
of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign till the
creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable assistance
rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity House, the
great increase of shipping, especially of steam shipping, and the
number and gravity of cases of collision, salvage and damage
to cargo, restored the activity of the court and made it one of
the most important tribunals of the country. In 1875, by the
operation of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, the High
Court of Admiralty was with the other great courts of England
formed into the High Court of Justice. The principal officers
of the court in subordination to the judge were the registrar (an
office which always points to a connexion with canon or civil
law), and the marshal, who acted as the maritime sheriff, having
for his baton of office a silver oar. The assistance of the Trinity
Masters, which has been already mentioned, was provided for
in the charter of incorporation of the Trinity House. These
officers and their assistance have been preserved in the High
Court of Justice.

Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court of

Modern
progress

Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical courts
and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary courts.
Advocates took the place of barristers, and proctors
of solicitors. The place of the attorney-general was ^^ /„
taken by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and the court.
that of the treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's
procurator or proctor. There were also an admiralty advocate
and an admiralty proctor. The king's advocate also repre-
sented the crown in the ecclesiastical courts, and was its
standing adviser in matters of international and foreign law.
The king's advocate led the bar of his courts, and before the
privy council took precedence of the attorney-general. The
admiralty advocate or advocate to his majesty in his office of
admiralty represented specially the lords of the admiralty. In
the Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate.

In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open to barristers
and to attorneys and solicitors.

Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open,
the crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advo-
cate after the attorney- and solicitor-general. There were two
holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. Phillimore
and Sir Travers Twiss. The office was not filled up after the
resignation of the latter. The admiralty had, when the courts
were thrown open, a standing counsel for the ordinary courts
and a solicitor. Questions soon arose as to the respective claims
of the admiralty advocate and the counsel to the admiralty,
and their acuteness was increased when the courts were fused
into one High Court of Justice. Upon the resignation of Sir
James Parker Deane the office of admiralty advocate was not
filled up. In like manner the proctor to the admiralty has
disappeared. The office of king's or queen's proctor has been
kept alive but amalgamated with that of the solicitor for the
treasury. That officer uses the title of king's proctor when he
appears in certain matrimonial causes.

The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the ad-
miralty was Alexander Staveley Hill, K.C.,M.P. Since his death
the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate and the
admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the ordinary
law officers of the crown with the assistance of a junior counsel
to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the attorney-general)
perform the duties of all these offices.

The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister whose
function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters connected
with courts-martial. Though section 61 of the Naval judge
Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his Advocate
presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays °J,the
attend, but is represented by his deputy or by an
officiating deputy judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the
admiralty, the commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron
who convenes the court-martial, or, if no such appointment
is made, by the president of the court-martial. But though the
judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the courts-
martial very responsible duties are imposed upon him. By a
minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still in force) all
proceedings of courts-martial on officers and men of the royal
navy, excepting those where the prisoner pleads guilty and no
evidence is taken, are to be referred to him, with a view to the
consideration of (a) the charge, (b) the evidence on which the
finding is based, and (c) the legality of the sentence, and he writes
a minute on each case for the information of the lords commis-
sioners of the admiralty with regard to these points. He has no
power to modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the
admiralty by § 53 (i) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except
in the case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by
the crown. All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are
examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any reason
to think that there has been any informality or that the prisoner
has not understood the effect of his plea, such case is submitted
to the judge advocate of the fleet for his opinion. The judge
advocate of the fleet receives no fees but is remunerated by a
salary of £500 per annum.

The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS— ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 205

the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, but
no such officer had been appointed up to 1908.

In accordance with the provisions of § 61 of the Naval Disci-
pline Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet
and his deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for
each court-martial. His duties are described in detail by the
king's regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of
seeing that the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities
or defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, seeing
that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is summoned,
keeping the minutes of the proceedings, advising on matters of
law which arise at any time after the warrant for the court-
martial is issued, drawing up the findings and sentence, and
forwarding the minutes when completed to the admiralty. The
officiating judge advocate is usually the secretary of the flag-
officer convening the court-martial or some other officer of the
accountancy branch. He is remunerated for his services by a
fixed fee for each day the court sits.

Ireland. — The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being
formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat
in the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal
and a king's or queen's advocate. In peace time and war time
alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction, though in 1793
it claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see ADMIRALTY JURIS-
DICTION). No prize commission ever issued to it. By the Irish
Judicature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should be amalga-
mated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the next
vacancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took place.
There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland.

Scotland. — At the Union, while the national functions of the
lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was pro-
vided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in Scot-
land should be continued " for determination of all maritime
cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the
jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court." This court continued till
1831 , when its civil jurisdiction was given to the Court of Session
and the Sheriffs' Courts (see ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION).

See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, Rolls series;
R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, published
by the Selden Society; Godolphin, View of the Admiral Juris-
diction. (W. G. F. P.)

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying
north of New Guinea, between i° and 3° S., and 146° and 148°
E., within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany.
The largest, Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest
point is about 3000 ft. above the sea; the others are very small,
and rise little above sea-level. Most are of coral formation, but
the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct volcanoes. The
islands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, and visited in
1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems to have been
effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until the arrival of the
" Challenger " in 1875. The natives are of the Papuan type, but
show signs of mixed origin. They are cannibals, and many
murders of whites have taken place.

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far
as we know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first
exercised were the following. In and throughout England the
courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High
Court of Admiralty (see ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF) . Within
the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty of the
Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction. In certain
towns and places there were local courts of vice-admiralty. In
Scotland there existed the Scottish High Court of Admiralty, in
Ireland the Irish High Court of Admiralty. Of these courts
that of the Cinque Ports alone remains untouched. The Scot-
tish court was abolished, and its civil jurisdiction given to the
Court of Session and to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of
Session Act 1830 — not, however, till a decision given by it and
the appeal therefrom to the House of Lords had established a
remarkable rule of admiralty law in cases of collision (Hay v. le
Neve, 1824, 2 Shaw, Sc. App. Cas. 395). The act states that the
Court of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction with the Court of

Admiralty in criminal matters. The local vice-admiralty courts
in England had ceased to do much work when they were abol-
ished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the High Court
became, with the other superior courts, a component part of
the High Court of Justice by virtue of the Judicature Acts
1873 and 1875. And the Irish court has in like manner become
a part of the High Court of Justice in Ireland by virtue of the
Judicature Act passed in 1877.

As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired
colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiralty courts
were established. The earliest known was that in
Jamaica, established in the year 1662. Some vice- ^^J/ra»y
admiralty courts which were created for prize purposes courts.
in the last century were suffered to expire after 1815.
In the year 1863, when the act regulating the vice-admiralty
courts was passed, there were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua,
Bahamas, Barbadoes, Bermuda, British Columbia, British
Guiana, British Honduras, Cape of Good Hope,Ceylon,Dominica,
Falkland Islands, Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada,
Hong Kong, Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise
Quebec), Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand,
Nova Scotia (otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queens-
land, St Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra
Leone, South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Van-
couver's Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and
Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only)
Aden. By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was
added. These courts have been regulated from time to time by
the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 51, 26 and 27 Viet,
c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already cited, and 30
and 31 Viet. c. 45 (Vice- Admiralty Courts Act Amendment Act
1867) ; and by the slave trade acts, of which the last and consoli-
dating act was that of 1873.

In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that,
except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St
Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be
abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of ad-
miralty. There is power, however, reserved to the crown to
erect through the admiralty in any British possession any vice-
admiralty court, except in India or any British possession having
a representative legislature. No vice-admiralty court so estab-
lished can exercise any jurisdiction except for some purpose
relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave trade, foreign enlist-
ment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and questions relating to
treaties or conventions on international law. Vice-admiralty
courts exercised all usual admiralty jurisdiction, and in addition
a certain revenue jurisdiction, and jurisdiction over matters of
slave trade and prize and under the Pacific Islanders' Protection
Act. The appeal from vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the
High Court of Admiralty of England, but has been transferred
to the king in council.

By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890, already referred
to, every court of law in a British possession which
is declared by its legislature to be such, or if there Co°^"ot
be no such declaration, which has original unlimited Admiralty.
civil jurisdiction, shall be a court of admiralty.

There used at one time to be vice-admiralty courts for
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; but by the India High
Courts Act 1861, § 9, the admiralty jurisdiction is given
to the High Courts of these places.

Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan
have had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and coasuim
by § 12 of the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any courts.
court established by H.M. for the exercise of jurisdic-
tion in any place outside H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty
jurisdiction granted to it.

By the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900
a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of Australia.
Australians created,and the parliament of the Common-
wealth may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the
High Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction.

206

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION

There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which the
water-bailiff is judge. He is also styled admiral. It is
Man said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other mari-

time matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore.
Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City
of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts
in the following matters : Salvage, where the value
of the salved property does not exceed £1000, or the
Courts. claim for reward £300 ; towage, necessaries and wages,
where the claim does not exceed £150; claims for
damage to cargo, or by collision, up to £300 (and for sums above
these prescribed limits by agreement between the parties);
and claims arising out of breaches of charter parties and other
contracts for carriage of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect
thereof, up to £300. This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects
over which jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of
Admiralty at the time when the first of these acts was passed,
except as regards the last branch of it (the "Aline," 1880, 5 Ex.
Div. 227 ; R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, i Q.B. 272).
In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction created
in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has been given hi
Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs and the chairmen
of certain quarter sessions ; and in salvage cases, where a county
court in England would have jurisdiction, magistrates, recorders
and chairmen of quarter sessions may have jurisdiction as official
arbitrators (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 547). In Scotland,
admiralty suits in cases no£ exceeding the value of £25 are
exclusively tried in the sheriff's court ; while over that limit the
sheriff's court and the Court of Session have concurrent juris-
diction. The sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction,
but only as to crimes which he would be competent to try if
committed on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, §§21 and 22).
By an act of 1821 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage
was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports.

The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the
High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court
of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. In
cases arising within the Cinque Ports there is an optional
appeal to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports. The appeal
from the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters,
as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence to the
House of Lords. But it is specially provided by the Judicature
Act 1891, as it was by the Prize Act 1864, that the appeal in
prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council.

The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to the
jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in admiralty
equity and common law cases, make the distinction between
cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other civil
cases of practical moment in those courts. Arguments full of
learning and research have been addressed to the courts, and
weighty decisions have been given, upon questions which would
never have arisen if the county courts had not a larger money
area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they have
diction. *' m other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London Court,
1892, i Q.B. 273; the "Zeta," 1893, App. Cas. 468).
But as regards the high courts, whether in England, Scotland or
Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish their civil admiralty
jurisdiction from their ordinary civil jurisdiction, except for the
purpose of seeing whether there can or cannot be process in
rem. Not that every admiralty action can of right be brought
in rem, but that no process in rem lies at the suit of a subject
unless it be for a matter of admiralty jurisdiction — one, for
instance, that could in England have been tried in the High Court
of Admiralty. Now these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with
process in rem range themselves under four primary and four
supplementary heads. The four primary are damage, salvage,
bottomry, wages; and the four supplementary are extensions
due to one or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court)
and 1861 (Admiralty Court Act). They are damage to cargo
carried in a ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, mortgage of ship,
and master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a
ship. In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process of

Appeals.

which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be either in
personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest of the ship, and, in
cases of salvage and bottomry, the cargo. Whenever, also, the
ship can be arrested, any freight due can also be attached, by
arrest of the cargo to the extent only of the freight which it has
to pay. For the purpose of ascertaining whether or not process
in rem would lie, there have been distinctions as nice, and the
line of admiralty jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in
the cases of the admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the
"Thela," 1894, Prob. 280; the " Gas Float Whilton," 1897, App.
Cas. 33 7) . There have been similar questions raised in the United
States, from De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Ramsay
v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 611), down to the quite modern
cases which will be found quoted in the arguments and judg-
ments in the "Gas Float Whitton."

The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exercised by the
Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant vessels,
may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the last
remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for a^p l
flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the "Minerva,"
1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more effectively provided
against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In time of war,
however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the Ad-
miralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable by
the High Court of Justice (see Prize below). It was, perhaps,
in consequence of its ancient disciplinary jurisdiction that the
Admiralty Court was made the court to enforce certain portions
of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870.

Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under
the Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certifi-
cates of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of
Justice.

The admiralty jurisdiction in criminal matters extends over
all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in tidal
waters, even though such tidal waters be well within
foreign territory (R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. i C.C.R.
161), but not over crimes committed on board foreign
vessels upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, i Denison C.C.
104). Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign
ships within territorial waters of the United Kingdom, and
whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United
Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the great
questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the "Franconia," L.R. 2 Ex.
Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the majority of the
judges, rightly, as the writer of this article respectfully thinks.
Since, then, however, the legislature has brought these waters
within the jurisdiction of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters
Jurisdiction Act 1878. Section 2 runs as follows : " An offence
committed by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject,
on the open sea within the territorial waters of British dominions,
is an offence within the jurisdiction of the admiral, although
it may have been committed on board or by means of a foreign
ship, and the person who committed such offence may be ar-
rested, tried and punished accordingly." By § 7 the " juris-
diction of the admiral " is denned as " including the jurisdiction
of the admiralty of England or Ireland, or either of such juris-
dictions as used in any act of parliament ; and for the purpose of
arresting any person charged with an offence declared by this
act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial
waters adjacent to the United Kingdom, or any other part of
her majesty's dominions, shall be deemed to be within the
jurisdiction of any judge, magistrate or officer." And " terri-
torial waters of her majesty's dominions " are defined as " in
reference to the sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to
the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other
part of her majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international
law to be within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and
for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within
the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within
one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water mark,
shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of

Criminal
cases.

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION

her majesty's dominions." As to those portions of the sea and
tidal waters which, by reason of their partially land-locked
positions, are deemed to be in the body of a county, there is not
admiralty jurisdiction, but crimes are tried as if they were com-
mitted on land within the same county.

Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 1360
onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject to the
admiralty jurisdiction. The criminal jurisdiction of the ad-
miralty was first exercised by the High Court of Admiralty;
and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1536, transferred
to commissioners appointed under the great seal, among whom
were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their deputies. Ad-
miralty sessions were held for this purpose till 1834. Admiralty
criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue of the series of statutes,
the Offences at Sea Act 1799, the Central Criminal Court Act
1834, Offences at Sea Act 1844, and the criminal law consolida-
tion acts passed in 1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court
and by the ordinary courts of assize. Special provision for trial
in the colonies of. offences committed at sea has been made
by an act of William III. (1698-1699), the Offences at Sea Act
1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849.

The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize
from very early times; and although since the middle of the
1 7th century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction
of the court, has been kept distinct from the prize
jurisdiction, they were originally both administered and regarded
as being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high admiral.
The early records of the admiralty show that the origin of the
prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power given to the court
of the admiral to try cases of piracy and " spoil," i.e. captures
of foreign ships by English ships. The earliest recorded case of
spoil tried before the admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a
Portuguese subject, taken at sea by Englishmen from a French
i ship which had previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded
by the admiral as good prize to the English captors ; and
Edward III. in a letter to the king of Portugal answering a com-
plaint on the subject gives the admiral's decision as a reason
for refusing their restoration. During the i6th century a very
large part of the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil
and piracy, and the privy council often directed the judge of
the court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which
foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships made
petition for redress to the admiral or the council. The spoil
suit at this time (causa spolii) was a civil proceeding resulting
in a decree absolutoria, dismissing the defendant, or condemna-
toria, ordering restoration to be made by him. In 1 585 the patent
of Howard, the lord high admiral, authorized him to issue
letters of reprisal against Spain; and an order in council regu-
lating the conduct of those to whom such letters were issued
provided by an additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be
brought in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the
Admiralty Court. The court was also resorted to at this time
by captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of
England, such as the king of France and the Dutch. About the
middle of the i7th century separate sittings of the court for
instance and prize business began, perhaps because of the con-
flicting claims to droits of Charles II. and the duke of York as lord
high admiral; and privateering under royal commission took
the place of the former irregular "spoiling." The account
which Lord Mansfield gave of the records of the Admiralty Court,
that there were no prize act books earlier than 1641, or prize
sentences earlier than 1648, and that before 1690 the records
were in confusion, must be qualified by the correction that
there are in existence prize sentences (on paper, not parchment)
as early as 1589.

Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have
interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, its
exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but long
previously royal ordinances (1512, 1602) and statutes (1661,
giving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given
the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over prize.
The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize

207

jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts of ad-
miralty for the colonies and plantations in North America.

It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction
of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers given
by the general patent of the judge, in which no express mention
of it is made, or whether it required a special commission. Upon
this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield in Undo v. Rodney
(1782, Dougl. 612), the judgment of Mr Justice Story in De
Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas
of the Court of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted.
But the settled practice now and for a long time past has been
for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this pur-
pose. In connexion with this it is observable that in 1793 the
Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction
under its general patent; and it is said to have been the opinion
of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty Court of Scotland had a
similar right (Brown, Civil Law of Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212).
Any jurisdiction of the Scottish court over prize of war was
transferred to the English court by the Court of Session Act 1825,
§ 57. As to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was pro-
vided that there should remain in Ireland an instance court of
admiralty for the determination of causes civil and maritime
only.

In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, which
had until then been prescribed by occasional acts passed for
each war as it arose, were for the first time made permanent by
the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court of Admiralty
and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court
exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the
time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made
prize courts. The High Court of Admiralty was given jurisdic-
tion throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such,
power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and
the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals —
this power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty
prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the
sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in
cases of captures made in a land expedition or an expedition
made conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize
salvage on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of
procedure was prescribed. The High Court was also given ex-
clusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom
and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters
of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy.
By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages
to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer
in charge of the convoy was also given to the High Court. Under
other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war
when referred to it by the crown, in the same way as prize
causes, and claims of king's ships for salvage on recaptures from
pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, sub-
ject to the owner's right to receive them on paying one-eighth of
the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by
belligerents in vfolation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped
in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality.

All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since
passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court
under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the Admiralty
Court in that respect; and all prize causes and matters within
the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division; and an appeal
from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature
Acts 1873 and 1891).

By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the consti-
tution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission,
warrant or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may
be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue,
subject to instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the
possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary
of state that war has broken out between Great Britain and a
foreign state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the
commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or

208

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION

warrant may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court
of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty
court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any
time. The court is authorized to act as a prize court during the
war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as such, and
finally dispose of all matters and things arising during the war,
including all penalties and forfeitures incurred therein. Rules
of court may also be made by order in council for regulating,
subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure and practice of
prize courts under that act, the duties and conduct of their
officers and practitioners, and the fees and costs therein (Prize
Courts Act 1894, §§2, 3). This latter power has been exercised;
and prize rules for the High Court of Justice and the vice-
admiralty prize courts were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and
Orders, 1898).

AUTHORITIES. — Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty,
Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, Jurisdiction of the
Admiralty of England asserted', Robinson, Collectanea Maritima;
Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; Phillimore, International
Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit.
Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.)

UNITED STATES

The source of admiralty jurisdiction in the United States
is Article 3, § 2 of the United States Constitution: — "The
judicial power shall extend to all cases of admiralty and mari-
time jurisdiction." The United States Supreme Court has
declared that by virtue of these words the admiralty jurisdiction
extends not only to the high seas but to the great lakes and the
rivers connecting them, and to all public navigable waters in
the United States (the " Genesee Chief" v. Fits-Hugh, 12 Howards
U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals (Ex. p. Boyer,
109 U.S. Rep. 629, the "Robert W. Parsons" [1903] 191 U.S.
1 7) , and is not confined to tide waters. The American colonies
had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty jurisdiction equal to
the largest claimed by the English admiralty courts even under
Edward III. When they became states they delegated to the
federal government their several " admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction," using these words in the sense understood in every
country in Europe, England excepted, and in the sense in which
they had then been used in the colonies for a long time, and
without reference to the very narrow jurisdiction of the English
admiralty courts then existing (Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards
U.S. Rep. 441).

It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction not
that it is " co-equal with that of the original English, or that of
continental European admiralty, but is rather that defined by
the statutes of Richard II., under the construction given to them
by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts of admir-
alty " (2 Parsons Adm. 176), and that it embraced all maritime
contracts, torts, injuries or offences (De Lovio v. Boil, 2 Galli-
sons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441), and
that it has never been restricted by the action of the common
law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 Parsons Adm.
1 66 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Boif}.

Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of
1789 (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 563) granted to the United States dis-
trict courts exclusively, except that concurrent original juris-
diction was given to United States circuit courts over seizures
for slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons
in insurrection (§ 629; § 5309), and in the coolie trade (§ 2159),
and by the act of the 3rd of March 1901 ; the supreme court of the
District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction as the district
and circuit courts. The Supreme Court of the United States has
no original jurisdiction in admiralty. All suits are brought in
the first instance in the district court. Appeals lie, both on the
law and on the facts, from a final decree of that court to the
circuit court of appeals only, except in cases involving the juris-
diction of the court, the constitutionality of a law of any state
or of the United States, or the validity or construction of any
treaty of the United States, and except cases of prize and capital
or infamous crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the
supreme court. In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme
Court may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court of

appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lau Ov> Bew, 141 U.S. Rep.
587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, § 607). Formerly the
Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from the district court to the
circuit court, and thence to the Supreme Court. But the act of the
3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) abolished this and created the circuit
court of appeals, making it the final appellate court in admiralty,
except as above stated. In any case where the district judge
is unable to perform his duties or is disqualified by reason of
interest or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the
parties to the action, it may be removed to the circuit court in
that district (U.S. Rev. Stats. §§ 587, 589 and 601). These are
now the only cases in which admiralty suits can come before the
circuit court (Benedict's Adm. § 321).

The subject matter in cases of contract determines the juris-
diction (the "General Smith," 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 438), and
not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, current, nor that
the water be an inland basin or land-locked, or a river, nor by
its being a harbour, or a port within the body of the county, nor
that a remedy exists at common law. The admiralty courts have
jurisdiction over all matters that concern owners and proprietors
of ships as such; possessory actions and petitory actions to
try title of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dock-
age, lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter
parties, rights of passengers as such (the "Moses Taylor," 71
U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and loans,
bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and cargo,
marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, collisions, con-
sortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, salvage, seizures
under the laws of impost navigation or trade, cases of prize,
ransom, condemnation, restitution and damages; assaults,
batteries, damages and trespasses on the high seas and navigable
waters of the United States; but not suits in rem for duties
(Benedict's Adm. § 3O3a).

The U.S. Supreme Court has held in Peoples Ferry Co.
v. Beers, 20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subse-
quent cases that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime
contract (the "Robert W. Parsons "). Contracts to furnish cargo
for ships and to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime
contracts (Graham v. Oregon R. 6* N. Co., [1905] 135 Fed. Rep.
608).

Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by
state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced
by suit in rem in admiralty in the federal courts (the " General
Smith"; the " Lotlaivanna," 21 Wallace Rep. 558, Benedict's
Adm. § 270). In all suits by material men for supplies and
repairs or other necessaries for a foreign ship, the libellant may
proceed against the ship and freight in rem or against the master
or owner in personam (i2th Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm.
§ 268; the " General Smith "). Actions in rem and in personam
may be joined in the same libel (Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace
257; the " Normandie," 40 Fed. Rep. 590). But a contract to
furnish fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal
effects for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court
of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the " May
F. Chisholm," 1904; 129 Fed. Rep. 814). The state courts
have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract or tort
(the " Lottawanna," the "Belfast," 7 Wallace Rep. 624). Ad-
miralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; it must have
occurred on the high seas or other navigable waters within
admiralty cognizance (2 Parsons Adm. 347; the "Plymouth,"
3 Wallace Rep. 20; the "Genesee Chief" v. Fitz-Hugh, the
" Blackheath," [1903] 122 Fed. Rep. 112).

The U.S. Supreme Court in the " Harrisburg " (119 U.S. 199)
and the " Alaska " (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of opinion,
held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction under the
general admiralty law to try an action for damages for negli-
gence on the high seas, causing death of a human being, while
there was no act of Congress and no statute of the state to which
the vessel belonged giving such right of action (Benedict's Adm.
§§ 2 7 S-309a), nor where such statute is that of a foreign country
(Rundell v. Compagnie Gtnirale, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366).

Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and piracy,

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION

collision and proceedings by owners to limit their liability under
U.S. Rev. Stats. §§ 4281-9.

The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdic-
tion in matters of prize (The Prize Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 635).
The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction (except
that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize is taken
from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court of the
District of Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction (U.S. v.
Sampson, 1902, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct to the
Supreme Court. Special commissioners are appointed on the
breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of the district
courts (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 4621, Prize Rule 9; Benedict's Adm.
§509; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 233). These commis-
sioners take the depositions of witnesses and report to the court
the evidence upon which it adjudicates. Proceedings in prize
cases must be in conformity with admiralty proceedings, where
the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. v. U.S., 6 Wallace
759; 2 Parsons Adm. 174). The district courts have all the
powers of a court of admiralty whether as instance or prize courts
(Glass v. sloop " Betsy," 3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters
of prize is one of the ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's
Adm. § 509).

The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and
offences committed upon vessels belonging to citizens of the
United States on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any
waters within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the
United States (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 5339). High seas include the
great lakes (U.S. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 249). (j. A. BA.)

OTHER COUNTRIES

In France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece
— countries which have adopted codes based on the Code Napo-
Fraace, ^on — t'le ciyil> or, as it would have been formerly
ana called in England, the " instance," jurisdiction of

countries the admiralty is exercised by the ordinary tribunals,
France"* an^ there are no separate courts of admiralty for

this purpose. France and some other countries
have special commercial tribunals, which deal with shipping
matters, but also with ordinary commercial cases. France
has also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux (Code disciplinaire et
penal de la marine marchande du 24 mars 1852, loi du n mars
1891) to deal with maritime offences. Austria adopts the
French law in commercial matters. Italy had tribunals of com-
merce, but has given them up. She has, however, by Art. 14
of her Merchant Shipping Code, given jurisdiction to captains
of ports to decide collision cases when the sum in dispute does
not exceed 200 lire.

In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty
matters. Kammern fur Handelssachen, commercial courts, have
Germany. been established in Berlin and some of the principal

seaports. These deal with shipping matters, but also
with all other commercial suits.

In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code
which came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1892,

and in Norway in 1893. This was intended to be one
navian coc^e ^or tne three countries; but each country as it
nations. finally adopted the code made some modifications of its

own. Under this code there are in Norway permanent
maritime courts for each town presided over by the judge
of the inferior local civil court (civile underdommer) , or if there
be more than one such judge then by the president, with two
assessors chosen out of a list. Temporary local courts, con-
sisting of the same judge with two other members of nautical
skill and knowledge, can be constituted in districts where there
are no permanent courts. Appeals lie to the supreme court
(Hoiesleref). In Denmark maritime cases are brought before
the local courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes
(So-og-Handelsret). In Sweden maritime cases are brought
before local courts of first instance consisting of a judge and
assessors. There is an intermediate appeal to courts of second
instance, and then to the supreme court, which finally decides
upon all causes civil and commercial.

209

Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary civil
tribunals, with the same right of appeal.

" By the maritime law of nations universally and immemori-
ally received there is an established method of determination
whether the capture be or be not lawful prize. Before
the ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor
there must be a regular judicial proceeding wherein diction.
both parties may be heard and condemnation there-
upon as prize in a court of admiralty judging by the law of
nations and treaties. ... If the sentence of the court of ad-
miralty is thought to be erroneous, there is in every maritime
country a superior court of review. ..." (duke of Newcastle's
letter to M. Michell, secretary to the embassy of the king of
Prussia, 1753). "So far as belligerent states do not make a
practice of giving up the taking of booty at sea . . . they are
required by international law to establish prize tribunals and
thus give to their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial
character" (v. Holtzendorff, Rechlslexikon, tit. "Prisengerichte").

In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1632
prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral. The duke
had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to
Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death
the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one
of grand master of navigation established in lieu. This new
office was first held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till
1695. The grand master took the admiral's place in matters of
prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state and
masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand master
and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil there was an
appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. When the office of admiral was
restored in 1695 he exercised lu's jurisdiction in prize matters
with the assistance of the Conseil des Prises. The appeal was
then given to the Conseil Royal des Finances. The Ordonnance
sur la marine of August 1681 regulated the procedure. This
system continued till the Revolution. The last Conseil des
Prises was appointed in 1778. A law of the I4th of February
1793 abolished the Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of
prize matters "provisionally" to the tribunals of commerce.
On the 8th of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdic-
tion was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the
Conseil Exfcutif. Later it was given to the Comite de Salut
Public. On the 25th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, an IV.) the
jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of commerce. This
was again altered on the 27th of March 1800 (6 Germinal, an
VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, consisting of
nine councillors of state, a commissary of the government and
a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul.

On the nth of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil
d'Etat. It was disputed among French jurists whether the
Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated only
by political considerations or one exercising what the French
term an " administrative jurisdiction "; which is, as nearly as a
parallel to it can be found in England, administration of justice
between individuals and the state.

As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had been
dealt with, an ordinance of the gth of January 1815 suppressed
the Conseil des Prises and directed the Comili du conlentieux of
the Conseil d'Etat to prepare the remaining prize matters for
decision by the Conseil d'Etat. Such prize matters (probably
including captures for trading in slaves) as required to be dealt
with till 1854, appear to have been dealt with by this body;
an ordinance of the gth of September 1831 directing that the pro-
ceedings before the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to
show that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative.

An Imperial decree, however, of the i8th of July 1854 restored
the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. This
was for the war with Russia. A similar decree was published
on the gth of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy.

On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that
the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was kept in
being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil has decided on
prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and Germany and in Cochin

210

ADMISSION— ADOLESCENCE

China. It consists of seven judges and a commissary of the
government. An appeal to the government in the Conseil d'fital
can be brought within three months. It is then decided by
I' Assemble du Conseil d'£tat.

Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports,
commissions colonials and commissions consulaires, established
mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des Prises, but
sometimes, v/hcu the ship and cargo were clearly those of the
enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation.

In Prussia Regulations of the 2oth of June 1864 established a
prize council consisting of a president and six associates with a
law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council
(v. Holtzendorff, Rechtskxikon, tit. " Prisengerichte ")•

By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the
legality of prizes> made during war has to be decided by prize
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and
their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize courts
were established under this law on the occasion of the East
African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.).

In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides that
prize matters shall be tried by a special commission established
by royal decree. On the occasion of the war with Austria such
a special commission was established by royal decree of the zoth
of June 1866. For the war with Abyssinia a fresh commission
was established by royal decree of the i6th of August 1896. The
composition of this commission, which was slightly different in
character from that established in 1866, was as follows: (a) a
first president of a court of appeal or a retired one, or a president
of a section of the council of state or of cassation; (b) two general
officers of the navy; (c) a member of the " contentious part " of
the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of appeal;
(e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the government
and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no appeal;
but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court of Cassation
at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without jurisdiction
or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved.

By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the
whole matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of
first instance were contemplated — port tribunals and fleet
tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the fleet,
and are to be composed of some of the principal officers of the
fleet. The former are to have presidents named by the emperor
from among those " qui font partie de r administration maritime
judiciaire"; the other members are to be appointed by the
ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs. The court of
appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty with the addition
of two members of the senate and a nominee of the minister of
foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p, 271).

On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals
were established under the authority of this ordinance by the
lord high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the I3th of
March 1904, at Sebastopol — Port Alexander III., Port Arthur
and Vladivostock (Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd
March 1904). Many cases were heard before these tribunals
and on appeal.

The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain is
described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), Tratado
juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz, 1746). On the
occasion of the war with the United States the Spanish govern-
ment published a proclamation stating the circumstances in
which captures were to be made and prizes taken; but infor-
mation is lacking as to the particular constitution of the prize
court or courts.

In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried by the
ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal of Athens,
1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826).

Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize
court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these
courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877.

Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize
courts at Sasebo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo.

Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure
seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns.

AUTHORITIES. — Clunet, Journal du droit international prive,
cited shortly as Clunet; v. Holzendorff, Rechtslexikpn, Leipzig, 1881 ;
De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises maritime!, Paris, 1855,
vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii.
part xi. ; Autran, Code international de I'abordage, de V assistance, et
du sauvetage maritime!, Paris, 1902; Raikes, The Maritime Codes
of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and Belgium (1898), of Italy
(1900), London. (W. G. F. P.)

ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, or by
some person whose statements are binding on that party against
the interest of that party. (See EVIDENCE.)

ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged
to a famous Prankish house, and spent much of his middle life
in Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 850 till his death
on the 1 6th of December 874. Several of his letters are extant
and reveal their writer as 'an energetic man of wide sympathies
and considerable influence. Ado's principal works are a Martyro-
logium (printed inter al. in Migne, Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181-
420; append, pp. 419-436), anoT chronicle, Chronicon sive Brevia-
rium chronicorum de sex mundi aetatibus de Adamo usque ad ann.

869 (in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 20-138, and Pertz, Monumenta Germ.
ii. pp. 315-323, &c.). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede,
with which he combines extracts from the ordinary sources,
forming the whole into a consecutive narrative founded on the
conception of the unity of the Roman empire, which he traces
in the succession of the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs
following immediately after Constantine and Irene. " It is, "
says Wattenbach, " history from the point of view of authority
and preconceived opinion, which exclude any independent
judgment of events. " Ado wrote also a book on the miracles
(Miracula) of St Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (gth century),
published in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum; a life or Mar-
tyrium of St Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about

870 and published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of
St Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon,
Ada Sanct. i. pp. 678-681,- Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and re-
vised in Bollandist Ada Sanct. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843.

See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, vol. i. (Stutt-
gart and Berlin, 1904).

ADOBE (pronounced a-d6-be; also corrupted to dobie; from
the Span, adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an
Egyptian hieroglyph meaning " brick "), a Spanish- American
word for the sun-dried clay used by the Indians for building in
some of the south-western states of the American Union, this
method having been imported in the i6th century by Spaniards
from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction is made between the
smaller " adobes, " which are about the size of ordinary baked
bricks, and the larger " adobines, " some of which are as much as
from one to two yards long.

ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolescentia, from adolescere, to grow
up, past part, adultus, grown up, Eng. " adult "), the term
now commonly adopted for the period between childhood and
maturity, during which the characteristics — mental, physical and
moral — that are to make or mar the individual disclose them-
selves, and then mature, in some cases by leaps and bounds, in
others by more gradual evolution. The annual rate of growth,
in height, weight and strength, increases to a marked extent
and may even be doubled. The development in the man takes
place in the direction of a greater strength, in the woman towards
a fitter form for maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of
nature and religion, and an overmastering curiosity both in-
dividual and general. This period of life, so fraught with its
power for good and ill, is accordingly the most important and
by far the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal
with efficiently. The chief points for attention may be briefly
indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, or
the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the individual,
and environment. In an ideal system of training these two
factors will be so fitted in and adapted to one another, that
what is weak or unprovided for in the first will be amply com-
pensated for in the second.

ADOLPH OF NASSAU— ADOLPHUS FREDERICK

211

In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the
country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and take
no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, are
continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic catarrh,
tonsilitis,bronchitis,and even the far graver pneumonia. Removed
to healthier conditions in the country their ailments tend to
disappear, and normal physical development supervenes. The
residence should be on a well-drained soil, preferably near the sea
in the case of a delicate child, on higher ground for those of more
robust constitution. The child should be lightly clad in woollen
garments all the year round, their thickness being slightly greater
in winter than in summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked
food in sufficient variety, ample time at table, where an atmo-
sphere of light gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from
restraint both before and after meals, should be considered
fundamental essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of
food — milk and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat
once a day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be
three days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase
the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms.

The exercise of the body must be duly attended to. Nowa-
days this is provided for in the shape of games, some being
optional, others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swim-
ming, fencing, &c. But severe exercise should only be allowed
under adequate medical control, and should be increased very
gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and climb
with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of life. But
as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress and strain
dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately modified.
Rest should be enforced during the menstrual periods of these
earlier years, and milder, more graduated exercise taken at other
times. In the same way all mental strain should be diminished.
Instead of pressure being put on a girl's intellectual education
at about this time, as is too often the case, the time devoted to
school and books should be diminished. Education should be
on broader, more fundamental lines, and much time should be
passed in the open air. With regard to the mental training of
both sexes two points must be borne in mind. First, that an
ample number of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to
ten years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years not
less than nine. Secondly, that the time devoted to "book-
work " should be broken up into a number of short periods, very
carefully graduated to the individual child.

In every case where there is a family tendency towards any
certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine the
whole circumstances of the child's life. That diathesis which is
most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous excitable
one, is by far the most important and the most difficult to deal
with. Every effort should be made to avoid the conditions in
which the hereditary predisposition would be aroused into
mischievous action, and to encourage development on simple
unexciting lines. The child should be confined to the school-
room but little and receive most of his training in wood and field.
Other diatheses — the tuberculous, rheumatic, &c. — must be dealt
with in appropriate ways.

The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral per-
versions. The emotions are extremely unstable, and any stress
put on them may lead to undesirable results. Warm climates,
tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft mattresses, or in-
dulgences of any kind, and also mental over-stimulation, are
especially to be guarded against. The day should be filled with
interests of an objective — in contradistinction to subjective —
kind, and the child should retire to bed at night healthily fatigued
in mind and body. Let there be confidence between mother and
daughter, father and son, and, as the years bring the bodily
changes, those in whom the children trust can choose the fitting
moments for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning
against abuses of the natural functions.

For bibliography see CHILD.

ADOLPH OF NASSAU (c. 1255-1298), German king, son of

Walram, count of Nassau. He appears to have received a good
education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden
in 1276. He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many
of the feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen
German king, in succession to Rudolph I., an election due rather
to the political conditions of the time than to his personal
qualities. He made large promises to his supporters, and was
crowned on the ist of July at Aix-la-Chapelle. Princes and
towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, and the
allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert I., duke of
Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely nominal.
Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, he claimed
Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 1294 allied himself
with Edward I., king of England, against France. Edward
granted him a subsidy, but owing to a variety of reasons
Adolph did not take the field against France, but turned his
arms against Thuringia, which he had purchased from the
landgrave Albert II. This bargain was resisted by the sons of
Albert, and from 1294 to 1296 Adolph was campaigning in
Meissen and Thuringia. Meissen was conquered, but he was not
equally successful in Thuringia, and his relations with Albert of
Austria were becoming more strained. He had been unable to
fulfil the promises made at his election, and the princes began to
look with suspicion upon his designs. Wenceslaus II., king of
Bohemia, fell away from his allegiance, and his deposition was
decided on, and was carried out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May
1298, when Albert of Austria was elected his successor. The
forces of the rival kings met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July
1 298, where Adolph was killed, it is said by the hand of Albert.
He was buried at Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were
removed to Spires.

See F. W. E. Roth, Geschichte des Romischen Konigs Adolf I. von
Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879); V. Domeier, Die Absetzung Adolf s von
Nassau (Berlin, 1889); L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs Adolf von
Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des Grafen Adolj
von Nassau zum Romischen Kdnig; B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der
deutschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901).

ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862), English lawyer
and author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768-1845), a well-
known London barrister who wrote a History of England to
1783 (1802), a History of France from if go (1803) and other
works. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at
St. John's College, Oxford. In 1821 he published Letters to
Richard. Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of the
then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter
Scott. This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the
novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged
by Scott. Scott thought at first that the letters were written
by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, and the
discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm friend-
ship. Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his Circuiteers,
an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of his colleagues on
the northern circuit. He became judge of the Marylebone
County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner Temple.
He was the author of Letters from Spain in 1856 and 1857 (1858),
and was completing his father's History of England at the time
of his death on the 24th of December 1862.

ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was
born at Gottorp on the I4th of May 1710. His father was
Christian Augustus (1673-1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein-
Gottorp, bishop of Ltibeck, and administrator, during the war
of 1700-1721, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his nephew
Charles Frederick; his mother was Albertina Frederica of Baden-
Durlach. From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of Lubeck, and
administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke
Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia. In 1743
he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the " Hat "
faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of
peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the
house of Holstein was notorious (see SWEDEN, History). During
his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more
than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the
hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party

212

ADONI— ADOPTIANISM

strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the intoler-
able tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1755
when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrica, sister
of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain a portion of the attenu-
ated prerogative, and nearly lost his throne in consequence.
On the second occasion, under the guidance of his eldest son,
the crown prince Gustavus, afterwards Gustavus III., he suc-
ceeded in overthrowing the tyrannous "Cap " senate, but was
unable to make any use of his victory. He died of surfeit at
Stockholm on the i2th of February 1771.

See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, vol. i.
(London, 1895). (R. N. B.)

ADONI, a town of British India, in the Bellary district of
Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail. It has manufactures of
carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning
and pressing cotton. The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an
important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is
frequently mentioned in the wars of the i8th century. Pop.
(1901) 30,416.

ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyahoi Adoniyyahu, " Yah is Lord "),
a name borne by several persons in the Old Testament, the
most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son of David. He
was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; i Ch. iii. 2).
The natural heir to the throne, on the death of Absalom, he
sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize his birth-
right, and made arrangements for his coronation (i Kings i. 5 ff.).
Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the help of Nathan the
prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently with the consent of
David, had ascended the throne, he fled for safety to the horns
of the altar. Solomon spared him on this occasion (i Kings i.
50 ff.), but later commanded Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 ff.),
because with the approval of Bathsheba he wished to marry
Abishag, formerly David's concubine, and thus seemed to have
designs on the throne.

ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable
beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite. According to the story in
Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king Theias
by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired by
Aphrodite with unnatural love. When Theias discovered the
truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity
changed her into a tree of the same name. After ten months
the tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis. Aphro-
dite, charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed
him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to
give him up. On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that
Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a
third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own dis-
posal. Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by Artemis.
There are many variations in the later forms of the story (notably
in Ovid, Metam. x. 298). The name is generally supposed to
be of Phoenician origin (from adon — " lord "), Adonis himself
being identified with-Tammuz (but see F. Diimmler in Pauly-
Wissowa's Real-encyklopddie, who does not admit a Semitic
origin for either name or cult). The name Abobas, by which
he was known at Perga in Pamphylia, certainly seems connected
with abub (a Semitic word for " flute "; cf. " ambubaiarum
collegia " in Horace, Satires, i. 2. i). (See also ATTIS.)

Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in his honour at
Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places. Although there
were variations in the ceremony itself and in its date, the central
idea was the death and resurrection of Adonis. A vivid descrip-
tion of the festival at Alexandria (for which Bion probably
wrote his Dirge of Adonis) is given by Theocritus in his fifteenth
idyll, the Adoniazusae. On the first day, which celebrated the
union of Adonis and Aphrodite, their images were placed side by
side on a silver couch, around them all the fruits of the season,
" Adonis gardens " in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh,
cakes of meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things
that creep and things that fly. On the day following the image
of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the sea
by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts. At the same
time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated to be

propitious in the coming year. This festival, like that at Athens,
was held late in summer; at Byblus, where the mourning
ceremony preceded, it took place in spring.

It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit,
whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature in
winter and its revival in spring. He is born from the myrrh-
tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is connected
with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess. A
special feature of the Athenian festival was the " Adonis gar-
dens," small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, which
rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote any
transitory pleasure). The dispute between Aphrodite and Perse-
phone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the agreement
that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year in the lower world
(the seed at first underground and then reappearing above it),
finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz and Ishtar (see APHRO-
DITE). The ceremony of the Adonia was intended as a charm
to promote the growth of vegetation, the throwing of the gardens
and images into the water being supposed to procure a supply of
rain (for European parallels see Mannhardt). It is suggested
(Frazer) that Adonis is not a god of vegetation generally, but
specially a corn-spirit, and that the lamentation is not for the
decay of vegetation in winter, but for the cruel treatment of
the corn by the reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John
Barleycorn).

An important element in the story is the connexion of Adonis
with the boar, which (according to one version) brings him into
the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of the tree into
which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills him. It is probable
that Adonis himself was looked upon as incarnate in the swine,
so that the sacrifice to him by way of expiation on special occa-
sions of an animal which otherwise was specially sacred, and its
consumption by its worshippers, was a sacramental act. Other
instances of a god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy
are the sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the
bear to Artemis. The swine would be sacrificed as having
caused the death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphro-
dite for that animal. It has been observed that whenever swine-
sacrifices occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to
Adonis. In any case, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god
does not contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn
spirit, which in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a
boar or sow.

AUTHORITIES. — H. Brugsch, Die Adonifklage und das Linoslied
(Berlin, 1852); Greve, De Adonide (Leipzig, 1877) ;W. H. Engel,
Kypros, ii. (1841), still valuable; W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feld-
kulte, ii. (1905); M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig, 1906);
articles in Roscher's Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklopddie;
J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. (2nd ed.), p. 115,' and Adonis,
Attis and Osiris (1906) ; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek Stales, ii.
p. 646; W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, new ed., 1894,
pp. 191, 290, 411), who, regarding Adonis as the swine-god, char-
acterizes the Adonia as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), "in
which the sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and
dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, not
forming part of the state religion, was limited."

ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order
Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the names of pheasant's
eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial herbs with
much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. Adonis autum-
nalis has become naturalized in some parts of England; the petals
are scarlet with a dark spot at the base. An early flowering
species, Adonis vernalis, with large bright yellow flowers, is well
worthy of cultivation. It prefers a deep light soil. The name
is also given to the butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue (Polyom-
matus Adonis).

ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos
which bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the
znd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became
acute. The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism
led to a tenaciou? insistence on the divine unity, and the task
was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus Christ. Some
thinkers fell back on the " modalistic " solution which regards
"Father" and "Son" as two aspects qf the same subject:

ADOPTION

213

but a simpler and more popular method was the " adoptianist "
or humanitarian. Basing their views on the synoptic Gospels,
and tracing descent from the obscure sect of the Alogi, the
Adoptianists under Theodotus of Byzantium tried to found a
school at Rome c. 185, asserting that Jesus was a man, filled
with the Holy Spirit's inspiration from his baptism, and so
attaining such a perfection of holiness that he was adopted by
God and exalted to divine dignity. Theodotus was excommuni-
cated by the bishop of Rome, Victor, c. 195, but his followers
lived on under a younger teacher of the same name and under
Artemon, while in the East similar views were expounded by
Beryllus of Bostra and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly
influenced Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Arius
and, later, Nestorius.

There is thus a traceable historical connexion between the
early adoptian controversy and the struggle in Spain at the end
of the 8th century, to which that name is usually given. It was
indeed only a renewal, under new conditions, of the conflict
between two types of thought, the rational and the mystical,
the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The writings of
Theodore of Mopsuestia had become well known in the West,
especially since the strife over the " three chapters " (544-553),
and the opposition of Islam also partly determined the form
of men's views on the doctrine of Christ's person. We must
further remember the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned
at the council of Chalcedon. About 780 Elipandus (b. 718),
archbishop of Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the
expression Christus Filius Dei adoptivus, and was aided by his
much more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella. They held
that the duality of natures implied a distinction between two
modes of sonship in Christ — the natural or proper, and the
adoptive. In support of their views they appealed to scripture
and to the Western Fathers, who had used the term " adoption "
as synonymous with " assumption " in the orthodox sense;
and especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians — the
brother of God's adopted sons. Christ, the firstborn among
many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a
spiritual birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his
resurrection. .Thus they did not teach a dual personality, nor
the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was
due to his sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old
disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision
had left it — the relation of Christ's one personality to his two
natures.

Felix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which
belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary
to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before
which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new
doctrine. Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed his
renunciation by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the
synod sent him. The recantation was probably insincere, for
on returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as before.
Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, by which the new
doctrine was again formally condemned, though neither Felix
nor any of his followers appeared.

In this synod Alcuin of York took part. A friendly letter
from Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix re-
plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions of
clergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy. Arch-
bishop Leidrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commis-
sions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin,
he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his life was spent under
the supervision of the archbishop at Lyons, where he died in
816. Elipandus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved
from the adoptian views, which, however, were almost univer-
sally abandoned after the two leaders died.

In the scholastic discussions of the izth century the question
came to the front again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin
was not universally accepted. Thus both Abelard and Peter
Lombard, in the interest of the immutability of the divine
substance (holding that God could not " become " anything),

gravitated towards a Nestorian position. The great opponent
of their Christology, which was known as Nihilianism, was the
German scholar Gerhoch, who, for his bold assertion of the
perfect interpenetration of deity and humanity in Christ, was
accused of Eutychianism. The proposition Deus non factus esl
aliquid secundum quod esl homo was condemned by a synod of
Tours in 1163 and again by the Lateran synod of 1179, but
Adoptianism continued all through the middle ages to be a source
of theological dispute.

See A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. v. pp. 279-292 ; R. Ottley,
The Doctrine of the Incarnation, vol. i. p. 228 ff., vol. ii. pp. 151-161 ;
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk,, art. " Adoptianismus." (A. J. G.)

ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoplare, to
choose for oneself), the act by which the relations of paternity and
filiation are recognized as legally existing between persons not so
related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among
the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly very
strictly regulated in their laws. In Athens the power of adoption
was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who
possessed no male offspring of their own, and it could be exercised
either during lifetime or by testament. The person adopted,
who required to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family
and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he did
not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of kin, whose
rights were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that
the registration should be attended with certain formalities, and
that it should take place at a fixed time — the festival of the
Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were almost
identical with those of natural offspring, and could not be re-
nounced except in the case of one who had begotten children
to take his place in the family of his adoptive father. Adopted
into another family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred
or inheritance through their natural father, though any rights
they might have through their mother were not similarly affected.
Among the Romans the existence of the patria potestas gave a
peculiar significance to the custom of adoption. The motive to
the act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification of
affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and agnate rights
which were founded on the patria potestas. It was necessary,
however, that the adopter should have no children of his own,
and that he should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable
expectation of any being born to him. Another limitation as to
age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam, which
required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen years older
than the adopted children. According to the same maxim
eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget
children for themselves. Adoption was of two kinds according
to the state of the person adopted, who might be either still under
the patria potestas (alieni juris), or his own master (sui juris). In
the former case the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter
case it was styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also
used in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption
proper the natural father publicly sold his child to the adoptive
father, and the sale being thrice repeated, the maxim of the
Twelve Tables took effect, Si paler filium ter venunduit, filius
a patre liber eslo. The process was ratified and completed by a
fictitious action of recovery brought by the adoptive father
against the natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and
which was therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation
could be accomplished originally only by the authority of the
people assembled in the Comitia, but from the time of Diocletian
it was effected by an imperial rescript. Females could not be
adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they
could not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The
whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will be found in
Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. 11.

In Hindu law, as in nearly every ancient system, wills were
formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See
INDIAN LAW.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of Eng-
land, Scotland or the Netherlands, though there are legal means
by which one may be enabled to assume the name and arms and
to inherit the property of a stranger. (See NAME.)

214

ADORATION— ADRA

In France and Germany, countries which may be said to have
embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is re-
gulated according to the principles of Justinian, though with
several more or less important modifications, rendered necessary
by the usages of these countries respectively. Under French law
the rights of adoption can be exercised only by those who are
over fifty years of age, and who, at the time of adoption, have
neither children nor legitimate descendants. They must also be
fifteen years older than the person adopted. In German law the
person adopting must either be fifty years of age, or at least
eighteen years older than the adopted, unless a special dispen-
sation is obtained. If the person adopted is a legitimate child
the consent of his parents must be obtained; if illegitimate, the
consent of the mother. Both in Germany and France the
adopted child remains a member of his original family, and ac-
quires no rights in the family of the adopter other than that of
succession to the person adopting.

In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes of
the several states. Adoption of minors is permitted by statute
in many of the states. These statutes generally require some
public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, and an order
of approval after a hearing before some public authority. The
consequence commonly is that the person adopted becomes, in
the eyes of the law, the child of the person adopting, for all pur-
poses. Such an adoption, if consummated according to the law
of the domicile, is equally effectual in any other state into which
the parties may remove. The relative status thus newly ac-
quired is ubiquitous. (See Whitmore, Laws of Adoption; Ross
v. Ross, 129 Massachusetts Reports, 243.)

The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the consti-
tution of primitive society and the civilization of the race is so
important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient Law, ex-
presses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primitive
groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on terms of
absolute superiority on the one side and absolute subjection on
the other. With the institution of adoption, however, one people
might feign itself as descended from the same stock as the people
to whose sacra gentilicia it was admitted; and amicable relations
were thus established between stocks which, but for this ex-
pedient, must have submitted to the arbitrament of the sword
with all its consequences.

ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to
one's mouth "), primarily an act of homage or worship, which,
among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the
mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction of the
adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and after
the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he
kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves,
and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head bare. By
a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings
alone, came to be paid to monarchs. Thus the Greek and Roman
emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the
imperial robe, and presently withdrawing the hand and pressing
it to the lips, or by putting the royal robe itself to the lips. In
Eastern countries adoration has ever been performed in an
attitude still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by
Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the prince's
feet, striking the earth with the forehead and kissing the ground.
This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed
number of times, is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern
potentates to-day. The Jews kissed in homage. Thus in
i Kings xix. 18, God is made to say, " Yet I have left me seven
thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto
Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him." And in
Psalms ii. 12, " Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from
the way." (See also Hosea xiii. 2.) In England the ceremony
of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts which are
performed kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration.
Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the ceremony of
kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said to have been intro-
duced by the popes following the example of the emperor
Diocletian. The toe of the famous statue of the apostle in

St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused by the kisses of
pilgrims. In the Roman Church a distinction is made between
Latria, a worship due to God alone, and Dulia or Hyperdulia,
the adoration paid to the Virgin, saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c.
(See further HOMAGE.)

ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
3 m. from the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft.
above the sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of rail-
way. Pop. 5000. It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries,
and manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there
is a convalescent home for the poor of the city of Leipzig.

ADOUR (anc. Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, water),
a river of south-west France, rising in the department of Hautes
Pyren6es, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of Biscay. It
is formed of several streams having their origin in the massifs
of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, but during
the first half of its course remains an inconsiderable river. In
traversing the beautiful valley of Campan it is artificially aug-
mented in summer by the waters of the Lac Bleu, which are
drawn off by means of a siphon, and flow down the valley of
Lesponne. After passing Bagneres de Bigorre the Adour enters
the plain of Tarbes, and for the remainder of its course in the
department of Hautes Pyrenees is of much less importance as
a waterway than as a means of feeding the numerous irrigation
canals which cover the plains on each side. Of these the oldest
and most important is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the
right bank for 36 m. Entering the department of Gers, the
Adour receives the Arros on the right bank and begins to de-
scribe the large westward curve which takes it through the
department of Landes to the sea. In the last-named depart-
ment it soon becomes navigable, namely, at St Sever, after pass-
ing which it is joined on the left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts
and Luy, and on the right by the Midouze, which is formed by
the union of the Douze and the Midour, and is navigable for
27 m.; now taking a south-westerly course it receives on the
left the Gave de Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the
Adour itself, and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through
a dangerous estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total
course of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable. The mouth of
the Adour has repeatedly shifted, its old bed being represented
by the series of Hangs and lagoons extending northward as far
as the village of Vieux Boucau, 22^ m. north of Bayonne, where
it found a new entrance into the sea at the end of the I4th cen-
tury. Its previous mouth had been 10 m. south of Vieux
Boucau. The present channel was constructed by the engineer
Louis de Foix in 1579. There is a depth over the bar at the
entrance of loj to 16 ft. at high tide. The area of the basin of
the Adour is 6565 sq. m.

ADOWA (properly ADUA), the capital of Tigr6, northern
Abyssinia, 145 m. N.E. of Gondar and 17 m. E. by N. of Axum,
the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Adowa is built on the slope
of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft., in the midst of a rich agri-
cultural district. Being on the high road from Massawa to
central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from Arabia
and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise with the
products of the country. During the wars between the Italians
and Abyssinia (1887-96) Adowa was on three or four occasions
looted and burnt; but the churches escaped destruction. The
church of the Holy Trinity, one of the largest in Abyssinia,
contains numerous wall-paintings of native art. On a hill about
2j m. north-west of Adowa are the ruins of Fremona, the
headquarters of the Portuguese Jesuits who lived in Abys-
sinia during the i6th and I7th centuries. On the ist of March
1896, in the hills north of the town, was fought the battle of
Adowa, in which the Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat on
the Italian forces (see ITALY, History, and ABYSSINIA, History).

ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the
province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra,
and on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 11,188. Adra is
the port of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m.
north-east; but its commercial development is retarded by the
lack of a railway. Besides lead, the exports include grapes,

ADRAR— ADRIAN

215

sugar and esparto. Fuel is imported, chiefly from the United
Kingdom.

ADRAR (Berber for "uplands"), the name of various dis-
tricts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa. Adrar Suttuf
is a hilly region forming the southern part of the Spanish pro-
tectorate of the Rio de Oro (?.».). Adrar or Adrar el Jebli,
otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of Timbuktu. It is
the headquarters of the Awellimiden Tuareg (see TUAREG and
SAHARA) . Adrar n' Ahnet and Adrar Adhaf ar are smaller regions
in the Ahnet country south of Insalah. Adrar Temur, the
country usually referred to when Adrar is spoken of, is in the
western Sahara, 300 m. north of the Senegal and separated on the
north-west from Adrar Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes.
Adrar is within the French sphere of influence. In general
barren, the country contains several oases, with a total popu-
lation of about 10,000. In 1900 the oasis of Atar, on the western
borders of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previ-
ously known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in
Algeria. (Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1900,
a few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited by
Arab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched spot.
The other centres of population are Shingeti, Wadan and Ujeft,
Shingeti being the chief commercial centre, whence caravans
take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and dates. A con-
siderable trade is also done in salt from the sebkha of'Ijil, in the
north-west. Adrar occupies the most elevated part of a plateau
which ends westwards in a steep escarpment and falls to the east
in a succession of steps.

Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief
settlement in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara.

ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of
Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon.
Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled
to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After
a time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister
Eriphyle in marriage, and returned to Argos and occupied the
throne. In consequence of an oracle which had commanded
him to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them
to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of
these animals or carrying shields with their figures on them,
who claimed his hospitality. He was the instigator of the famous
war against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law Polyneices,
who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles.
Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two sons-in-
law, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon
and Parthenopaeus, marched against the city of Thebes, and on
his way is said to have founded the Nemean games. This is the
expedition of the " Seven against Thebes," which the poets have
made nearly as famous as the siege of Troy. As Amphiaraus
had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus,
who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion (Iliad, xxiii. 346) .
Ten years later, at the instigation of Adrastus, the war was re-
newed by the sons of the chiefs who had fallen. This expedition
was called the war of the " Epigoni " or descendants, and entied
in the taking and destruction of Thebes. None of the followers
of Adrastus perished except his son Aegialeus, and this affected
him so greatly that he died of grief at Megara, as he was leading
back his victorious army.

. Apollodorus iii. 6, 7 ; Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebas ; Euripides,
fhoenissae, Supplices; Statius, Thebais; Herodotus v. 67.

ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct:
Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a town and
episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Rovigo, ism.
E. by rail from the town of Rovigo. It is situated between
the mouths of the Adige and the Po, about 135 m. from the sea
and but 13 ft. above it. Pop. (1901) 15,678. The town occu-
pies the site of the ancient Atria, which gave its name to the
Adriatic. Its origin is variously ascribed by ancient writers,
but it was probably a Venetian, i.e. Illyrian, not an Etruscan,
foundation — still less a foundation of Dionysius I. of Syracuse.
Imported vases of the second half of the sth century B.C. prove
the existence of trade with Greece at that period; and the town

was famous in Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls. Even
at that period, however, the silt brought down by the rivers
rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian
Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the sea. This
was still open in the imperial period, and the town, which was
a municipium, possessed its own gild of sailors; but its import-
ance gradually decreased. Its remains lie from 10 to 20 ft. below
the modern level. The Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection
contain antiquities.

See R. Schone, Le antichitd del Museo Bocchi di Adria (Rome,
1878). (T. As.)

ADRIAN, or HADRIAN (Lat. Hadrianus) , the name of six popes.

ADRIAN I., pope from 772 to 795, was the son of Theodore, a
Roman nobleman. Soon after his accession the territory that
had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was invaded by
Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found it necessary
to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a
large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia, took
that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in France
and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Prankish
possessions. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused,
had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of
Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis. In his contest
with the Greek empire and the Lombard princes of Benevento,
Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, and the
friendly relations between pope and emperor were not disturbed
by the difference which arose between them on the question
of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne and the Gallican
Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views
of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the council
of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating
the iconoclasts. It was in connexion with this controversy
that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini, to which
Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to
worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. Notwith-
standing this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 794, anew condemned
the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's
death. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which
he styles Adrian " father," is still to be seen at the door of the
Vatican basilica. Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of
Rome, and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand.

ADRIAN II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a noble
Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced age.
He maintained, but with less energy, the attitude of his prede-
cessor. Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, by the
death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to mediate
between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring to the
emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of Lorraine. Photius,
shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence
of deposition against Pope Nicholas, was driven from the patri-
archate by a new emperor, Basil the Macedonian, who favoured
his rival Ignatius. An oecumenical council (called by the
Latins the Sth) was convoked at Constantinople to decide this
matter. At this council Adrian was represented by legates,
who presided at the condemnation of Photius, but did not suc-
ceed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject
of the jurisdiction over the Bulgarian converts. Like his prede-
cessor Nicholas, Adrian II. was forced to submit, at least in
temporal affairs, to the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who
placed him under the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta,
his confidential adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the
librarian. Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and
daughter were still living. They were carried off and assassin-
ated by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation,
however, suffered but a momentary eclipse. Adrian died in
872.

ADRIAN III., pope, was born at Rome. He succeeded Martin
II. in 884, and died in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*)

ADRIAN IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from 1154 to 1159,
the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, was
born before A.D. noo at Langley near St Albans in Hertford-
shire. His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese of Bath,

2l6

ADRIAN

who entered a monastery and left the boy to his own resources.
Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk of the cloister
of St Rufus near Aries. He rose to be prior and in 1137 was
unanimously elected abbot. His reforming zeal led to the
lodging of complaints against him at Rome; but these merely
attracted to him the favourable attention of Eugenius III.,
who created him cardinal bishop of Albano. From 1152 to
1 1 54 Nicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, organizing the affairs
of the new Norwegian archbishopric of Trondhjem, and making
arrangements which resulted in the recognition of Upsala as
seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 1164. As a compensation
for territory thus withdrawn the Danish archbishop of Lund was
made legate and perpetual vicar and given the title of primate
of Denmark and Sweden. On his return Nicholas was received
with great honour by Anastasius IV., and on the death of the
latter was elected pope on the 4th of December 1154. He at
once endeavoured to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia,
the leader of anti-papal sentiment in Rome. Disorders ending
with the murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm
Sunday 1155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting
Rome under the interdict. The senate thereupon exiled Arnold,
and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of Frederick I.
Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his execution. Adrian
crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the i8th of June HSS> a
ceremony which so incensed the Romans that the pope had to
leave the city promptly, not returning till November 1156.
With the aid of dissatisfied barons, Adrian brought William I. of
Sicily into dire straits ; but a change in the fortunes of war led
to a settlement (June 1156) not advantageous to the papacy
and displeasing to the emperor. At the diet of Besancon in
October 1157, the legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from
Adrian which alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the em-
peror, and the German chancellor translated this beneficia in
the feudal sense. In the storm which ensued the legates were
glad to escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed
with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium he
meant merely bonum faclum. The breach subsequently became
wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the emperor
when he died at Anagnia on the ist of September 1159.

A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by Henry II.
of England to Adrian in 1155. According to the elaborate
investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as follows.
Henry asked for permission to invade and subjugate Ireland, in
order to gain absolute ownership of that isle. Unwilling to grant
a request counter to the papal claim (based on the forged Dona-
tion of Constantine) to dominion over the islands of the sea,
Adrian made Henry a conciliatory proposal, namely, that the
king should become hereditary feudal possessor of Ireland while
recognizing the pope as overlord. This compromise did not
satisfy Henry, so the' matter [dropped; Henry's subsequent
title to Ireland rested on conquest, not on papal concession,
and was therefore absolute. The much-discussed bull Lauda-
biliter is, however, not genuine.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. (excellent biblio-
graphy), and Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., under

Hadrian IV."; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies concerning
Adrian IV. (The University of Chicago: Decennial Publications,
1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, Pope Adrian IV.: An
Historical Sketch (London, 1849) ; and A.H.Tarleton,I,ifeo/A^zc/!o/ai
Breakspear (London, 1896).

ADRIAN V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a
Genoese who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent

IV. In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry
III. and his barons. He was elected pope to succeed Innocent

V. on the nth of July 1276, but died at Viterbo on the i8th of
August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood.

ADRIAN VI. (Adrian Dedel, not Boyens, probably not Roden-
burgh, 1450-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht
in March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common
Life either at Zwolle or Deventer. At Louvain he pursued
philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of theo-
logy (1491), dean of St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity. In 1507 he was appointed tutor to the seven-year-old

Charles V. He was sent to Spain in 151 5 on a very important
diplomatic errand ; Charles secured his succession to the see of
Tortosa, and on the i4th of November 1516 commissioned him
inquisitor-general of Aragon. During the minority of Charles,
Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing
Spain. After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on
the i4th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions of
Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his departure
from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522 : he was,
however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which
Jimenes had been able in some degree to check. When Charles
left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent'of Spain :
as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt. In 1517
Leo X. had created him cardinal priest SS. loannis et Pauli;
on the gth Of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected
pope. Crowned in St Peter's on the 3ist of August at the age
of s'ixty-three, he entered upon the lonely path of the reformer.
His programme was to attack notorious abuses one by one ; but
in his attempt to improve the system of granting indulgences
he was hampered by his cardinals ; and reducing the number of
matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for the income had
been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. The Italians
saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind to the beauty of
classical antiquity, penuriously docking the stipends of great
artists. As a peacemaker among Christian princes, whom he
hoped to unite in a protective war against the Turk, he was a
failure: in August 1523 he was forced openly to ally himself
with the Empire, England, Venice, &c., against France ; mean-
while in 1522 the sultan Suleiman I. had conquered Rhodes. In
dealing with the early stages of the Protestant revolt in Germany
Adrian did not fully recognize the gravity of the situation. At
the diet which opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was
represented by Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank
admission that the whole disorder of the church had perchance
proceeded from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should
begin. However, the former professor and inquisitor-general
was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that
Luther be punished for heresy. The statement in one of his
works that the pope could err in matters of faith (" haeresim per
suam determinationem aut Decrelalem asserendo ") has attracted
attention ; but as it is a private opinion, not an ex cathedra
pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice the dogma of papal
infallibility. On the I4th of September 1523 he died, after a
pontificate too short to be effective.

Most of Adrian VI. 's official papers disappeared soon after hisdeath.
He published Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa
sacramenta (Paris, 1512, 1516, 1518, 1537; Rome, 1522), and Quaes-
tiones quodlibeticae XII. (1st ed., Louvain, 1515). See L. Pastor,
in Geschichte der Pdpste, vol. iv. pt. ii. ; Adrian VI. und Klemens
VII. (Freiburg, 1907) ; also Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd
ed., and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., under " Hadrian
VI."; H. Hurter, Nomenclator lilerarius recentioris theologiae
catholicae, torn. iv. (Innsbruck, 1899), 1027; The Cambridge Modern
History, vol. ii. (1904), 19-21 ; H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition
of Spain, vol. i. (1906); Janus, The Pope and the Council, 2nd ed.
(London, 1869), 376. Biographies: — A. Lepitre, Adrien VI. (Paris,
1880); C. A. C. von Hofler, Papst Adrian VI. (Vienna, 1880); L.
Casartelli, " The Dutch Pope," in Miscellaneous Essays (London,
1906). (W. W. R.*)

ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor
Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity,
was martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said
that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he
was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his
faith. He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were
struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in his
wife's, St Natalia's, arms. St Adrian's festival, with that of his
wife, is kept on the 8th of September. He is specially a patron
of soldiers, and is much reverenced in Flanders, Germany and
the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an
anvil in his hands or at his feet.

ADRIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lenawee county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river, near the S.E.
corner of the state. Pop.(i89o) 8756 ; (1900) 9654, of whom

ADRIANI— ADRIANOPLE

217

1136 were foreign-born: (IQIO census) 10,763. It is served
by five branches of the Lake Shore railway system, and by the
Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit and
Iron ton railways. Adrian is the seat of Adrian College (1859;
co-educational), controlled by the Wesleyan Methodist Church
in 1859-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant Church,
and having departments of literature, theology, music, fine arts,
commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; and of
St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and i m. north
of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls (1879), for the
reformation of juvenile offenders between the ages of ten and
seventeen. Adrian has a public library. The city is situated in a
rich farming region; is an important shipping point for live-
stock, grain and other farm products; and is especially known
as a centre for the manufacture of wire-fences. Among the other
manufactories are flouring and grist mills, planing mills, foun-
dries, and factories for making agricultural implements, United
States mail boxes, furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys
and electrical supplies. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $2,124,923 in 1900 to $4,897,426 in 1904, or
130-5%; of the total value in 1904, $2,849,648 was the value
of wire-work. The place was laid out as a town in 1828, and
according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman
emperor Hadrian. It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was
made the county-seat in 1838 and was chartered as a city in

1853-

ADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1513-1579), Italian his-
torian, was born of a patrician family of Florence, and was
secretary to the republic of Florence. He was among the de-
fenders of the city during the siege of 1530, but subsequently
joined the Medici party and was appointed professor of rhetoric
at the university. At the instance of Cosimo I. he wrote a history
of his own times, from 1536 to 15 74, in Italian, which is generally,
but according to Brunei erroneously, considered a continuation
of Guicciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted
to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani
composed funeral orations in Latin on the emperor Charles V.
and 'other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter
on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third volume
of Vasari. His Istoria del suoi tempi was published in Florence
in 1583; a new edition appeared also in Florence in 1872.

See G. M. Mazzucchelli, Gli Scrittori d' Italia, i. p. 151 (Brescia,
1753).

ADRIANOPLE, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding
with part of the ancient Thrace, and bounded on the N. by
Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet
of Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean
Sea and W. by Macedonia. Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area,
15,000 sq. m. The surface of the vilayet is generally mountain-
ous, except in the central valley of the Maritza, and along the
banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c. On the
west, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend as
far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 ft.
in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and Kara-
Balkan. Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja
Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the
entire south coast, which includes the promontory of Gallipoli
and the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly
or mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and
of the Mesta, a western frontier stream. The climate is mild
and the soil fertile; but political disturbances and the conserva-
tive character of the people tend to thwart the progress of
agriculture and other industries. The vilayet suffered severely
during the Russian occupation of 1878, when, apart from the
natural dislocation of commerce, many of the Moslem culti-
vators emigrated to Asia Minor, to be free from their alien
rulers. Through the resultant scarcity of labour, much land
fell out of cultivation. This was partially remedied after the
Bulgarian annexation of Eastern Rumelia, in 1885, had driven
the Moslems of that country to emigrate in like manner to
Adrianople; but the advantage was counterbalanced by the
establishment of hostile Bulgarian tariffs. The important silk

industry, however, began to revive about 1890, and dairy farm-
ing is prosperous; but the condition of the vilayet is far less
unsettled than that of Macedonia, owing partly to the prepon-
derance of Moslems among the peasantry, and partly to the
nearness of Constantinople, with its Western influences. The
main railway from Belgrade to Constantinople skirts the Maritza
and Ergene valleys, and there is an important branch line down
the Maritza valley to Dedeagatch, and thence coastwise to
Salonica. After the city of Adrianople (pop. 1905, about 80,000),
which is the capital, the principal towns are Rodosto (35,000),
Gallipoli (25,000), Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000),
Chorlu (11,500), Demotica (10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina
(8000) and Dedeagatch (3000).

ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh;
Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of Adrianople, Turkey
in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of Constantinople. Pop.
(1905) about 80,000, of whom half are Turks, and half Jews,
Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople ranks, after Con-
stantinople and Salonica, third in size and importance among
the cities of European Turkey. It is the see of a Greek arch-
bishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian bishops. It
is the chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, being defended
by a ring of powerful modern forts. It occupies both banks of
the river Tunja, at its confluence with the Maritza, which is
navigable to this point in spring and winter. The nearest sea-
port by rail is Dedeagatch, west of the Maritza; Enos, at the
river-mouth, is the nearest by water. Adrianople is on the rail-
way from Belgrade and Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica.
In appearance it is thoroughly Oriental — a mass of mean, ir-
regular wooden buildings, threaded by narrow tortuous streets,
with a few better buildings. Of these the most important are
the Idadieh school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish
communal school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial
Ottoman Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre;
palaces for the prefect of the city, the administrative staff of the
second army corps and the defence works commission; a hand-
some row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French
hospital. Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are the
Eski Serai, an ancient and half-ruined palace of the sultans;
the bazaar of Ali Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque of the
sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture.

Adrianople has five suburbs, of which Kiretchhane and
Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, and Kirjik stands
on a hill overlooking the city. The two last named are exclur
sively Greek, but a large proportion of the inhabitants of Kiretch-
hane are Bulgarian. These three suburbs - — as well as the little
hamlet of Demirtash, containing about 300 houses all occupied
by Bulgars — are all built in the native fashion; but the^ fifth
suburb, Karagatch, which is on the right bank of the Maritza,
and occupies the region between the railway station and the city,
is Western in its design, consisting of detached residences in
gardens, many of them handsome villas, and all of modern
European type. In all the communities schools have multiplied,
but the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type.
The only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys — a govern-
ment institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars.
Like the- Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has two
sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course of
education in each language, the pupils following both courses.
The several communities have each their own charitable institu-
tions, the Jews being specially well endowed in this respect.
The Greeks have a literary society, and there is a well-organized
club to which members of all the native communities, as well as
many foreigners, belong.

The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired
by the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery
when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by a
Customs cordon rendered the situation worse than ever. Adrian-
ople had previously been the commercial headquarters of all
Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between the Balkans
and the Danube, how Bulgaria. But the separation of Eastern
Rumelia isolated Adrianople, and transferred to Philippopolis at

2l8

ADRIATIC SEA— ADULTERATION

least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, as regards sea-borne
merchandise, is carried on through the port of Burgas (q.v.).
The city manufactures silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen
and cotton, and has an active general trade. Besides fruits and
agricultural produce, its exports include raw silk, cotton, opium,
rose-water, attar of roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey
red. The surrounding country is extremely fertile, and its
wines are the best produced in Turkey. The city is supplied
with fresh water by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over
an extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the
Tunja.

Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama
or Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman
emperor Hadrian (117-138). In 378 the Romans were here
defeated by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the
Turkish sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I.,
until 1453, when Constantinople fell. It was occupied by the
Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS).

ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian,
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent
ranges. The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged
originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi.
127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but was
gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in import-
ance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only
extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion being
called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however,
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete and
Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 40° to
45° 45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 m., and a mean
breadth of about no m., but the Strait of Otranto, through
which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45 m.
wide. Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern
part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open
sea in this part to 90 m. The Italian shore is generally low,
merging, in the north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on
either hand of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment
of which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles
within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has its
unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and rocky.
South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the Gulfs of
Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, the island-fringe
of the east coast extends as far south as Ra'gusa. The islands,
which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the
coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a
few hundred feet, while on the mainland, notably in the magnifi-
cent inlet of the Bocche di Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall
directly to the sea. This coast, though beautiful, is somewhat
sombre, the prevalent colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey,
contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of
the islands is luxuriant. The north part of the sea is very
shallow, and between the southern promontory of Istria and
Rimini the depth rarely exceeds 25 fathoms. Between Sebenico
and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable
area of which exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point be-
tween Curzola and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano
there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a
few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of Dur-
azzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below
800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 fathoms.
The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls
from this quarter or the south-east, are dangers to navigation in
winter. Tidal movement is slight. (See also MEDITERRANEAN.)
For the " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more properly "of the
sea," a ceremony formerly performed by the doges of Venice,
see the article BUCENTAUR.

ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write),
something written after, as opposed to " subscript," which
means written under. A labourer was called an " adscript of the
soil " (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or transferred
with it, as in feudal days, and as in Russia until 1861. Carlyle
speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts.

ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe of
Judah, perhaps the modern "Aid-el-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of Beit-Jibrin.
It was in the stronghold (" cave " is a scribal error) of this town
that David took refuge on two occasions (i Sam. xxii. i; 2 Sam.
v. 17). The tradition that Adullam is in the great cave of
Khareitun (St Chariton) is probably due to the crusaders.
From the description of Adullam as the resort of " every one
that was in distress," or " in debt," or " discontented," it has
often been humorously alluded to, notably by Sir Walter Scott,
who puts the expression into the mouth of the Baron of Brad-
wardine in Waverley, chap. Ivii., and also of Balfour of Burley in
Old Mortality. In modern political history the expression " cave
of Adullam " (hence " Adullamites ") came into common use
(being first employed in a speech by John Bright on the i3th of
March 1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert
Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal
supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866. But others
had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. President
Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), and the Tories
in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined C. J. Fox in his
temporary secession. From the same usage is derived the
shorter political term " cave " for any body of men who secede
from their party on some special subject.

ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify),
the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object of
passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine commodity
for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an inferior article
for a superior one, to the detriment of the purchaser. Although
the term is mainly used in connexion with the falsification of
articles of food, drink or drugs, and is so dealt with in this article,
the practice of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured
products and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and
(as was once suggested by John Bright) is an almost inseparable
— though none the less reprehensible — -phase of keen trade
competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce itself, it
has progressed with the growth of knowledge and of science,
and is, in its most modern developments, almost a branch —
and that not the least vigorous one — of applied science. From
the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a stone in a loaf of
bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in a musk bag or in a piece
of opium, it has developed into the use of aniline dyes, of anti-
septic chemicals, of synthetic sweetening agents in foods, the
manufacture of butter from cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed
and of pepper from olive stones. Its growth and development
has necessitated the employment of multitudes of scientific
officers charged with its detection and the passing of numerous
laws for its repression and punishment. While for all common
forms of fraud the common law is in most cases considered
strong enough, special laws against the adulteration of food
have been found necessary in all civilized countries. A vigorous
branch of chemical literature deals with it; there exist scientific
societies specially devoted to its study; laboratories are main-
tained by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for
its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes, but
becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to health.

There are numerous references to adulteration in the classics.
The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in Hiero's crown,
by the light specific gravity of the latter, is a well-known in-
stance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration of minium with
lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other plant juices and
with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white clay. Both in Rome
and in Athens wine was often adulterated with colours and
flavouring agents, and inspectors were charged with looking
after it.

In England, so far back as the reign of John (1203), a pro-
clamation was made throughout the kingdom, enforcing the

ADULTERATION

219

legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following
reign the statute (51 Hen. III. Stat. 6) entitled " the pillory and
tumbrel " was framed for the express purpose of protecting the
public from the dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers,
butchers and others. This statute is the first in which the adul-
teration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it
seems to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the
Liber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward I.,
for it states that: " If any default shall be found in the bread
of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a
hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house through the great
street where there be most people assembled, and through the
great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging
from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing
the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through
the great street of Cheepe in the manner aforesaid to the pillory,
and let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one
hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be
found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and
the baker made to foreswear the trade in the city for ever." The
assize of 1634 provides that " if there be any manner of person
or persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell any
meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it deceitfully
or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may be to the hurte
and infection of man's body, or use any false weight, or any de-
ceitful wayes or meanes, and so deceive the subject, for the first
offence he shall be grievously punished, the second he shall
loose his meale, for the third offence he shall suffer the judg-
ment of the pillory and the fourth time he shall foreswere the
town wherein he dwelleth." Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers,
regrators and others were subject to the like punishment for
dishonesty in their commercial dealings — it being thought that
the pillory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more
deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment. In the reign
of Edward the Confessor a knavish brewer of the city of Chester
was taken round the town in the cart in which the refuse of the
privies had been collected. Ale-tasters had to look after the ale
and test it by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the
wet place in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the " resi-
due obtained by evaporation " affording the evidence of purity
or otherwise. If sugar had been added the taster adhered to the
bench; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an adhesive
extract. In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered a jury of
five or six vintners to rack and draw off the suspected wine of
another vintner, and to ascertain what drugs or ingredients
they found in the said wine or cask to sophisticate the same.
At another time eight pipes of wine were ordered to be destroyed
because, on racking off, bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match,
and " a kind of gravel mixture sticking to the casks " had been
found.

Similar records have come down from the continental European
countries. In 1390 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced to be
led out of the city with his hands bound and a rope round his
neck; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise severely
punished; in 1435 " were the taverner Christian Corper and
his wife put in a cask in which he sold false wine, and then ex-
posed in the pillory. The punishment was adjudged because
they had roasted pears and put them into new sour wine, in
order to sweeten the wine. Some pears were hung round their
necks like unto a Paternoster." In Biebrich on the Rhine, in
1482, a wine-falsifier was condemned to drink six quarts of his
own wine; from this he died. In Frankfurt, casks in which false
wine had been found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's
cart, " the jailer marched before, the rabble after, and when they
came to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff
into the stream." In France successive ordonnances from 1330
to 1672 forbade the mixing of two wines together under the
penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine.

Modern British Legislation. — In modern times the English
parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food adul-
teration. In 1725 it was provided that " no dealer in tea or

manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall
counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be
counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate or manu-
facture tea with terra-japonica, or with any drug or drugs what-
soever; nor shall mix or cause or procure to be mixed with tea
any leaves other than the leaves of tea or other ingredients
whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting and losing the tea so counter-
feited, adulterated, altered, fabricated, manufactured or mixed,
and any other thing or things whatsoever added thereto, or
mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of £100." Six years
afterwards, in 1730-1731, a further act was passed prescribing a
penalty for " sophisticating " tea; it recites that several ill-dis-
posed persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very
great quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves
of tea that have been before used, or the leaves of other trees,
shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix, colour,
stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with terra-japonica,
sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other ingredients, and
do sell and vend the same as true and real tea, to the prejudice
of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of the
revenue and to the ruin of the fair trader. This act provides
that for every pound of adulterated tea found in possession of
any person, a sum of £10 shall be forfeited. It was followed by
one passed in 1 766-1 767, which increased the penalty to imprison-
ment for not less than six nor more than twelve months. As
regards coffee, an act of 1718 recited that "divers evil-disposed
persons have at the time or soon after the roasting of coffee
made use of water, grease, butter or such-like materials, where-
by the same is rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in
weight," and a penalty of £20 is enacted. In 1803 an act refers
to the addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or
other grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of
coffee or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty for the
offence at £100, but subsequently permission was given to coffee
or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted corn, peas,
beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or powdared,
under certain excise restrictions. An act passed in 1816 relating
to beer and porter provides that no brewer of or dealer in or
retailer of beer " shall receive or have in his possession, or make
or mix with any worts or beer, any liquor, extract or other pre-
paration for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer,
other than brown malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his
possession or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses,
honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of
paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or
any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for
malt or hops." Any person contravening was liable to a penalty
of £200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or retail dealer
any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined £500. It was
only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to make for their own
use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening the colour of worts or
beer and to use it in brewing.

All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the
interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left
entirely in the hands of the revenue officers. It was but natural
that they should look primarily after the dutiable articles and
not after those that brought no revenue to the state. About
the middle of the igth century many articles, however, paid
import duty; butter, for instance, paid 53. per hundredweight;
cheese from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.; [flour or meal of all kinds, 4$d.;
ginger, xos. ; isinglass, 55. ; and so on. Sensational and doubtless
largely exaggerated statements were from time to time published
concerning the food supply of the nation. F. C. Accum (1760-
1838) by his Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary
Poisons (1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book
entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, or
Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which the blood-
empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of wines, spirits,
beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices, cheesemongery, pastry, con-
fectionery, medicines, &c. 6*c., are laid open to the public (1830),
roused the public attention. In 1850 a physician, Dr. Arthur
H. Hassall, had the happy idea of looking at ground coffee

220-

ADULTERATION

through the microscope. Eminent chemists had previously
found great difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical
distinction between coffee, chicory and other adulterants of
coffee; the microscope immediately showed the structural
difference of the particles, however small. The results of
Hassall's examinations were embodied in a paper which was read
before the Botanical Society of London and was reported in
The Times, 1850. A paper on the microscopic examination of
sugar, showing the presence in that article of innumerable living
mites, followed and attracted much attention. Hassall was in
consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1795-1862),
the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other
articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports of
the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly pub-
lished, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers
and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly given.
The responsibility incurred was immense, but the assertions
of the journal were so well founded upon fact that they were
universally accepted as accurately representing the appalling
state of the food supply. As instances may be cited, that of
thirty-four samples of coffee only three were pure, chicory being
present in thirty-one, roasted corn in twelve, beans and potato-
flour each in one; of thirty-four samples of chicory, fourteen
were adulterated with corn, beans or acorns; of forty-nine
samples of bread, every one contained alum; of fifty-six samples
of cocoa, only eight were pure; of twenty-six milks, fourteen
were adulterated; of twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four
were genuine, thirteen containing red-lead and one vermilion;
of upwards of one hundred samples of coloured sugar-confec-
tionery, fifty-nine contained chromate.of lead, eleven gamboge,
twelve red-lead, six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four
white-lead.

In consequence of the Lancet's disclosures a parliamentary
committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted in

1860 in the Adulteration of FoodandDrink Act, the first
i860* act tnat dealt generally with the adulteration of food.

The first section of this enacted " that every person
who shall sell any article of food or drink with which, to the
knowledge of such person, any ingredient or material injurious
to the health of persons eating or drinking soch article has
been mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadul-
terated any article of food or drink which is adulterated and
not pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction,
pay a penalty not exceeding £5 with costs." In the case of a
second offence the name, place of abode and offence might be
published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. As the
act, however, left it optional to the district authorities to appoint
analysts or not, and did not provide for the appointment of any
officer upon whom should rest the duty of obtaining samples or
of prosecuting offenders, it virtually remained a dead letter till
1872 J872, when the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act

came into force, prescribing a penalty not exceeding
£50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a second offence, im-
prisonment for six months with hard labour. Inspectors were
empowered to make purchases of samples to be submitted for
analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left optional.
The definition of an adulterated article given in that act was
essentially that still accepted at the present time, namely, " any
article of food or drink or any drug mixed with any other sub-
stances, with intent fraudulently to increase its weight or bulk,
without declaration of such admixture to any purchaser thereof
before delivering the same." The adoption of the act was
sporadic, and, outside London and a few large towns, the number
of proceedings against offenders remained exceedingly small.
Nevertheless complaints soon arose that it inflicted considerable
injury and imposed heavy and undeserved penalties upon some
respectable tradesmen, mainly owing to the " want of a clear
understanding of what does and does hot constitute adultera-
tion," and in some cases to conflicting decisions and the inex-
perience of analysts.

Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took
a mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale

of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present
day, subject to amendments and additions made at J8J5

later dates. This act avoided the term "adulteration"
altogether and endeavoured to give a clearer description of
punishable offences: —

Section 6. "No person shall sell to the purchaser any article
of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and
quality of the article demanded by the purchaser under a penalty
not exceeding £20; provided that an offence shall not be deemed
to be committed under this section in the following cases: (i)
where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been
added to the food or drug because the same is required for the
production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce,
in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently
to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or
conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the food or drug
is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force
and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the
patent; (3) where the food or drug is compounded as in the
act mentioned; (4) where the food or drug is unavoidably
mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection
or preparation."

Section 8. " No person shall be guilty of any such offence as
aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food or a drug
mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health,
and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight or
measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering
such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the
same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed
on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is
mixed."

The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon
the city of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions and
town councils or boroughs having a separate police establish-
ment. For the protection of the vendor, samples that had been
purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be offered to be
divided into three parts, one to be submitted to the analyst,
the second to be given to the vendor to be dealt with by him as
he might deem fit, and the third to be retained by the inspector,
and, at the discretion of the magistrate hearing any summons,
to be submitted, in case of dispute, to the commissioners of
inland revenue for analysis by the chemical laboratory at
Somerset House. The public analyst had to give a certificate,
couched in a prescribed form, to the person submitting any
sample for analysis, which certificate was to be taken as evidence
of the facts therein stated, in order to render the proceedings as
inexpensive as practicable. If the defendant in any prosecu-
tion could prove to the satisfaction of the court that he had
purchased the article under a warranty of genuineness, and
that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he was
to be discharged from the prosecution, but no provision was
made that in that event the giver of the warranty should be
proceeded against.

Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of
litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to pass
an amending act, making it clear that if a purchase 1S79

was effected by an inspector with the intent to get the
purchased article analysed, he was as much " prejudiced " if
obtaining a sophisticated article as a private purchaser who
purchased for his own use and consumption. The amending act
also dealt in some small measure with a difficulty which immedi-
ately after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining
whether any article was " of the nature, substance and quality
demanded by the purchaser " — " in determining whether an
offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits not
adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, it shall
be a good defence to prove that such admixture has not reduced
the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under proof for brandy,
whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof for gin." Almost
insuperable difficulties as to the meaning of " nature, substance
and quality " subsequently arose as regards every conceivable
food material. As it was obviously impossible for parliament

ADULTERATION

221

to define every article, to lay down limits of composition within
which it might vary, to specify the substances or ingredients
that might enter into it, to limit the proportions of the unavoid-
able impurities that might be contained in it, the duty to do all
this was left to the individual analysts. An enormous number
of substances had to be analysed until sufficient evidence had
been accumulated for the giving of correct opinions or certifi-
cates. Endless disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manu-
facturers and traders, unfortunately also with the referees at
the inland revenue, who for many years were altogether out of
touch with the analysts. Conflicting decisions come to by
various benches of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing
of the legal sale of an article in one district which in another
had been declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants
often unsatisfactory. It was not recognized by parliament
until almost a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not
enough to compel local authorities to get samples analysed,
but that it was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific
and clear instructions that might enable the officers to do their
work. This has only been very partially done even at the
present time.

A curious condition of thing? arose out of the definition of
" food " given in the act of 1875: " The term food shall include
Difficul- every article used for food or drink by man, other than
ties of drugs or water." It had been the practice of bakers

t0 add alUm t0 thC fl°Ur fr°m which bread WaS

manufactured, in order to whiten the bread, and to
permit the use of damaged and discoloured flour. This practice
had been strongly condemned by chemists and physicians,
because it rendered the bread indigestible and injurious to
health. Shortly after the passing of the Food Act this objec-
tionable practice was stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and
alumed bread now no longer occurs. A large trade, however,
continued to be carried on in baking powders consisting of alum
and sodium bicarbonate. It was naturally thought that, as
baking powder is sold with the obvious intention that it may
enter into food, the vendors could also be proceeded against.
The high court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not
being an article of food, its sale could not be an offence under
the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act.

Under section 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be con-
victed, even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the
article he had sold was adulterated. In the repealed Adultera-
tion Act of 1872 the words " to the knowledge of " were inserted,
and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions. The general
rule of the law is that the master is not criminally responsible
for the acts of his servants if they are done without his know-
ledge or authority, but under the Food Act it was held (Brown
v. Fool, 1892, 66 L.T. 649) that a master was liable for the
watering of milk by one of his servants, although he had pub-
lished a warning to them that they would be dismissed if found
doing so. Milk might be adulterated during transit on the rail-
way without the knowledge of the owner or receiver, and yet
the vendor was liable to conviction.

When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that the
article sold to him is not of the nature, substance or quality he
demanded, the sale is not to the prejudice of the purchaser.
The notice may be given verbally or by a label supplied with
the article. A common law notice may also be given. In
Sandys v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican had displayed
a placard within the inn to the effect that the spirits sold in his
establishment were watered. This was held, as it were, to con-
tract him out of the Food Act. Similarly, in the case of butters
that had been adulterated with milk, the vendors, by giving a
general notice in the shop, evaded punishment under the act.
A notice, is, however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the
act, if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes.
In Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J.P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked for
coffee and received a packet with a label describing it as a
mixture of coffee and chicory. It was sold at the price of
coffee. It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of
chicory. The high court held that this was an excessive quan-

tity, and was added for the purpose of fraudulently increasing
the bulk or weight. In another case, however (Otter v. Edgley,
l893, 57 J-P- 457), where an inspector had asked for French
coffee and had been supplied with a mixture containing 60%
of chicory, the article being labelled as a mixture, the
high court held that there was no evidence of fraud, and, in
the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as little as 30%
of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label stating it
to be a mixture, was held to have been legally sold (Jones
v. Jones, 1894, 58 J.P. 653). In this case the label notifying
the admixture was hidden by a sheet of opaque white paper,
nor had the purchaser's attention been called to it, but the price
of the article was much lower than that of pure cocoa.

It is seen from these few instances, taken at random out of
scores, that this clause of the act was far from clear and was
very variously interpreted at the courts. The warranty clause
(clause 25) also gave rise to an immense amount of litigation.
In the earlier high court decisions a very narrow interpretation
was given to the term " written warranty," but in later years
a wider view prevailed. A general contract to supply a pure
article is not a sufficient warranty unless with every delivery
there is something to identify the delivery as part of the contract.
An invoice containing merely a description of an article as
" lard " or " pepper " is not a warranty; but if there be added
the words " guaranteed pure " it is a sufficient warranty. A
label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, but a label bear-
ing the words " pure " or " unadulterated," coupled with an
invoice which could be identified with the label, together were
held to form an effective warranty.

As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by
inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been appointed
in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number of cases led
to disputes of law or fact, about seventy high court cases being
decided within eighteen years of the passing of the act. While
these cases related to a variety of different articles and conditions,
dairy produce, namely milk and butter, led to the greatest
amount of litigation. It may seem to be a simple matter to
ascertain whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with
milk of the " nature, substance and quality demanded," but
milk is subject to great variations in composition owing to a
large number of circumstances which will be considered below.

Not many years after the passing of the Food Act of 1875 the
sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and
so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, an
act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the Sale
of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many
provisions of that act. It was called the Margarine Act 1887.
It provided that every package of articles made in
imitation of butter should be labelled " margarine " A^'
in letters 15 inches square. The vendor, however,
was protected if he could show a warranty or invoice, whereas
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act he was not protected by
invoice merely. Inspectors might take samples of " any butter
or substitute purporting to be butter " without going through
the form of purchase. The maximum penalty was raised from
£20 as provided by the Food Act, to £50 in the case of a first
and to £100 in the case of repeated conviction. The Margarine
Act is the first statute that makes reference to and sanctions
the use of preservatives, concerning which a good deal will
have to be said farther on.

In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food
Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the various
points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee was Select
appointed to inquire into the working of the various co'^u.
acts and to report whether any, and if so what, amend- tee, 1894.
ments were desirable. During three sessions the com-
mittee sat and took voluminous evidence. They reported that
where the acts had been well administered they had been most
beneficial in diminishing adulteration offences. Forms of
adulteration which were common prior to the passing of the
1875 act, such as the introduction of alum into bread and the
cplouring of confectionery with poisonous material, had almost

222

ADULTERATION

entirely disappeared. A close connexion had been shown to
exist between the extent of adulteration and the number of
articles submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion
of adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number
of samples taken relatively to the population increased. Thus,
in 1890, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every
379 persons, the percentage of adulterated samples in those taken
for analysis being as low as 3-6; in Gloucestershire one to 770
persons with 6-2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire one to 821 with
7-1; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17-1 %, and in Oxford
one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less than 41-7 %
of adulterated samples. The number of samples of articles
annually submitted to analysis, according to the returns obtained
by the Local Government Board, steadily increased from the com-
mencement onward. Whereas in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in
1883, 19,648 samples were analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was
no less than 84,678, or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants
for the whole country. In the five years 1877-1881 the pro-
portion found adulterated was 16-2 %; in the following five
years ending with 1886, the percentage was 13-9; in the five years
ending 1891, the percentage was 11-7; and in the year 1904
the percentage was only 8-5. The select committee found that
wide local differences in the administration of the acts existed,
and that in many parts of the country the local authorities
had failed to exercise their powers. In one metropolitan district,
eight members of the local authority had been convicted of
offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own
inspector. The result was that the duties of the inspector of the
acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that local
authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions should
be undertaken, and the administration of the acts was " little
better than a farce." No power existed to compel local au-
thorities to carry out the acts. The committee came to the con-
clusion that in many cases the responsibility for the adulteration
of articles of food did not rest with the retailer but with the whole-
sale dealer or manufacturer; that the law punished petty offences
and left great ones untouched; that it fined a small retailer and
left the wholesale offender scot free. As regards warranty, they
thought that the precedent created by the Margarine Act should
be followed generally, and that invoices and equivalent docu-
ments should have the force of warranties. They found that
a considerable proportion of the food imports were adulterated,
out of 890 samples of butter taken by the customs in 1895 no
less than 106 being impure, and they recommended that in ad-
dition to tea, which by section 30 of the act of 1875 was to be
systematically analysed by the customs, prior to being passed
for distribution, samples of all food imports should be taken and
examined by the customs. The committee further found that
the penalties imposed under the acts had for the most part been
trifling and quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits
derived from the sale of adulterated articles being out of pro-
portion great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recom-
mended that for the second offence the penalty of £5 should be
the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent
offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be in-
flicted. The important question of food standards was considered
at great length. The absence of legal standards or definitions
of articles of food had occasioned great difficulty in numerous
cases, but as no authority was provided by the existing acts that
might fix such standards, they recommended the formation of
a scientific authority or court of reference composed of repre-
sentatives of the laboratory of the Inland Revenue, of the Local
Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the General
Medical Council, the Institute of Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical
Society, of other scientific men and of the trading and manu-
facturing community, who should have the duty of fixing stand-
ards of quality and purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary
of state.

The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899. This unfortunately
was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, but
was an additional and amending one, so that at the present time

four food acts run parallel and are together in force, rendering the
subject from a legal point of view one of extreme complexity.
In this act the growing influence of the Board of Agri-
culture and the desire to assist farmers and dairymen
more decisively than previously are clearly apparent.
Section i empowers«the customs to take samples of consignments
of imported articles of food and enjoins them to communicate
to the Board of Agriculture the names of the importers of adulter-
ated goods, any article of food to be considered adulterated or
impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance
(other than preservative or colouring matter, of such a nature
and such a quantity as not to render the article injurious to
health), or if any part of it has been abstracted to the detriment
of the article. Margarine or cheese containing margarine has
to be conspicuously marked as such; condensed, separated or
skim milk has to be clearly labelled " machine-skimmed milk "
or " skimmed milk," as the case may be. The next sections give
to the Local Government Board and the Board of Agriculture
a roving commission to see that the acts are properly enforced
throughout the kingdom so as to apply the acts more equally
throughout the country than heretofore, and in default of local
authorities carrying out their duties empower the government
departments mentioned to execute and enforce the acts at the
expense of the local authorities. The importance of a regular
and conscientious control of the public food supply by the local
authorities was thus for the first time, after forty years of ex-
perimental legislation, fully acknowledged. In recognition of
the great difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in
their endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and
other milk constituents, and their inability to do so without
statutory powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorized by
section 4 to make regulations " for determining what deficiency
in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter
or cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion
of water " in any of these materials shall raise a presump-
tion, until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not
genuine. In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agricul-
ture did in 1901 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially
the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the sale
of butter regulations, which fixed 16 % as the maximum of
water that might be contained in butter. It is important to
note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of the standard
is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, [but it justifies the
institution of proceedings and casts the onus of proving that
the sample is genuine upon the defendant. The Margarine Act
of 1887 was extended to margarine cheese, the obligatory
labelling of margarine packages was more precisely regulated,
margarine manufacturers and dealers in that article were com-
pelled to keep a register open to inspection by the Board of
Agriculture, showing the quantity and designation of each con-
signment, and power was given to officers of the board to enter
at all reasonable times manufactories of margarine and margarine
cheese. The amount of butter-fat that might be present in
margarine was limited to 10 %, while under the Margarine
Act of 1887 an unlimited admixture might have been made,
provided that the mixture, no matter how large the percentage
of butter, was sold as margarine. As is further explained below,
the difficulty of distinguishing without chemical aid between
pure butter and margarine containing a considerable percentage
of butter is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be
common after the passing of the Margarine Act. The labelling
section of the Food Act 1875 (§ 8), which had been systematic-
ally circumvented, was modified, a label being no longer recog-
nized as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is so
written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the label
is not obscured by other matter on the label, though labels that
had been continuously in use for at least seven years before the
commencement of the act were not interfered with. In conse-
quence of the admitted unfairness of asking for a portion of the
contents of a properly labelled tin or package and then instituting
proceedings because no declaration of admixture had been
made, it was enacted that no person shall be required to sell any

ADULTERATION

223

article exposed for sale in an unopened tin or packet, except in
the unopened tin or packet in which it is contained. This re-
moved a grievance which had long been felt both by retailers
and manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance
with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in factories.
The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, had given rise
to much litigation, were more clearly defined. A notice that a
defendant would rely for his defence upon a warranty had to be
given within seven days of the' service of the summons or the
defence would not be available, and the warrantor was em-
powered to appear at the hearing and to give evidence so that
no man's name could, as sometimes previously happened, be
dragged into a case without due notice to him. A warranty or
invoice given by a person resident outside the United Kingdom
was no longer recognized as a defence, unless the defendant
could prove that he had taken reasonable steps to ascertain
and did in fact believe in the accuracy of the statement con-
tained in the warranty. This prevented collusion between a
foreign shipper and an importer; and, lastly, the definition of
"foodv was widened (in view of the baking-powder decision)
so that the term food " shall include every article used for food
or drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article
which ordinarily enters into or is used in the composition or
preparation of human food, and shall also include flavoring
matters and condiments."

The act of 1899 embodies, with one exception, the most
important recommendations of the Food Products Committee,
the exception being the omission of instituting a board of refer-
ence that might deal with difficulties as they arose, guide analysts
and public authorities in fixing limits for articles other than milk
and butter, and take up the important questions of preservatives
and colouring matters and such like. An occurrence which
almost immediately followed the passing of the act showed in
the strongest manner the necessity of such guiding board —
namely, the outbreak of arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in
the latter part of 1900.

In the month of June 1900 there occurred, mainly in the
Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an out-
break of an illness variously described as "alcoholism,"
iiTfoods. " peripheral neuritis " or "multiple neuritis." This
affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70
deaths. It was soon ascertained that the sufferers were all beer
drinkers, and several of them were employees of a local brewery,
the majority of whom had suffered, |for some months past.
Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some considerable time
elapsed before Dr E. S. Reynolds of Manchester discovered
arsenic in dangerous proportions in the beer. Steps were im-
mediately taken by brewers and sanitary authorities to ensure
that this arsenical beer was withdrawn from sale, and, as a
result, the epidemic came speedily to an end. In all instances
where this epidemic of sickness had been traced to particular
breweries, the latter had been users of brewing sugars — glucose
and invert sugar — supplied by a single firm. The quantity of
arsenic detected in specimens of these brewing sugars was in
some cases very large, amounting to upward of four grains per
pound. The implicated brewing sugars were found to have
become contaminated by arsenic in course of their manufacture
through the use of sulphuric acid, some specimens of which
contained as much as 2-6% of arsenic. The acid had been
made from highly arsenical iron pyrites, and as the manufac-
turers of the glucose had not specifically contracted with the
acid makers for pure acid, the latter, not knowing for what
purpose the acid was to be used, had felt themselves justified in
supplying impure acid. A royal commission was appointed in
February 1901, with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into
the matter, and an enormous amount of attention was naturally
given to it by chemists and medical men. It was soon found that
arsenic was very widely disseminated in two classes of food
materials, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases
resulting from the combustion of coal, and such as had been
more or less chemically manufactured. All coal contains iron
pyrites, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic.

When the coal is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of the
arsenic condenses and deposits. Malt dried in English malt
kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there
cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past
been thus contaminated. At the present time coal virtually
free from arsenic is selected for malting, or Newlands' process,
consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which renders
the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free from all but
the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured. Part of the
arsenic remains in the coal-ashes and wherever these deposit
arsenic can be traced. Sir Edward Frankland had, many years
previously, detected arsenic in the London atmosphere. Chicory
roasted with coal, steaks and chops grilled over an open fire,
thus obtain a minute arsenical dosing. In sugar refineries
carbonic acid gas is, at one stage of the process, passed through
the liquor for the purpose of precipitating lime or strontia.
When this carbonic acid is derived from coal the sugar often
shows traces of arsenic. When arsenical malt or sugar infusion
is fermented, as in brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a
considerable proportion of the impurity, thus partly cleaning
the beer, but all preparations made from yeast — yeast-extracts
resemble to some extent meat extracts, with which they are some-
times fraudulently mixed — are thus exposed to arsenical con-
tamination. On the continent of Europe malt is not dried in
kilns with direct access of combustion gases but on floors heated
from beneath, and continental beers therefore have not been
found arsenical. The second class of causes of contamination
consists of chemicals. The most important chemical product is
sulphuric acid. This used to be made from brimstone or native
volcanic sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic. But since
about 1860 sulphuric acid has been more largely made from
iron or copper pyrites. Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, but can,
by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that impurity. For
many purposes acid that has not been purified is employed. In
the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step is the conver-
sion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric acid. The hydro-
chloric acid which is formed carries with it most of the arsenic
of the sulphuric acid. Wherever such hydrochloric acid is used
it introduces arsenic; thus, in the separation of glycerin from
soap lyes, the alkali of the latter is neutralized with hydrochloric
acid and glycerin is in consequence frequently highly arsenical.
So is the soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one
of the numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive
its share. All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric acid,
such as phosphoric, tartaric, citric, boracic, may be, and some-
times are, thus contaminated. All superphosphates, made by
the action of crude sulphuric acid upon bones or other phosphatic
materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made from gas-liquor and
acid, that is to say, two of the most important manurial materials,
are arsenical, and the poison is thus spread far and wide over
meadows and fields, and can be traced in the soil wherever
artificial manures have been applied. The crops sometimes take
up arsenic to a slight extent, but happily the plant is more
selective than man, and no serious amount of poison absorption
appears to be possible. The risk of contamination is, of course,
much greater with substances which, like glucose, are not
further purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity
is introduced into them. Glucose is not only used in beer, in
which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but is also
substituted for sugar in a number of food products, and is liable
to carry into them its contamination. Sugar confectionery,
jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are often admixed
with glucose. It is difficult to say in the present state of the
law whether such admixture amounts to adulteration. It was
clearly made originally for fraudulent purposes, but usage and
high court decisions have gradually given the practice an air of
respectability. Vinegar of sorts is also made from a glucose
liquor produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon maize or
other starchy material, and is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic
contamination. There is hardly a chemical substance which
has directly or indirectly come in to -con tact with sulphuric acid
that is not at times arsenical. Thus, while artificial colours,

224

ADULTERATION

now so much used for the dyeing of food products, are no longer
prepared — as was rosaniline (the parent substance of so many
aniline dyes) at an early stage of its manufacture — with arsenic
acid, yet they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric
acid. Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the
smelting of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in par-
ticular, as employed for pots and pans and implements, being
highly arsenical. From the iron the many chemical preparations
which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be
arsenicated. The general presence of arsenic from some of these
causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of arsenical
poisoning have been due to it at various times, but neglect,
forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the matter go into
oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite of all attention which
has been given to the subject, of the panic which was created
by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of the shock and injury caused
to manufacturers of many kinds, and of the watchfulness
aroused in officers of health and analysts, that as long as the
production of food materials or substances that go into food
materials is not left to the care of nature, and as long as man
adds the products of his ingenuity to our food and drink, so long
will " accidents," like the Manchester poisoning, from time to
time recur. We now search for arsenic; some other time it is
lead, or antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief. Man
does what he can according to his light, but he sees but a little
patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal
building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance
to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it. Strictly
speaking,' arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of
adulteration. It is not due to wilfulmess but to stupidity, but
it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to heart,
that mankind, by relying too much upon " science " in feeding,
is on a path that is fraught with considerable danger.

To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the royal
commission made important recommendations concerning
amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted
and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for the
purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and other
deleterious substances in food. " As a rule public analysts
receive samples in order that they may pronounce upon their
genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the local circum-
stances which led to their being taken, of their origin or the
reasons for sending them. The term ' genuine ' in this sense
means that the analyst has not detected such objectionable
substances as he has considered it necessary to look for in the
sample submitted to him. Obviously, the value of the state-
ment that the sample is ' genuine ' depends upon the extent to
which the analyst has means of knowing what are the objection-
able substances which it is liable to contain. In present circum-
stances he has not sufficient information on this point." It
was also pointed out that the application of the Food Acts to
prevention of contamination of foods by deleterious substances
was materially hindered by want of an official authority with
the duty of dealing with the various medical, chemical and
technical questions involved, and that the absence of official
standards militated against the efficiency of the existing acts.
The commission advised that a special officer be appointed by
the Local Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various
sources, such information as would enable the board to direct
the work of local authorities in securing greater purity of food;
and they further recommended that the board or court of refer-
ence, which had been advised by the Committee on Food Pro-
ducts Adulteration, should be established. Pending the estab-
lishment of official standards in respect of arsenic under the
Food Acts, they were of opinion that penalties should be imposed
upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any
liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid be
shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain or
more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid food, no
matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or small
quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden syrup), or
mixed with water or other substances (like chicory or yeast

extract) — if the substance contain one-hundredth of a grain of
arsenic or more to the pound. The board of reference, most
urgently needed for the protection of the public and for the
guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be created.
While from time immemorial certain articles of food have
been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the addition
of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the last
quarter of the igth century the use of chemicals acting
more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives ex-
tended enormously, particularly in England. A very
large fraction of the British food supply being obtained
from abroad, a proportionately great difficulty exists in obtain-
ing the food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition. While
refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in enab-
ling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be imported,
other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that are collected
from farmers and brought together at shipping ports, are neces-
sary to prevent decomposition prior to such goods coming into
cold store. Thus it is well-nigh impossible to collect butter
from farms in Australia or New Zealand far distant from the
coast without the addition of some chemical preservative.
Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the modern palate, and,
with the progress of specialized labour, the inhabitants, especi-
ally of great towns, have become accustomed to resort to manu-
factured provisions instead of the home-made and home-cooked
food. Manufacturers of many articles of preserved food gradu-
ally adopted the use of chemical preservatives, and at the present
time the practice has become so general that it may be said that
practically every person in the United Kingdom who has passed
the suckling stage consumes daily more or less food containing
chemical preservatives. The Food Act allows of the addition
of any ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for
the production or preparation of the food, or as an article of
commerce, in a state fit for carriage. The legality or otherwise
of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, hinges upon their
innocuousness. Upon theoretical considerations it is clear that
a substance which is capable of acting as an antiseptic must act
injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or yeasts, and as the human
body is, generally speaking, less resistant to poisons than the low
organisms in question, it would seem to follow that antiseptics
are bound to affect it injuriously. It is, of course, a question
of dose and proportion. It has further been said that all anti-
septics possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valu-
able they may be in disease when administered under the control
of a competent physician, they have no business to be given in-
discriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of food.
The result of a general desire on the part of importers and manu-
facturers of food materials, of the officers under the Food Act,
of the medical profession and of the public, resulted after many
years of agitation and complaint and after numerous conflicting
magisterial decisions, in the appointment in 1899, by the presi-
dent of the Local Government Board, of a departmental com-
mittee to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring
matters in food, with the reference to report: first, whether the
use of such materials or any of them, in certain quantities, is
injurious to health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use
become injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what
amounts are they used at the present time. After the examina-
tion of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in 1901.
Perhaps the most important conclusion was that the instances
of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred from the
consumption of articles of food and drink chemically preserved
were few in number, and were not at all supported by conclusive
evidence. During the period which has elapsed since chemically
preserved food has been used, the mortality as a whole has
declined, and while this naturally cannot be put to the credit
of the preservatives but is largely due to better feeding in conse-
quence of the introduction of cheaper foods, which are rendered
possible to some extent by the use of preservatives, it conclusively
establishes the fact that no obvious harm has been done to the
health of the community. The committee made certain recom-
mendations which are the most authoritative pronouncements

ADULTERATION

225

upon the subject. They are as follows: — That the use of form-
aldehyde or formalin, or preparations thereof, in food or
drinks, be absolutely prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not
used in a greater proportion than one grain per pint in liquid
food and one grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases
to be declared. That the use of any preservatives or colouring
matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom
be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act.
That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to use in
cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, and
in amount not exceeding 0-25% expressed as boric acid,
the amount of such preservative to be notified by a label upon
the vessel. That the only preservative permitted to be used in
butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid
and borax, to be used in proportions not exceeding 0-5 %
expressed as boric acid. That in the case of all dietetic prepara-
tions intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical pre-
servatives of all kinds be prohibited.

As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric
acid, free or in the form of borax, which is extensively employed
in butter, cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured
fish, and sometimes in -jams and preserved fruit, the
arguments for and against its employment deserve more detailed
attention. It cannot be looked upon in the light of common
adulteration because, in any case, the quantity used is but an
inconsiderable fraction, and the cost of it is generally greater
than that of the food itself. It is not used to hide any traces
of decomposition that may have taken place or to efface its
effects. On the other hand, it cannot be said to be " required
for the production or preparation " of the articles with which
it is mixed, since a fraction at leasfof similar articles are made
without preservative. It enables food to be kept from decom-
position, but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encour-
ages neglect and slovenliness in factories. It has no taste, or
only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to the
consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot
therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so. Its pre-
servative action, that is, its potency, is very slight in comparison
with most other preservatives; its potential injuriousness to
man must be proportionately small. It is practically without
interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic digestion, unless
given in large quantities. Experiments made by F. W. Tunni-
cliffe and R. Rosenheim upon children showed that neither boric
acid nor borax, administered in doses of from 15 to 23 grains
per diem, exerted any influence upon proteid metabolism or
upon the assimilation of phosphatized materials. The fat
assimilation was, if anything, improved, and the body weight
increased, and the general health and well-being was in no way
affected. On the other hand, evidence was adduced that in some
cases digestive disturbances, after continuous administration
of from 15 to 40 grains, were observable, nausea and vomiting
in some, and skin irritation, in one case resulting in complete
baldness, in others.

Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric
disturbance to any particular article of food or one of its in-
gredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of disturbance,
a fairly good case has been made out by a number of medical
practitioners against boracic acid, taken in an ordinary diet
and not for experimental purposes. The most exhaustive in-
vestigation which has as yet been made was carried out by
Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States department of
agriculture. A large number of young men who had offered
themselves as subjects for the investigations, were boarded as a
special " hygienic table," but otherwise continued their usual
vocations during the whole period of the experiment. They were
placed upon their honour to observe the rules and regulations
prepared by the department and to use no other food or drink
than that provided, water excepted, and any water consumed
away from the hygienic table was to be measured and reported.
They were to continue their regular habits and not to indulge
in any excessive amount of labour or exercise. Weight, tempera-
ture and pulse rate were continuously recorded. The periods
1.8

during which the subjects of the experiment were kept under
observation varied from .thirty to seventy days, periods of rest
being given during which they were permitted to eat moderately
at tables other than the experimental one. There was a good
and ample diet. The observations were divided into three periods :
the fore period, the preservative period and the after period,
during the whole of which time the rations of each member
were weighed or measured and the excreta collected. Before
the " fore " period was commenced a note was made of the
quantities of food voluntarily consumed by each of the candi-
dates, and from these the proper amount necessary in each case
to maintain a comparatively constant body weight was calcu-
lated. When a suitable result was thus arrived at, the same
quantity of food was given daily during the " preservative "
and " after " periods. The preservative was given in the forms
of borax and of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subse-
quently in gelatine capsules. This was found to be necessary
from the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the food
and concealed in it some of the members of the table evinced
dislike of the food with which it was supposed to be incorporated;
those who thought that the preservative was in the butter were
disposed to find the butter unpalatable, and the same was true
with those who thought it might be in the milk or coffee, while,
when the preservative was given openly, much less disturbance
was created. The preservative was given at first in small doses
such as might be consumed in commercial food that had been
preserved with borax; gradually the quantities were increased
in order to reach the limit of toleration for each individual.
All food was weighed, measured and analysed, the same being
the case with the excreta. The blood was examined periodically
as regards colouring matter and number of corpuscles. Every-
thing was done to keep up the general health of the members
and to do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to
the circumstances. During the time of the experiment analyses
were made of 2 5 50 'food samples and 1175 samples each of
urine and faeces. The general results were as follows: there was
no tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism
was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly de-
creased. As regards phosphorus the combined results of all
observations indicated that the preservative increased the
excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97-3 %
in the " fore " period, to 103-1 in the " preservative " period.
The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was an increase
of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease of those in the
urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the preservatives
interfered with the process of digestion and absorption. No
influence was exerted on the corpuscles and the haemoglobin
of the blood. The effect of boracic acid and borax on the
general health varied with the amount administered, quantities
not exceeding half a gramme (7! grains) of boracic acid, or its
equivalent of borax, producing no immediate effects, but the
long-continued administration of such small doses seemed to
produce the same results as the use of large doses over a shorter
period. There was a tendency to diminish the appetite and to
produce a feeling of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and
sometimes actual nausea, also one of fulness in the head mani-
fested as a dull headache which disappeared when the preserva-
tive was dropped. The continued administration of large doses,
60 to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of appetite,
inability to perform work of any kind and general unfitness.
In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken for some time,
but gradually injurious effects were observed. In some cases 30
and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause illness, but it is
acknowledged that these persons may have been suffering from
influenza. The administration of 7-5 grains was declared by
Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal man to receive regularly,
although for a limited period there might be no danger to health.
Dr Wiley concludes his report: " It appears, therefore, that
both boric acid and borax, when continuously administered in
small doses for a long period or when given in large quantities
for a short period, create disturbance of appetite, of digestion
and of health."

220

ADULTERATION

Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O.
Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions
of the experiment and the documents relating to the investiga-
tion. He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the
number of persons under control so small that " one case of self-
deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into absolute
uncertainty the solution of the whole question "; that no lasting
injury to health was found in spite of transient disturbances
attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and that all persons
declared themselves to be in better physical condition after
seven months than they had been before. On the whole the
balance of evidence seems to be that while no acute injury is
likely to result from boron compounds in food, they are liable to
produce slighter digestive interferences.

Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose of
preserving food materials may be treated more shortly. Form-
aldehyde, coming into commerce in the form of a
4° % solution under the name of formalin, was for a
time largely used in milk. It certainly has very great
antiseptic properties, as little as i part in 50,000 parts check-
ing the growth of organisms in milk for some hours, but as
the substance combines with albuminous matters and hardens
them to an extraordinary degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine
perfectly insoluble in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on
the digestive ferments. It injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic
digestion. A set of five kittens fed with milk containing i part
in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly retarded
in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control kittens fed
on pure milk flourished. In even moderate doses formalin pro-
duces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused death. It is
now generally recognized as a substance that is admirably
adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, but quite improper and
unsuitable for food preservation.

Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic acid is either obtained
from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's
process from phenol and carbonic acid. Artificial
SaWc^/fc salicylic acid generally contains impurities (creasotic
acids) which act very injuriously upon health. When
pure, salicylic acid employed as a food preservative has never
produced decided injurious effects, although administered by
itself in fairly strong solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach
and kidneys, and sometimes causes skin eruptions. It is a
powerful drug in larger doses and requires careful administra-
tion, especially as about 60 % of the persons to whom it is
administered show symptoms known as " salicylism," namely,
deafness, headache, delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage
or heart-failure. It is doubtful whether pure salicylic acid
produces these symptoms. When present in proportion of
i to 1000 it inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts. In
jams 2 grains per pound and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon
are considered by manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative
purposes. It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing
sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime and lemon
juices, syrups, cider, British wines and imported lager. Its use
in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in which it was not in-
frequently met with formerly, is now quite exceptional. It has
already been stated that the preservative committee recom-
mended its permissive use in small proportions. To some extent
benzoic acid and benzoates have taken the place of salicylic
acid and salicylates, partly because salicylic acid can readily
be detected analytically, while benzoic acid is not quite easily
discoverable. Its antiseptic potency is about equal to that of
salicylic acid, and the arguments for or against its use are
similar to those relating to the latter.

For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried
fruit, sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) and some of the sulphites
»have long been employed. Sulphuring of hops and disinfection
of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an exceedingly old
practice. Burning sulphur is well known as a gaseous disin-
fectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air containing i %
of the gas. As the taste and smell of sulphurous acid and
of sulphites are very pronounced it follows that but small

quantities can be added to food or drink. About i part in
4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount. While, in larger
quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity
and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence that
they have ever caused injurious effects in alcoholic liquors.
The excise authorities have tacitly sanctioned their employment
in breweries, although the Customs and Inland Revenue Act
1885 declares' that a brewer of beer shall not add any matter
or thing thereto except finings or other matter or thing sanc-
tioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, and although
sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board of Inland Revenue
do neither sanction nor interfere. An antiseptic with a pro-
nounced taste is obviously a safer one in the hands of a non-
medical person than one virtually devoid of taste, like boric,
salicylic or benzoic acids or their salts.

Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic
properties, but also at the same time clearly injurious to health
and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has
been found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, pnserva-
in quantities quite inadmissible in food under any tives.
circumstances. A few other chemical preservatives
are occasionally used. Hydrogen peroxide has been found
effective in milk sterilization, and if the substance is pure, no
serious objection can be raised against it. Saccharine, and
other artificial sweetening agents, having antiseptic properties,
are taking the place of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer
and lemonade, but the substitution of a trace of a substance
that provides sweetness without at the same time giving the
substance and food value of sugar is strongly to be deprecated.

The employment of chemical preservative matters in articles
intended for human consumption threatens to become a grave
danger to health or well-being. Each dealer in food contributes
but a little; each one claims that his particular article of food
cannot be brought into commerce without preservative, and
each condemns the use of these substances by others. There is
doubtless something to be said for the practice, but infinitely
more against it. It cheapens food by allowing its collection in
districts far away, but the chief gainer is not the public as a
whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale merchant. Our
body has by inheritance acquired habits and needs that are
quite foreign to chemical interference. Some day, artificially
prepared foods, containing liberal quantities of matters that are
not now food ingredients, may conceivably compare with natural
food products, but that day is not yet, and meantime it ought
to be clearly the duty of the state to see that the evil is checked.
The intention which has introduced this form of adulteration
may be more or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly
evij.

A similar criticism applies to the continually extending use of
colouring matter in food. Civilized man requires his food not only
to be healthy and tasty, but also attractive in appear-
ance. It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that ma°"er'ia
please the eye. This is a difficult art, for the various toad.
colouring matters which are naturally present in
meat and fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are
of a delicate and changeable nature and easily affected or de-
stroyed by cooking. Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook
found that green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked
in a copper pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more
brilliant colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware
or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas
in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook
in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful addition of
a substance known to be injurious to health, namely, sulphate
of copper. The copper combines with the chlorophyll, forming
copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason of its insolubility in
the gastric juice, is comparatively innocuous. Preserved peas
and beans have been for so many years " coppered " in this
manner that it is difficult to induce the public to accept these
vegetables when possessed of their natural colour only. Several
countries endeavoured to abolish the objectionable practice,
but the public pressure has been too great, and to-day th«

ADULTERATION

227

practice is almost universal. In England the amount of copper
corresponds to from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable
calculated as crystallized copper sulphate. The opinion of
the departmental committee was clearly expressed that the
practice should be prohibited. No effect has been given to the
recommendation.

Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour.
When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish one.
To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring matter used
to be added by London milkmen. Very gradually this practice,
which had its origin in fraud, has extended to all milk sold in
London. The consumer, mis-educated into believing milk to be
yellow, now requires it to be so. Large dairy companies have
endeavoured to wean the public of its error, without success.
From milk the practice extended to butter; natural butter is
sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint fawn, and sometimes almost
white. In agricultural districts this is well known and taken as
a matter of course. In big towns, where the connexion of butter
and the cow is not well known, the consumer requires butter to
be of that colour which he imagines to be butter-colour. Anatto,
turmeric, carrot-juice used formerly to be employed for colouring
milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, mostly
quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable dyes just men-
tioned, are largely being used. The same aniline dyes are also
employed in the manufacture of an imitation Demerara sugar
from white beet sugar crystals. Aniline dyes are very frequently
used by jam-makers; the natural colour of the fruit is apt to
suffer in the boiling-pan, and unripe, discoloured or unsound
fruit can be made brilliant and enticing by dye. The brilliant
colours of cheap sugar confectionery are almost invariably pro-
duced by artificial tar-colours. Most members of this class of
colouring matters are quite harmless, especially in the small
quantities that are required for colouring, but there are a few
exceptions, picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck
brown and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous.
On the whole, the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an
advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often
highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with so
frequently in the middle of the igth century. Mineral colours,
with very few exceptions, are no longer used in food. Oxide of
iron or ochre is still very often found in potted meats, fish sauces
and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is admixed with cheap
chocolates. All lump sugar of commerce is dyed. Naturally
it has a yellow tint. Ultramarine is added to it and counteracts
the yellowness. In the same way our linen is naturally yellow
and only made to look white by the use of the blue-bag.

The same idea underlies both practices, and indeed the use
of all colouring matters in manufactured articles, namely, to
make them look better than they would otherwise. Within
bounds, this is a reasonable and laudable desire, but it also covers
many sins — poor materials, bad workmanship, faulty manu-
facturing and often fraud. Like sugar, flour and rice are some-
times blued to make them look white. All vinegar, most beers,
all stout, are artificially coloured with burnt sugar or caramel.
The line dividing the legitimate and laudable from the fraudu-
lent and punishable is so thin and difficult to draw that neither
the law nor its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a
matter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the
state. Practices which, when new, admit of regulation are
almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed
of " vested rights." Recognizing this, the departmental com-

ittee, like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, recom-

lended that " means be provided, either by the establishment
of a separate court of reference, or by the imposition of more
direct obligation on the Local Government Board, to exercise
supervision over the use of preservatives and colouring matters
in foods and to prepare schedules of such as may be considered
inimical to the public health."

In close connexion with this subject is the occasional occur-
rence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials. Tin
chloride is used in the West Indies to produce the yellow colour of
Demerara sugar. The old processes of sugar-boiling left some of

the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving them both
their colour and their delicious aroma; with the introduction
of modern processes affording a much greater yield
of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the
result. The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar,
had the colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin
compound upon the sugar. At the present time all Demerara
sugar, with the exception of that portion that is dyed with
anih'ne dye, has had its colour artificially given it and conse-
quently contains strong traces of tin. Soda-water, lemonade
and other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead con-
tamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and
vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream of
tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by their
manufacturers in leaden pans. Almost all " canned " goods
contain more or less tin as a contamination from the tin-plate.
While animal foods do not attack the tin to any great extent,
their acidity being small, almost all vegetable materials, especi-
ally fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode the tin covering
of the plate, dissolving it and becoming impregnated with tin
compounds. It is quite easy to obtain tin-reactions in abun-
dance from every grain of tinned peaches, apples or tomatoes.
These tin compounds are by no means innocuous; yet poisoning
from tinned vegetable foods is of rare occurrence. On the whole,
tin-plate is a very unsuitable material for the storage and preser-
vation of acid goods. Certain enamels, used for glazing earthen-
ware or for coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they
yield to the food prepared in them. Food materials that have
been in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contami-
nated with zinc. Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines.
The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely
beneficial. Not only has the percentage proportion of samples
found adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms
of adulteration which prevailed in the middle of the
iQth century have almost vanished. Plenty of fraud Food Acts.
still prevails, but poisoning by reckless admixture is
of exceedingly rare occurrence. Whilst formerly milk was not
infrequently adulterated with an equal bulk of water, few
fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed an addition of 10
or 15%. A bird's-eye view over the effect is obtained from
the following figures for England and Wales: —

Year.

Number of Samples.

Percentage
of
Adulteration.

Examined.

Adulterated.

1877
1879
1884
1889
1894

1899
1904

14,706

17.049
22,951
26,956
39.516
53,056
84,678

2,826
2,535
3,3"
3,096
4,060

4,970

7,173

19-2
14-8
14-4

ii-S
lio-3
9.4

8-5

The details of the working of the Food Acts in 1904 in England
and Wales are set out in the table on the next page.

United States. — Each separate state has food laws of its own.
From the ist of January 1907 the "American National Pure
Food Law," applicable to the United States generally, came
into force, without superseding the State food laws, the only
effect of the National Law being the legalization of shipments
of any food which complies with the provisions of the National
Law into any state from another state, even though the food
is adulterated within the meaning of the state law. The law
applies to every person in the United States who receives food
from another state and offers it for sale in the original unbroken
packages in which he receives it, and if it is adulterated or mis-
branded within the meaning of the National Law he can be
punished for having received it and offering it for sale in the
original unbroken package to the same extent as the person who
shipped it to him can be punished. The mere fact that he is a
citizen of a state selling food within that state will not excuse
him; and he will be subject to prosecution to the same extent
as he would be if he uttered counterfeit money. Retailers,

228

ADULTERATION

however, can protect themselves from prosecution when they
sell goods in original unbroken packages by procuring a written
guarantee, signed by the person from whom they received the
goods, such guarantee stating that the goods are not adulterated
within the meaning of the National Law. The guarantee must
also contain the name and address of the wholesale vendor,
but unless the parties signing the guarantee are residents of
the United States the guarantee is void. The law affects all
foods shipped from one state or district into another and also
all foods intended for export to a foreign country. It also
affects all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any

Table showing working of British Food Acts, 1904.

Samples

Found

Percentage

Examined.

Adulterated.

Adulterated.

Milk . . .

36,413

4,031

ii-i

Butter

15.124

867

5-7

Cheese

2,176

20

0-9

Margarine
Lard . . . .

1,169
2,489

83
4

7-1

0-2

Bread

473

i

O-2

Flour . . . .

476

3

0-6

Tea

486

t g

Coffee

2,55°

161

6-3

Cocoa

477

42

8-8

Sugar

901

49

5'4

Mustard .

812

39

4-8

Confectionery and Jam .

1.303

72

5-5

Pepper .

2,393

43

1-8

Wine

308

54

17-5

Beer

1,065

75

7-0

Spirits

6,938

832

I2-O

Drugs : —

Camphorated Oil

395

24

6-1

Sweet Spirit of Nitre .

243

66

27-2

Sulphur ....

131

7

5'3

Cream of Tartar .

441

88

2O-O

Glycerin.

192

21

IO-9

Rhubarb prepara-

tions ....

96

5

5'2

Seidlitz Powders .

81

3

3'7

Linseed

7°

i

1-4

Magnesia
Mercury prepara-

48

9

18-8

tions ....

28

4

14-3

Cod Liver Oil

245

7

2-9

Iron Pills

16

Compound Liquorice

Powder

in

2

1-8

Tincture of Iodine

23

4

17-4

Other Drugs

1,124

124

I I'D

Total Drugs .

3.214

365

"•3

Other Articles : —

Ginger ....

704

„

Syrup and Treacle

183

"s

4.4

Baking Powder .

281

II

3'9

Vinegar ....

773

57

7'4

Arrowroot

467

3

0-6

Oatmeal . . .

359

Sago .....

227

H

6-2

Olive Oil ...

306

9

2-9

Dripping and Fat
Sundries.

85
2,496

i
329

1-2

13-2

Total other Articles

5,881

432

7'3 .

All Articles

84,678

7,173

8-5

territory or the District of Columbia, wherever such foods may
have been produced. The law does not affect foods manufac-
tured and sold wholly within one state, nor such as have been
shipped from another state but not in the original package.
While thus the National Food Law is mainly intended to regulate
the food traffic between the different states, and leaves to the
states freedom to regulate their internal traffic, it must gradually
tend to unify the present complicated state food legislation,
and it is therefore here more usefully considered than would be
the separate state laws.

The definition of adulteration as set forth in sec. 7 is as
follows: — " For the purpose of this act an article shall be
deemed to be adulterated: In the case of drugs: (i) If, when a
drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United States

Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the stand-
ard of strength, quality or purity, as determined by the test
laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National
Formulary official at the time of investigation; provided that
no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National
Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision
if the standard of strength, quality or purity be plainly stated
upon the bottle, box or other container thereof although the
standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down
in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary.
(2) If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard
or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery:
If it contains terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other
mineral substance or poisonous colour or flavour, or other
ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous,
malt or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the
case of food: (i) If any substance has been mixed and packed
with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality
or strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted wholly
or in part for the article. (3) If any valuable constituent of
the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it be
mixed, coloured, powdered, coated or stained in a manner
whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain
any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient
which may render such article injurious to health: provided
that when in the preparation of food products for shipment
they are preserved by any external application applied in such
manner that the preservation is necessarily removed mechanic-
ally, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for
removal of said preservations shall be printed on the covering
of the package, the provisions of the act shall be construed as
applying only when said products are ready for consumption.
(6) If it consists in whole or in part of .a filthy, decomposed or
putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal
unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the pro-
duct of a diseased animal or one that has died otherwise than by
slaughter. . . ."

Wh'atever vagueness attaches to these definitions is intended
to be removed by sees. 3 and 4, which provide that the secretaries
of the Treasury, of Agriculture, and of Commerce and Labour
" shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the
provisions of the act, including the collection and examination
of specimens of food and drugs," which examination " shall be
made in the bureau of chemistry of the department of agricul-
ture, or under the direction and supervision of such bureau, for
the purpose of determining from such examinations whether
such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning
of the act." Contravention of the act is punishable for the first
offence by a fine not exceeding 500 dollars or i year's imprison-
ment or both, and for each subsequent offence by a fine not less
than 1000 dollars or i year's imprisonment or both. Under an
act of congress, approved March 1903, the bureau of agriculture
established standards of purity for food products, " to determine
what are regarded as adulterations therein for the guidance of
the officials of the various states and of the courts of justice."
The elaborate set of food definitions and standards worked out
under the guidance of the chief of the bureau, Dr H. W. Wiley,
have also received legal sanction and form a corollary to the
National Food Law. For each of the more important articles
of food an official definition of its nature and composition has
thus been established, of the utmost value to food officers,
manufacturers and merchants not only in the United States
but throughout the world. A few of these definitions may here
find a place: —

" Lard is the rendered fresh fat from slaughtered healthy hogs.
Leaf-lard is the lard rendered at moderately high temperatures
from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that
adherent to the intestines. Standard lard and standard leaf-
lard are lard and leaf-lard respectively, free from rancidity, con-
taining not more than i% of substances other than fatty acids,
not fat, necessarily incorporated therewith in the process of
rendering, and standard leaf-lard has an iodine number not

ADULTERATION

229

greater than 60. Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained by the
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and
kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and 5 days
after calving. Standard milk is milk containing not less than
1 2 % of total solids and not less than 85 % of solids not fat, nor
less than 35 % of milk-fat. Standard skim-milk is skim-milk
containing not less than 95 % of milk-solids. Standard con-
densed milk and standard sweetened condensed milk are con-
densed milk and sweetened condensed milk respectively, con-
taining no less than 28 % of milk-solids, of which not less than
one-fourth is milk-fat. Standard milk-fat or butter-fat has a
Reichert-Meissl number not less than 24 and a specific gravity
at 40° C. not less than 0-905. Standard butter is butter contain-
ing not less than 82-5 % of butter-fat. Standard whole-milk
cheese is cheese containing in the water-free substance not less
than 50 % of butter-fat. Standard sugar contains at least 99-5 %
of sucrose. Standard chocolate is chocolate containing not
more than 3 % of ash insoluble in water, 3-5 % of crude fibre,
and 9 % of starch, nor less than 45 % of cocoa-fat."

Numerous other standards with details too technical for
reproduction here have also been fixed.

German Empire. — The law of the i4th of May 1879, largely
based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates
the trade in food. Each town or district appoints a public
analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly under
the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory functions.
The ministry, under the advice of this department, issues from
time to time regulations concerning the sale of or details specify-
ing the mode of analysis of various products of food or drink.
Both in the United States and in Germany, therefore, the execu-
tive officers (public analysts) have some authoritative official
department for guidance and information.

PARTICULAR ARTICLES ADULTERATED

We will now proceed to consider adulteration as practised
during recent years in the more important articles of food.

Milk. — Milk adulteration means in modern times either
addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition of
chemical preservative. The old stories of the use of chalk or of
sheep's brains are fables. Owing to the wide variation to which
milk is naturally subjected in composition, it is exceedingly
difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any given sample
is in the state in which it came from the cow or has been im-
poverished. The composition of cow's milk varies with many
conditions, (i) The race of the animal: the large cows of the
plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, the smaller cows
from hilly districts less amount of rich milk. Hence, milk from
Dutch cows compares very unfavourably with that of Jerseys
or short-horns. Watery and acid foods like mangolds and
brewers' grains produce a more aqueous milk than do albuminous
and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (2) Sudden change of food, of
weather and of temperature. (3) Nervous disturbances to which
even a cow is subject, as, for instance, at shows, may greatly
influence the composition of the milk. The portion obtained
at the beginning of a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded
towards the end. Morning milk is as a rule poorer in fat than
evening milk. Soon 'after calving the animal gives a richer
product than at later periods, both the quantity and the com-
position declining towards the end of the lactation. The varia-
tions due to these different circumstances may be very great,
as is seen from the following analyses, fairly representing the
maximum, minimum and mean composition of the milk of single
cows: —

Minimum.

Maximum.

Mean.

Specific Gravity . ...
Fat . . ' . ...

I -0264
1-67%

1-0370

6-4.7%

1-0316

•2.CQ%

Casein
Albumen
Milk Sugar(lactose) .
Salts ....
Water ....

1-79%
0-25%

2-11%

0-35%
80-32%

6-29%

'•44%

6-12%
1-21%
90-69%

3-02%

0-50%
478%
0-71%
87-40%

In market milk such wide variations are not so liable to occur,
as the milk from one animal tends to average that from another,
but even in the milk from herds of cows the variations may be
considerable. The average composition of genuine milk supplied
by one of the largest dairy companies in London, as established
by the analysis of 1 20,000 separate samples recorded by Dr P.
Vieth, is fat 4- 1 %, other milk solids (" solids not fat " or " non-
fatty solids ") 8-8 %, total dissolved matters (total solids) 12-9%,
the variations being from 3-6 to 4-6 % in the fat and 8-6 to 9- 1 %
in the solids not fat. It is clear that the 4-6 % of fat could be
reduced, by skimming, to 3-0 %, and the 9-1 % of solids not fat
to 8-5 % by addition of water, without bringing the composition
of the milk thus adulterated outside that of genuine milk. In
reality even wider limits of variation must be reckoned with,
because small farmers sell the milk of single cows, and this, as
shown above, may fluctuate enormously. The Board of Agri-
culture, in pursuance of the powers conferred upon it by the
Food Act 1899, issued in 1901 " The Sale of Milk Regulations,"
which provide that where a sample of milk (not being milk sold
as skimmed or separated or condensed milk) contains less than
3 % of milk-fat, or less than 8-5 % of non-fatty solids, it shall be
presumed, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine. But even in these cases it is open to the vendor to
show, if he can, that the deficiency was due to natural causes or
to unavoidable circumstances. The courts have held that when
deviations are the result of negligence or ignorance the vendor is
nevertheless liable to punishment. Thus, when a vendor omits
to stir up the contents of a pan so as to prevent the cream from
rising to the top, he may be punished, if by such omission the
milk becomes altered in composition so as no longer to comply
with the regulations; or, when a farmer allows an undue interval
between the milkings whereby the composition of the milk may
be affected, he may be liable for the consequences. As the
limits embodied in the milk regulations were necessarily fixed at
figures lower than those which are usually afforded by genuine
milk, and as it is a comparatively simple matter to ascertain
the percentage of fatty and non-fatty solids, a strong tendency
exists to bring down commercial milk to the low limits of the
regulations without coming into collision with the law. The fat
of milk is its most valuable and most important constituent.
The exact determination of the percentage of fat is therefore
the chief problem of the milk-analyst. All analyses made prior
to the year 1885 are more or less inexact, because a complete
separation of the fat from the other milk constituents had rot
been obtained. In that year M. A. Adams, by the simple and
ingenious expedient of spreading a known volume of the milk
to be analysed upon a strip of blotting-paper and extracting the
paper, together with the dried milk, by a fat solvent, such as ether
or benzene, succeeded in completely removing the fat from the
other constituents. Since that time simpler and more rapid
means have been based upon centrifugal separation of the fat.
When a measured quantity of milk is mixed with strong sulphuric
acid, which dissolves the casein and other nitrogenous constitu-
ents of the milk, but leaves the fat-globules quite untouched,
the latter can easily be separated in a centrifugal, in the form
of an oil the volume of which can be ascertained in a suitably
constructed and graduated glass vessel, and thus the percent-
age ascertained very rapidly and accurately; such centrifugal
contrivances constructed by H. Leffman, N.Gerber and others
are now in general use in dairies, and cheese and butter factories.
The amount of " total solids " contained in milk, that is to
say, of all constituents other than water, is speedily ascertained
by evaporating the water from a measured or weighed portion
of milk and drying the residue obtained in a water-oven
to constant weight. By subtracting from the percentage of
total solids that of the fat the amount of " solids not fat "
results, and by cautiously burning off the organic substances,
the salts or mineral matters are left. When the percentage of
" solids not fat " is less than 8-5 a simple proportion sum suffices
to show what percentage of water must be present to reduce the
" solids not fat " to the amount found. As the added water also
reduces proportionately the percentage of mineral matter natural

230

ADULTERATION

to normal milk (about 0-71 to 0-73%), the determination of the
ash affords valuable assistance to the analyst. When the amount
of ash is higher than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda
or other mineral matters that are often added as preservatives
or acid neutralizers. Borax is easily tested for by dissolving
the milk ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moisten-
ing a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying
it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of borax,
the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will be changed
into a brilliant red-brown. Formaldehyde (which in 40% water
solution forms the formalin of commerce) in milk affords a bright
purple colour when the milk containing it is mixed with sulphuric
acid containing a trace of an iron salt.

Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under re-
duced pressure with or without the addition of sugar. Generally
one part of condensed milk corresponds to three parts of the
original milk. There is no case on record of adulteration of
unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened milk has in the past
been frequently prepared either from machine-skimmed or partly
skimmed milk and sold as whole-milk. As sweetened condensed
milk is largely used by the poorer part of the population for the
feeding of infants, and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its
most valuable constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly
mischievous one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899
of a special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing
condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous
label showing the nature of the contents. As the bulk of con-
densed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad,
the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over
the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed
milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat. The average compo-
sition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight
variations, to be: water 24-6%, fat 11-4%, casein and albumen
10%, milk-sugar 11-7%, cane-sugar 40-3%, mineral matters

2-0%.

Cream. — There are not any regulations nor official standards
relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its
contents in fat. Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal
skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally
dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand,
milk that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as
cream. Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated
minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that
cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but
varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is
obtained and the food on which they are fed. Therefore, as re-
gards the most important portion of cream, the amount of fat,
adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution for the
milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of this descrip-
tion are exceedingly rare. On the other hand, such additions of
foreign materials, like starch paste or gelatine, which have for
object the giving of an appearance of richness to a naturally
poor and dilute article, are not uncommon. While formerly the
sale of cream was entirely in the hands of milkmen, there has been
of late a tendency to regard cream as an article coming within
the range of grocery goods. To enable this perishable article to
be kept in a grocery store it has to receive an addition of preser-
vative, as a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount. The
purchaser may take it that all cream sold by others than milk-
men, and much of that even, is thus preserved and should be
shunned. The limit of boric preservative that might be per-
mitted, but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of
i%.

Butter. — Of all articles of food butter has most fully received
the attention of the sophisticator, because it is the most costly
of the ordinary articles of diet, and because its composition is
so intricate and variable that its analysis presents extraordinary
difficulties and its nature exceptional and various opportunities
for admixture with foreign substances. It is the intention of
the producer of butter to separate the fatty portion of the milk
as completely as is practicable from the other constituents of
the milk without destroying the fat-globules. This can only

be done by churning, by which operation the milk-globules are
caused more or less to adhere to each other without losing their
individual existence. Owing to this subdivision of the fat, and
perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter is a more
digestible fatty article of food than lard or oil. It is not possible
by mechanical means to remove the whole of the water and curd
of the milk from the butter; indeed " overworking " the butter
with the object of removing the water as completely as possible
ruins the structure to such an extent as to make the product
unmerchantable. In well-made butter there are contained about
85% of pure milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of
curd and albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation —
lactic acid, — and phosphates and other milk-salts. In some kinds
of butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather
less. Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, at
higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained. The curd
must be got rid of as completely as practicable if the product
is to have reasonable keeping properties. To prevent rapid
decomposition salt in various quantities is added. Considering
that 100 Ib (10 gallons) of milk yield only from 3! to 4 Ib of
properly made butter, it is obvious that a great inducement
exists to increase the yield either by leaving an undue propor-
tion of water or curd, or by adding an excessive quantity of salt.
In some parts of Ireland the butter is worked up with warm
brine into so-called pickle butter, whereby it becomes both
watered and salted in one operation. Until lately, when the
English Board of Agriculture fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage
of water that may legitimately be present in butter, this kind
of debasement could not easily be dealt with, but even now,
where a legal water-limit exists, the addition of water either as
such, or in the shape of milk or of condensed milk, is very com-
monly practised, more or less care being taken not to exceed the
legalized limit. It is obvious that there is an ample margin of
profit for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing
10% of water and works it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to
16%, all the other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and
salt, thus introduced counting as " butter " in the eyes of the
law. A very considerable number of butter-factors in London
and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and consider
this a legitimate operation so long as they keep within the legal
water-limit. Nay, they may even exceed this, if only they give
to their adulterated article a euphonious name, which, while
legally notifying the admixture, raises in the mind of the ignor-
ant purchaser the belief that he is purchasing something particu-
larly choice and excellent. " Milk-blended butter," with as
much as 24 or more per cent of water and as little as 68 % of fat,
is still largely sold to purchasers who think that they are obtain-
ing extra value for their money; several attempts to deal with
the scandal by legislature having led to no result. The intro-
duction of water into butter is also practised on a large scale in
the United States, where a branch of trade in " renovated "
butter has sprung up. In the States a considerable quantity of
butter is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product
comes into the market — the addition of chemical preservatives
to prevent decomposition not being permitted — the butter has
so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low price.
It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and washed, then
again worked up with water and salt, care being generally taken
to leave about 16% of water in the product, which finds a ready
sale in England. It may here be pointed out that England
imports an enormous quantity of butter from the continent
of Europe, the colonies, Siberia and America, the imports, less
exports, averaging during 1903-1906 no less than 203,300 tons
annually, and the total consumption (home produce plus imports)
366,441 tons, the consumption per head of population being
19-2 Ib per annum. In butter, as in most other articles of food,
adulteration with water is the most common, most profitable,
and least risky form of fraud. Great fortunes are thus made out
of water.

There is an altogether different class of butter adulteratior
which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty matter
for the whole or part of the really valuable portion of the butter-

ADULTERATION

231

fat. Margarine is the legalized and therefore legitimate butter-
surrogate, prepared by churning any suitable fat with milk into a
cream, solidifying the latter by injection into cold water and
working the lumps together, precisely as is done in the case of
the churned cream of milk. The substitution of margarine for
butter is frequent, in spite of all legal enactments directed against
this fraud, the semblance between butter and margarine being
so great that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the
two articles. Much more frequent and much more difficult to
deal with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine. In
order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, it will be
necessary to consider the chemical nature of butter-fat, and to
compare it with other fats that may enter into the composition
of margarine. Butter-fat is butter freed from water, curd and
salt and extraneous matter. Like the greater number of natural
fats it consists of a mixture of triglycerides, that is, combinations
of glycerin with substances of the nature of acids. These acids,
in the case of fats other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic
and stearic acids. Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains
other acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority
of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from those
substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, by the
circumstance that a considerable proportion of its acids, when
separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are readily
soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either alone or in a
current of steam, whereas the acids separated from the foreign
fats are practically both insoluble and non- volatile. This funda-
mental principle serves at once to distinguish, for example,
between butter and margarine, and has been made use of by
analysts not only for this purpose but also with a view to deter-
mine the relative amounts of butter and margarine in a mixture
of these substances. Thus butter-fat contains about 88%, more
or less, of " insoluble fatty acids," while margarine contains
about 95.5%; 5 grammes of butter-fat when chemically decom-
posed yield an amount of volatile fatty acids which requires
about 26 cubic centimetres (more or less) of deci-normal alkali
solution for neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less
than i cubic centimetre (Wollny or Reichert-Meissl method).
There are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the
specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most other
fats; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; the " iodine
absorption " of butter-fat is smaller than that of many other
fatty matters, and so on. But the composition of perfectly
genuine butter-fat varies within somewhat wide limits. The milk
from a cow fed on good and ample food in warm weather yields
a fat that is rich in characteristic butter-constituents, while a
poorly fed animal, kept in the open till late in the autumn,
when the nights are cold, gives milk exceptionally poor in
fat, the differences expressed as " insoluble fatty acids "
lying between 86 and 91%, and in volatile acids, expressed as
"Wollny" numbers, between 18 and 36. Generally, therefore,
summer butter is rich and autumn butter poor in volatile acids,
or, geographically, Australian butter is more frequently high,
Siberian often exceedingly low in these acids. The food of the
animal also may, under certain conditions, yield a notable pro-
portion of its fatty matter to the butter; cows that have, for
instance, been fed upon large quantities of cotton-seed cake
yield butter in which the cotton-seed oil may be traced, and
the same holds good with other fatty foods. All these, and other
circumstances, combine to render the detection of small quan-
tities of foreign fats that have been fraudulently added to butter
almost a matter of impossibility. This is perfectly well known
to unscrupulous butter dealers, and an enormous amount of
adulteration is known to be practised. Even small amounts of
adulteration could, nevertheless, often be discovered while
argarine manufacturers employed considerable proportions
of vegetable oils in their products, some of these oils furnishing
characteristic chemical reactions allowing of their discovery.
Here some firms of margarine manufacturers came to the aid of
the butter-mixer and produced margarine containing nothing
but animal fat, so-called " neutral " margarine being freely
offered for fraudulent purposes. There is one fat besides butter

which contains "volatile fatty acids," namely, cocoa-nut oil.
Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong
cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the adul-
teration of butter, and margarine containing cocoa-nut oil and
other fatty substances has freely been manufactured and sold
specially for butter adulteration. The seat of this class of fraud
is mainly in Holland. Analysts happily found means to detect
this oil when present above 10%, and numerous prosecutions
made mixers more careful. Abundant evidence, however, exists
showing that the simultaneous addition of water or milk so as
to keep the water limit below 16% and thatjof margarine entirely
composed of animal fats below 10% leaves a large margin of
profit with a very small chance of detection. For the moment
at least analysis has had the worst of it in the battle between
honesty and " business methods."

Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when
sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently adulter-
ated. As regards the fats used in its manufacture there does
not exist any legal restriction, and as long as the fat is in a state
fit for human consumption the manufacturer can make whatever
mixture he pleases. In general there is no reason to think that
any bad or disgusting fats are finding their way into the factories,
which in most countries are under proper supervision ; the old
stories about recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite
without foundation. But a considerable percentage of solid
paraffin has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of
margarine. As the fatty portion of the article is the only one
of value, some manufacturers make great efforts to produce
margarine with as small a percentage of fatty matter as possible,
either by incorporating excessive amounts of water or of milk —
margarines with over 30% of water being met with — or by intro-
ducing sugar, glucose, starch, gelatinous matter, in fact any-
thing that is cheaper than fat. The English law imposes a
limitation upon the percentage of butter-fat that may be con-
tained in margarine, but at present at least the tendency of
manufacturers is all for having as little butter or other valuable
fat in margarine as is practicable, and not to err on the other
side. For the purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine
when it has been fraudulently added to butter, some countries
(Germany, Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to
10% of sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientate or 5.
indicum, belonging to the family of Bignoniaceae) in the manu-
facture of such margarine as is to be consumed within the
countries in question. This oil yields a characteristic red colour
when it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydro-
chloric solution of either sugar or furfurol, and is intended to
serve as an "ear-marking" substance. The addition of a little
starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the
microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence
of any international agreement these ear-marking additions
are of little practical use. It is, however, interesting to point
out that, while complying with the regulations of the govern-
ments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named have
found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite nugatory:
they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which itself produces
a red colour with acid and quite obscures tl>e red colour obtained
by the official test for sesame oil. \

Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that has
been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that has been
more or less skimmed. It varies consequently very widely in
composition, so-called cream cheese containing not less than
60% of fat; Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar about 30%;
Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less than 20%.
The amount of water varies with the kind and age of the cheese
and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. Under these
circumstances it is impracticable to lay down any hard-and-fast
rules as to the composition of cheese. When, however, cheese is
made from skimmed milk and the fat is replaced by margarine,
as is the case in so-called " filled " or margarine cheeses, the sale
of these amounts to an adulteration, unless the presence of the
foreign substance is declared. It may at first sight appear
strange that the person who robs milk of its most valuable

232

ADULTERATION

portion, the cream, may prepare a legitimate article of food from
the remainder, while he who to that remainder adds something
to replace the fat does an illegitimate a"ct, but it must be taken
into consideration that the replacement is frequently made
with fraudulent intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot
by taste or smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine
article, while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk
cheese.

Lard. — Between the years 1880 and 1890 a gigantic fraudulent
trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United States.
A great proportion of the American lard imported into England
was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real lard with
cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine. Cotton-seed oil is one of the
cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, beef-stearine
the hard residue obtained in the manufacture of oleo-margarine
after the more fluid fat has been pressed from the beef fat.
These mixtures were made so skilfully by large Chicago manu-
facturers that for some years they escaped detection. A bill
introduced in 1888 into- the American Senate to stop this im-
posture directed general attention to the subject, and energetic
measures, taken both in America and in England, quickly put
an end to it. From the memorial presented in the United States
Senate in support of the bill, it appeared that in about 1887
the annual production of lard in the States was estimated at
600 million pounds, of which more than 35% was adulterated.
Compounds were made containing only a small quantity of lard
or none at all, yet were sold as " choice refined lard " or under
other eulogistic names. Many lard substitutes, chiefly made
from cotton-seed oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a
legitimate manner. From the germ of maize — which must be
separated from the starchy portion of the seed before the latter
can be manufactured into glucose — the oil (maize-oil) is ex-
pressed, and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection
being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil.

Oils. — For very many years all oils were considered to be com-
posed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of oleic acid, with
small quantities of impurities; chemists, therefore, to distin-
guish oils of various origin, confined themselves to tests for
these impurities, employing so-called colour reactions based
upon the change of colour of the oil by various reagents such as
sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric acids. These reactions were
exceedingly indefinite and unsatisfactory and oil adulteration
was prevalent and almost undiscoverable. It has been found,
however, that th& old ideas concerning the believed uniformity
in the nature and constitution of oils were erroneous. Some
oils, indeed, do consist of olein, almond oil being a type, others
contain a glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic
acid by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic
acid. To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils. Others
again include a glyceride of an acid containing still less hydrogen,
linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying oils), and lastly the
liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen. These various acids or
the oils contained in them combine with various percentages of
iodine, oleic acid absorbing the smallest proportion (about 80 %).
For each oil the iodine absorption is a fairly constant quantity;
this number, together with the determination of the amount
of caustic alkali needed for complete saponification, the thermal
rise with strong sulphuric acid or with bromine, the refraction of
light and the specific gravity, now enable the analyst to form a
fair idea of the nature of any sample under examination, and,
in consequence of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of
oils has much declined. The most common adulterant of the
more valuable oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil. The oils
expressed from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil)
are also frequently admixed with olive oil. Almond oil is
adulterated with the closely allied oils from the peach-kernel
or the pine-seed. Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter
sometimes as adulterants into edible oils. There is, however,
a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally.

Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably
genuine. The old forms of adulteration^ such as the use of alum
for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from bad

flour, have disappeared. The only admixture which has been
met with during recent years is maize-meal in American produce.
This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal.

Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject
to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes. One
single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial
but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 1880
and 1005 in England, some crushed marble having been found
in a consignment of German sugar in a large British establish-
ment. There have, however, been numerous prosecutions for
a fraud of another class, namely, the substitution of dyed beetroot
sugar for Demerara sugar. Formerly the sugar produced by the
old imperfect and wasteful methods of manufacture was more
or less yellow or brown from adhering molasses. Sugar, as now
obtained, be it from cane or beet, is white; yet the public is so
wedded to its customs that white sugar except as lump or castor
sugar does not find a ready sale. The manufacturer is obliged
to colour his product yellow by artificial means, that is to say,
either by the addition of a little aniline dye, harmless in itself,
or, as in the West Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity
of chloride of tin, so-called " bloomer. " European refined beet-
sugar coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara
cane sugar is sold under the name of " yellow crystals. " These,
although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the
delicious aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and
are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara.

Marmalade and Jams. — In the preparation of marmalade and
jams, which articles were for a long time made from fruit and
sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15 %, is often now
replaced by starch glucose. This material, consisting mainly
of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is of much less sweetening
power than ordinary sugar and mostly cheaper. It is said to
prevent the crystallization which frequently used to occur in
some jams. The use of glucose has been declared by the High
Court (Smith v. Wisden, 1901) to be legitimate, the court holding
that as there was no recognized standard for the composition of
marmalade the addition of saccharine material not injurious
to. health could not constitute an offence. Artificial colouring
matters and chemical preservatives are almost constant in-
gredients of jams. To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar,
do not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) an addi-
tion of apple juice is frequently made in the manufacture of jam,
without much objection; the pulp of the apple, however, is
sometimes bodily added as an adulterant.

Tea. — In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food
Act of 1875 tnat tea was to be examined by the Customs on
importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other
substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England,
the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed. Great
numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs,
and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned
because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for the
manufacture of theine being permitted, only sound and genuine
tea coming to the British public. The practice, very common
a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green with a
mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite vanished
with the decline of the consumption of green tea.

Coffee. — A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee berries,
made from flour and chicory, have been observed, but it would
not be fair to speak of a practice of adulteration regarding coffee
berries. Not infrequently coffee is roasted with the addition
of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, to give to the roasted
coffee a glossy appearance. These additions as a rule are small
in amount. Ground coffee is often sold adulterated with chicory,
sugar or caramel. Other adulterations, reference to which is
found in literature relating to the second half of the I9th century,
do not seem now to occur.

Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent or
questionable additions. In the cheaper qualities of cocoa-powder
sugar and starch — the latter in the form of sago flour or arrow-
root— are admixed in very large proportions, and, in order to
give to such mixtures something like the appearance of genuine

ADULTERATION

233

cocoa, red oxide of iron is added. This almost invariably is more
or less arsenical. Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is
mixed in a very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner
kind. Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so-
called chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery
coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of the
fat of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter that
is obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is no longer
sufficient to cover the demand. Substitutes of cocoa-butter
prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured on a large scale,
and all enter without acknowledgment into chocolates or choco-
late creams. As there are not any regulations touching the
composition of chocolate, sugar or starch or both are used in
chocolate manufacture, and especially in that of chocolate
powders in often excessive quantities. In the Dutch mode of
manufacture of cocoa-powders an addition of from 3% to 4% of
an alkaline salt is made for the purpose of rendering the cocoa
" soluble, " or, more strictly, for putting it into such a physical
condition that it does not settle in the cup. This addition does
not, as is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not
made with any fraudulent object; .several countries, however,
have passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition
which may thus legitimately be made. Most of the cocoa-
powders sold in England are prepared in accordance with the
Dutch method.

Wine. — If under this term a beverage is understood which
consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great propor-
tion of the wine consumed in England is not genuine wine. All
port and sherry comes into commerce after having received an
addition of spirit, generally made from potatoes; port and
sherry would not be what they are and as they have been for
generations unless they were thus fortified. The practice can
now hardly be classed among adulterations. A well-fermented
wine made from the juice of properly matured grapes does not
require any added alcohol in order that it should keep; im-
perfectly made wine is liable to turn sour; the addition of
alcohol prevents this. French wines, both red and white, are
hardly subject to adulteration. In wine-growing countries like
France wine is so cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult
to manufacture an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine
wine. In Germany the conditions are different, the districts
from which those wines that are exported are nominally derived
being small and insufficient to cover the world's demands. The
addition of sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within
limits by German law, which not even requires that notification
to the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious
that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name of
" hock " and some of that coming from the Moselle are thus
diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, adulterated.
Wines from the Palatinate which under their own names would
not sell out of Germany are often passed off as hocks. As there
is but little German red wine tKe law also permits this to be
lengthened by the addition of white wine. For the removal of
part of the acid from sour wine produced in bad vintages the
addition of precipitated chalk is also permitted. Attention has
been drawn in England to the very serious fact that German
wines sometimes contain salts of zinc in small quantities. These
are introduced by a fining agent protected by a German patent,
consisting of solutions of sulphate of zinc and potassium ferro-
cyanide, which, when added together in " suitable proportions,"
produce a precipitate of zinc-ferrocyanide which carries down
all turbidity in the wine and is supposed to leave neither zinc
nor ferrocyanide behind in solution. As a matter of fact, one or
other of these highly objectionable substances is almost invari-
ably left behind. The use of artificial colouring matters in wines
does not appear now to occur.

Beer cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well
known that materials often very different from these which the
general public believe to be the proper raw materials for the
manufacture of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely
used. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec. 4,
beer is defined as any liquor " which is made or sold as a de-

scription of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which on analysis
of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more than 2% of
proof spirit. " That is to say, beer is legally anything that is sold
as beer provided that it has 2% of proof spirit. There is not any
restriction upon the materials that are employed provided that
they are not positively poisonous. For Inland Revenue purposes,
however, a prohibition has been made against the admixture of
anything to beer after it has been manufactured, and excise
prosecutions of publicans for watering beer are not infrequent.
Formerly there was a restriction on the amount of salt that
might be present in beer; this no longer exists. On the other
hand it cannot be said that any injurious materials are being
used by brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking,
most efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically
trained men. The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which
is almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration
in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The thin beer which
has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation
contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities,
and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could be sold
without the addition of some sort of preservative.

TV on- Alcoholic Drinks. — The same remark applies to a good
many of so-called temperance beverages. Of these again it is
hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration. So-called soda-
water is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated water,
but the term " soda-water " is a survival from the times when
this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed
to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia. Potash
and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only mere
traces of the substances from which they derive their names.
The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no longer
due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine (the toluol
derivative), which is possessed of sweetness but not of nourish-
ment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect the digestion,
its use in these beverages is to be deprecated.

Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive
alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor. When
this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed -with other grain
the vinegar is called a malt vinegar. Often, however, acid
liquors pass under that name which have been made by the
action of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize
or tapioca, with or without the addition of beet sugar. Dilute
acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as a*
adulterant of vinegar. When properly purified such acid is
unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell it as
vinegar. Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other acids,
formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare.

Spirits. — By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act,
whisky, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic
strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol
by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol). For many
years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts
related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of spirits
with water being, of course, a profitable form of fraud. No ad-
dition of any injurious matters to commercial spirits has been
observed. It was, however, well known that a very considerable
proportion of so-called brandies was not the product of the grape,
but that spirits of other origin were frequently admixed with
grape brandy. A report which appeared in 1902 in the Lancet
on " Brandy, its production at Cognac and the supply of genuine
brandy to this country, " served as a stimulus to public analysts
to analyse commercial brandies, and convictions of retailers for
selling so-called brandy followed. It was shown that genuine
brandy made in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills con-
tained a considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol
to which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among
these flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic
acids with alcohols (chemically described as " esters ") pre-
dominate. For the present a brandy is not considered genuine
unless it contains in 100,000 parts (calculated free from water)
at least 60 parts of " esters. :> As a consequence a trade has
sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold for the purpose of

234

ADULTERY— AD VALOREM

adding them to any spirit to fraudulently convert it into a liquor
passing as " brandy. " The inquiries into the nature of brandy
led to investigations into whisky. Formerly whisky was made
from grain only and obtained by pot-still distillation, that form
of " still " yielding a product containing a comparatively large
proportion of volatile matters other than alcohol. For many
years past, however, improved stills — so-called patent stills —
have been adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer
and far stronger product, saving carriage and storage. Attempts
were made in England in 1005-1907 to restrict the term "whisky"
solely to the pot-still product. But the question was referred
in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a
restriction. A common form of adulteration of whisky is the
addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from
potatoes. This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid
of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely
attributed to it. The substitution of this — a very cheap and
quite flavourless material — for one which owes its value more
to its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is clearly fraudulent.

Drugs. — To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference
can here be made. It is satisfactory to record that but very
few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias
are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few cases on
record during recent years where real fraudulent adulteration
was involved. The numerous preparations used by druggists
are mostly prepared in factories under competent and careful
supervision, and the standards laid down in the British Pharma-
copoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered to. The occur-
rence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that of arsenic in
sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, can hardly
be included in the list of adulterations. In the making up of
prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity is displayed; thus,
the Local Government Board report of the years 1904-1905 refers
to an instance of a quinine mixture containing 23 grains of
quinine-sulphate instead of 240 grains. A certain latitude in
the making up of physicians' prescriptions must necessarily be
allowed, but much too frequently the reasonable limit of a 10%
error over or under the amount of drug prescribed is exceeded.
Certain perishable drugs, such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others
liable to contain from their mode of manufacture metallic
impurities, form the subjects of frequent prosecutions. The
element of intentional fraud which characterizes many forms
of food adulteration is happily generally absent in the case
of drugs. (O. H.*)

ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium), the sexual intercourse
of a married person with another than the offender's husband or
wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman
law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender.
The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery
was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus
about 17 B.C. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paull. Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson,
Ad Leg. Jul. de Adult.) In Great Britain it was reckoned a
spiritual offence, that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only.
The common law took no further notice of it than to allow the
party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, however,
the action for " criminal conversation," as it was called, was
nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but
by the 33rd section of the same act, the husband may claim
damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife
in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial
separation. In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is
still retained. In Scotland damages may be recovered against
an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the civil court,
and the latter may be found liable for the expenses of an action
of divorce if joined with the guilty spouse as a co-defender.

Adultery on the part of the_wife is, by the law of England, a
ground for divorce, but on the part of the husband must be either
incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with cruelty or desertion for
two or more years. In the United States adultery is everywhere
ground of divorce, and there is commonly no prohibition against
marrying the paramour or other re-marriage by the guilty party.
Even if there be such a prohibition, it would be unavailing out

of the state in which the divorce was granted; marriage being
a contract which, if valid where executed, is generally treated
as valid everywhere. Adultery gives a cause of action for
damages to the wronged husband. It is in some states a criminal
offence on the part of each party to the act, for which imprison-
ment in the penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may
be awarded.

In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the marriage
could, until the creation of the Court of Probate and Divorce,
be obtained only by an act of parliament. This procedure is
still pursued in the case of Irish divorces. In Scotland a complete
divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of Session,
as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commis-
sioners. A person divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scot-
land, prohibited from intermarrying with the paramour. In
France, Germany, Austria and other countries in Europe, as
well as in some of the states of the United States, adultery is
a criminal offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See
DIVORCE.)

AD VALOREM (Lat. for " according to value"), the term
given in commerce to a duty which is levied by customs authori-
ties on goods or commodities in proportion to their value. An
ad valorem duty is the opposite of a specific duty, which is
chargeable on the measure or weight of goods. The United
States is' the one important country which has adopted in its
tariff an extensive system of ad valorem duties, though it has
not altogether disregarded specific duties; in some cases, indeed,
the two are combined. Ad valorem duties, in the United States,
are levied according to the saleable value of the goods in the
country of their origin, and it is usual to require at the port of
entry the production of an invoice with full particulars as to
the place where, time when, and person from whom the goods
were purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges
on them. Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of the
country for which the goods are intended. On arrival at the
port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the importer.
The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and if the valuation
of the appraiser exceeds that which appears on the invoice,
double duty is levied, subject to appeal to a general appraiser
and to boards of general appraisers.

It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is
preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper
proportion alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a
commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctu-
ates, the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new
value. In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great
inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative
value of two' commodities may remain apparently unchanged
under an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the
cost of production, or through the different proportions of
fixed and circulating capital employed in their manufacture,
an ad valorem tax will be felt much more severely by one com-
modity than by another. Again, there is always a difficulty in
obtaining a true valuation on the exported goods, for values
from their very nature are variable; while specific duties remain
steady, and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he
will have to pay. The opening to fraud is also very great, for
where, as in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep
out foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment will
be looked upon with the utmost suspicion, while it will always
be a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation
in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his tax,
while the seller's market is increased. The staff of appraisers
which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry considerably
raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance and delay
caused both to importers and foreign shippers.

The term " ad valorem " is used also of stamp duties. By the
Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, e.g. awards,
bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c., must be
stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that is,
the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter
of the particular instruments or writings. (See STAMP DUTIES.)

ADVANCEMENT— ADVERTISEMENT

235

ADVANCEMENT, a term technically used in English law for
a sum of money or other benefit, given by a father during his
lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by the
child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an intestacy
on pain of his being excluded from participating in such distri-
bution. The principle is of ancient origin; as regards goods
and chattels it was part of the ancient customs of London and
the province of York, and as regards land descending in copar-
cenary it has always been part of the common law of England
under the name of hotch-pot (q.v.). The general rule was estab-
lished by the Statutes of Distribution. The conditions under
which cases of advancement arise are as follows : There must be
a complete intestacy; the intestate estate must be that of the
father; and the advancement must have been made in the life-
time of the father. Land which belongs or would belong to a
child as heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in
to the common fund, even though such land was given during
the father's life. The widow can gain no advantage from any
advancement. No child can be forced to account for his or her
advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded from a
share in the intestate's estate. As to what is an advancement
there has been much conflict of judicial opinion. According to
one view, nothing is an advancement unless it be given "on
marriage or to establish the child in life." The other and prob-
ably the correct view is that any considerable sum of money
paid to a child at that child's request is an advancement ; thus
payment of a son's debts of honour has been held to be an
advancement. On the other hand, trivial gifts and presents to a
child are undoubtedly not advancements.

ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any
way. The Fr. mianl (before) shows the origin and meaning
of this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted
the spelling. It is often contracted to "vantage." In some
games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term " vantage " is used technically
in scoring ("deuce" and "vantage"; "vantage sets"). A
position which gives a better chance of success than its surround-
ings is called a " vantage ground." In an unfavourable sense
the word " advantage " is used to express a mean use made of
some favourable condition (e.g. to take advantage of another
man's misfortunes).

ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of
the Saviour "), a holy season of the Christian church, the period
of preparation for the celebration of the nativity or Christmas.
In the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's Day (nth of
November), and in other churches from the Sunday nearest
to St Andrew's Day (3oth of November) tilljChristmas. It is
uncertain at what date the season began to be observed. A
canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding the faithful
to be absent from church during the three weeks from the I7th
of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an early reference
to Advent. The first authoritative mention of it is in the Synod
of Lerida (524), and since the 6th century it has been recognized
as the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of
directing the thoughts of Christians to the first coming of Christ
as Saviour, and to his second coming as Judge, special lessons
are prescribed for the four Sundays in Advent. From the 6th
century the season was kept as a period of fasting as strict as
that of Lent; but in the Anglican and Lutheran churches the
rule is now relaxed. In the Roman Catholic church Advent is
still kept as a season of penitence. Dancing and festivities are
forbidden, fasting enjoined and purple vestments are worn in
the church services.

In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse
popular observances, some of which even still survive. Thus in
England, especially the northern counties, there was a custom
(now extinct) for poor women to carry round the " Advent
images," two dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other
the Virgin Mary. A halfpenny was expected from every one to
whom these were exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace
the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas
Eve at the latest.

In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve

to run through the fields and orchards armed with torches,
setting fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is believed driving
out such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. In Italy
among other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the
last days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players,
who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother. The Italian
tradition is that the shepherds played on these pipes when they
came to the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour.

ADVENTISTS, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose
distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical return of
Jesus Christ. The first to bear the name were the followers of
William Miller, and adherents have always been more numerous
in America than in Europe. There is a body of Seventh Day
Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) rather than
the Christian Sunday. They counsel abstemious habits, but
set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are spared the per-
petual disappointments that overtake the ordinary adventist.
They have some 400 ministers and 60,000 members.

ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad),
a quality from outside, in no sense part of the substance or
circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition of life, his wealth
or his poverty, are called by Carlyle "adventitious wrappages,"
as being extrinsic, superadded and not a natural part of him.
In botany the word means that which is not normal to the plant,
which appears irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots
out of place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the
flower.

ADVENTURE (from Lat. res advenlura, a thing about to
happen), chance, and especially chance of danger ; so a hazard-
ous enterprise or remarkable incident. Thus an " adventurer,"
from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course of
action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a person of
no character. The word is also used in certain restricted legal
connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, may be distinguished
from partnership (q.v.) . A bill of adventure in maritime law (now
apparently obsolete) is a writing signed by the shipmaster de-
claring that goods shipped in his name really belong to another,
to whom he is responsible. The bill of gross adventure in French
maritime law is an instrument making a loan on maritime
security.

ADVERTISEMENT, or ADVERTISING (Fr. avertissement, warn-
ing, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly of
purchasing publicity. The business of advertising is of very
recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct to other phases
of commercial activity. In some rudimentary form the seller's
appeal to the buyer must, however, have accompanied the earliest
development of trade. Under conditions of primitive barter,
communities were so small that every producer was in immediate
personal contact with every consumer. As the primeval man's
wolfish antipathy to the stranger of another pack gradually
diminished, and as intercourse spread the infection of larger
desires, the trapper could no longer satisfy his more complicated
wants by the mere exchange of his pelts for his lowland neigh-
bour's corn and oil. A began to accept from B the commodity
which he could in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's
product gave to A what D had produced and bartered to C. The
mere statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its
clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon simplified
the original process of bare barter. It is reasonable to suppose
that as soon as the introduction of currency marked the abandon-
ment of direct relations between purchaser and consumer an
informal system of advertisement in turn rose to meet the need
of publicity. At first the offer of the producer must have been
brought to the trader's attention, and the trader's offer to the
notice of the consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented
by local rumour. The gradual growth of markets and their de-
velopment into periodical fairs, to which merchants from dis-
tant places resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the
only means of extended advertisement. In England, during the
3rd century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as
well as from all parts of England, and it maybe conjectured that
the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of the Stour

236

ADVERTISEMENT

was the first form of advertisement which had any marked effect
upon English commerce. As the fairs of the middle ages, with
the tedious and hazardous journeys they involved, gradually
gave place to a more convenient system of trade, the i5th century
brought the invention of printing, and led the way to the modern
development of advertising. The Americans, to whom the elab-
oration of newspaper advertising is primarily due, had but just
founded the first English-speaking community in the western
hemisphere when the first newspaper was published in England.
But although the first periodical publication containing news
appeared in the month of May 1622, the first newspaper advert-
isement does not seem to have been published until April 1647.
It formed a part of No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Daie
journall in Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read
as follows: —

A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called The Divine
Right of Church Government, Collected by sundry eminent Ministers
in the Citie of London; Corrected and augmented in many places,
with a briefe Reply to certain Queries against the Mimstery of
England; Is printed and published for Joseph Hunscot and George
Caivert, and are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden
Fleece in the Old Change.

Among the Mercuries, as the weekly newspapers of the day
were called, was the Mercurius Elencticus, and in its 45th number,
published on the 4th of October 1648, there appeared the fol-
lowing advertisement: —

The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon,
Entituled A Looking-Glasse for Levellers,

Preached at St. Peters, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648,

by Paul Knell, Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex

upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament.

In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont
Nedham, who is described as " perhaps both the ablest and the
readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper," there
appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often
been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper advertise-
ments. It read as follows: —

Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory
panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his suc-
cesses in an exquisite manner. To be sold by John Holden, in the
New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 1652.

The article " On the Advertising System," published in the
Edinburgh Review for February 1843, contains the fullest account
of early English advertising that has ever been given, and it has
been very freely drawn upon by all writers who have since dis-
cussed the subject. But it describes this advertisement in the
Mercurius Politicus as " the very first," and the discovery of the
two earlier instances above quoted was due to the researches of
a contributor to Notes and Queries.

In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William
Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on the
lack of advertising facilities at that period —

It would be very expedient if each parish or village might have
some place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers
posted up) the wants either of the buyer or tne seller, as such a
field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, to be had, &c.
There was a book published in London weekly about the year
1657 which was called (as I remember) The Publick Advice. It gave
information in very many of these particulars.

A year later the same diarist says —

There is an office near the Old Exchange in London called the
office of Publick Advice. From thence both printed and private
information of this useful nature are always to be had. But what
they print is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal. I was in this
office. The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 1689.

In No. 62 of the London Gazette, published in June 1666, the
first advertisement supplement was announced —

An Advertisement — Being daily prest to the Publication of
Books, Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a
Paper of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once for all, that we will not
charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be matter of
State : but that a Paper of Advertisements will be forthwith printed
apart, & recommended to the Publick by another hand.

In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 1666,
there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great Fire
should avail themselves of this means of publicity —

Such as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and
desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish the
place of their present abode, or to give notice of Goods lost or found,

may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury on the East Side of
the Great Square, before the House of the Right Honourable the
Lord Treasurer, where there is care taken for the Receipt and
Publication of such Advertisements.

The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal
notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either
books or quack remedies. The first trade advertisement, which
does not fall within either of these categories, was curiously
enough the first advertisement of a new commodity, tea. The
following advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Polilicus,
No. 435, for September 1658 —

That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, called
by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the
Sultaness Head, a cophee-house in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal
Exchange, London.

The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other
curious incidents and episodes of English history during the i7th
and 1 8th centuries might be traced by examination of the anti-
quated advertisements which writers upon such subjects have
already collected. In order that space may be found for some
consideration of the practical aspects of modern advertising, the
discussion of its gradual development must be curtailed. Nor
is it necessary to preface this consideration by any laboured
statement of the importance which advertising has assumed.

It is a matter of common knowledge that several business
houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a larger number
in the United States, who spend not less than £50,000 a year in
advertising, while one patent medicine company, operating both
in England and the United States, has probably spent not less
than £200,000 in Great Britain in one year, and an English cocoa
manufacturer is supposed to have spent £150,000 in Great
Britain. Some of the best works of artists as distinguished as
Sir John Millais, Sir H. von Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have
been scattered broadcast by advertisers. The purchase of Sir
John Millais' picture " Bubbles " for £2200 by the proprietors
of a well-known brand of soap is probably the most remarkable
instance of the expenditure in this direction which an advertiser
may find profitable. There are in London alone more than 350
advertising agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known
as men in a considerable way of business. The statements which
from time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard
to the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising
in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily no better
than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are required in order
to demonstrate what every reader can plainly see for himself,
that advertising has definitely assumed its position as a serious
field of commercial enterprise.

Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 2oth century,
may be divided into three general classes: —

1. Advertising in periodical publications.

2. Advertising by posters, signboards (other than those placed
upon premises where the advertised business is conducted),
transparencies and similar devices.

3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of persons to
whom the advertiser specially desired to address himself.

It may be noted at the outset that advertising in periodical
publications exercises a reflex influence upon these publications.
The daily, weekly and monthly publications of the day are accus-
tomed to look to advertisements for so large a part of their
revenue that the purchaser of a periodical publication receives
much greater value for his money than he could reasonably expect
from the publisher if the aggregate advertising receipts did not
constitute a perpetual subsidy to the publisher. It is not to be
supposed, however, that the receipts from the sale of a paper
cover all its expenses and that the advertising revenue is all clear
profit. The average newspaper reader would be amazed if he
knew at how great a cost the day's news is laid before him. A
dignified journal displays no inclination to cry from the house-
tops the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an
accident enables the public to obtain information in this con-
nexion. The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission
disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal
upon foreign news alone amounted to more than £50,000

ADVERTISEMENT

237

in the course of one year, and that a year not characterized
by any great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable
despatches.

In the case of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it is not
less obvious that the costliness of news service renders advertising
revenue indispensable, for although these less important journals
spend less money, the price at which they are supplied to the
news agents is very small in proportion to the cost of their pro-
duction. If, however, this thought be pursued to its logical con-
clusion, the advertiser must admit that he in turn receives, from
those among newspaper readers who purchase his wares, prices
sufficiently high to cover the cost of his advertising. So that the
reader is in the curious position of directly paying a certain price
for his newspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth more than
that price, while this price is supplemented by the indirect in-
cidence of a sort of tax upon many of the commodities he con-
sumes. On the other hand, a great part of the advertisements
in a daily newspaper have themselves an interest and utility not
less than that possessed by the news. The man who desires to
hire a house turns to the classified lists which the newspaper
publishes day after day, and servants and employers find one
another by the same means. The theatrical announcements are
so much a part of the news that even if a journal were not paid
for their insertion they could not be altogether omitted without
inconvenience to the reader. In the main, however, it is the
advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks the
advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are prepared,
and the certainty with which the success or failure of a trader
may be traced to his skill or want of skill as an advertiser, show
that the proper use of advertising is one of the most indispensable
branches of commercial training.

Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising in
periodical publications it may be well to complete, for the use
Poster of the general reader, a brief survey of the whole
ana sign subject by examining the two other classes of advertise-
ment. The most enthusiastic partisan of advertising
will admit that posters and similar devices are very
generally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance. A
bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper
advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's
attention. In the French, and in some English newspapers,
where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of
news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being
hoodwinked. He begins to read an account of a street accident,
and finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for
bruises. The best English and American journals have refused
to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and hi no one of the
best journals printed in the English language will there be found
an advertisement which is not so plainly differentiated from news
matter that the reader may avoid it if he sees fit to do so. On
the whole, then, newspaper advertisements ask, but do not
compel attention. The whole theory of poster advertising is,
on the other hand, one of tyranny. The advertiser who pays
for space upon a hoarding or wall, although he may encourage
a form of art, deliberately violates the wayfarer's mind. A
trade-mark or a catch-word presents itself when eye and thought
are occupied with other subjects. Those who object to this class
of advertisement assert, with some show of reason, that an
advertisement has no more right to assault the eye in this fashion
than to storm the ear by an inordinate din; and a man who
came up behind another man in the street, placed his mouth
close to the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some
brand of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable
disturber of public peace and comfort. Yet if the owner of a
house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his exercise
of the jealously guarded rights of private property may not
lightly be disturbed. For the most part, both law and public
opinion content themselves with restraining the worst excesses
of the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to suffer.
The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Adver-
tising (known as SCAPA), founded in 1803 in London, was organ-
ized for purposes which it describes as follows: —

advertise-
ments.

The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity of rural
and river scenery, and promoting a regard for dignity and propriety
of aspect in towns — with especial reference to the abuses of spec-
tacular advertising.

It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative bodies
would be enabled to exercise control, by means of by-laws framed
with a view to enabling them, at any rate, to grant relief in cases of
flagrant and acknowledged abuse.

It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where local
conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will be so
apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, the enforce-
ment of a reasonable standard will gradually become common.
The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon the varying
requirements of different places and positions. No hard-and-fast
rule is suggested ; no particular class of advertisement is proscribed ;
certainly no general prohibition of posters on temporary hoardings
is contemplated. Within the metropolitan area sky signs have
already been prohibited, and it is hoped that some corresponding
check will be placed on the multiplication of the field boards which
so materially diminish the pleasure or comfort of railway journeys.

The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate tax
or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed advertisements
not coming within certain categories of obviously necessary notices.
The difficulty of inducing a chancellor of the exchequer to move in
a matter where revenue is not the primary consideration is not over-
looked. But it is thought that any impost would materially reduce
the volume of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish
the most offensive and the most annoying class, i.e. the quack ad-
vertisements by the road sides and the bills stuck by unauthorized
persons on trees, walls and palings.

Members are recommended to make it known that there exists
an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising disfigure-
ment, by giving preference, in private transactions, to makers and
dealers who do not employ objectionable methods, and by avoid-
ing, as far as possible, the purchase of wares which, in their individual
opinion, are offensively puffed. Action on these lines is advised
rather for its educational than for its immediately deterrent effect ;
although, in the case of many of the more expensive commodities,
makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by the knowledge
that they would lose, rather than gain, custom.

The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate of
the conditions of the problem. It is believed that the present
Jicence causes discomfort or loss of enjoyment to many, and that,
in the absence of authoritative restriction, it must grow far beyond
'its present limits ; that beauty or propriety of aspect in town and
country forms as real a part of the national wealth as any material
product, and that to save these from impairment is a national
interest; that the recent developments of vexatiously obtrusive
advertising have not grown out of any necessities of honourable
business, but are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation,
and partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the
consumers and the trade as a whole lose ; that restriction as regards
the size and positions of advertising notices would not be a hardship
to those who want publicity— since all competitors would be treated
alike, each would have the same relative prominence ; that, as large
sums of public money are expended on ; institutions intended to
develop the finer taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must
be held inconsistent with established public policy to permit the
sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural effect
to be destroyed at the discretion of a limited class.

The influence of this society is to be seen in many of the
restrictions which have been imposed upon advertisers since its
work began. About a year after its foundation the London
County Council abolished (under statutory powers obtained
from Parliament) advertisements coming within the definition
of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 1894. These specifica-
tions are as follows: —

" Sky sign " means any word, letter, model, sign, device, or
representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement,
or direction supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard,
framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, or above
any building or structure, which, or any part of which, sky sign
shall be visible against the sky from any point in any street or public
way, and includes all and every part of any such post, pole, standard,
framework, or other support. The expression " sky sign " shall also
include any balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly
or in part for the purposes of any advertisements or announcement
on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection of any kind,
or on or over any street or public way.

The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaffs,
weathercocks and any solid signs not rising more than 3 feet
above the roof.

Another by-law of the London County Council, in great
measure due to the observations made at coroners' inquests,
protects the public against the annoyances and the perils to

238

ADVERTISEMENT

traffic occasioned by flashlight and searchlight advertisements.
This by-law reads as follows: —

No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to be visible from any
street and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner
or occupier of premises permit or suffer any flashlight to be so ex-
hibited on such premises.

The expression " flashlight " means and includes any light used
for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any word,
letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an
advertisement, announcement, or direction which alters suddenly
either in intensity, colour, or direction.

No person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible from
any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any
owner or occupier of premises permit or suffer any searchlight to
be so exhibited on such premises.

The expression " searchlight " means and includes any light
exceeding soo-candle power, whether in one lamp or lantern, or in
a series of lamps or lanterns used together and projected as one
concentrated light, and which alters either in intensity, colour, or
direction.

Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be
prohibited in 1853; the "sandwich-man" has in the City
of London and many towns been ousted from the pavement
to the gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded
streets, and as the traffic problem in the great centres of
population becomes more urgent, he will probably be altogether
suppressed.

Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts
that new hoardings cannot, except under special conditions,
be erected exceeding 1 2 feet in height, and no existing hoardings
can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit.

The huge signs which some advertisers, both in England
and the United States, have placed in such positions as to
mar the landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism
that there is reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not
increase.

In 1899 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over
all sorts of advertising in public places, and this achieve-
ment has been followed by no little agitation in favour of a'
Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away
with the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United
Kingdom.

In 1907 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act)
of a permissive character purely, under which a local authority
is enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the
Home Secretary, regulating (i) the erection of hoardings, &c.,
exceeding 12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertise-
ments which might affect the " amenities " of a public place or
landscape.

The English law with regard to posters has undergone very
little change. The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Viet,
cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the In-
decent Advertisements Act of 1889 (§3) penalized the public
exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an in-
decent or obscene nature. But in general practice there is
hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster advertise-
ments, other than good taste and public opinion. On the other
hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, and there
have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as to what public
opinion 'really was, when its legally authorized exponent was in
a position to insist on its own arbitrary definition. Such an
instance occurred some few years ago in the case of a large poster
issued by a well-known London music-hall. The Progressive
majority on the London County Council, led by Mr (afterwards
Sir) J. M'Dougall, a well-known " purity " advocate, took
exception to this poster, which represented a female gymnast in
" tights " posed in what was doubtless intended for an alluring
and attractive attitude; and, in spite of any argument, the fact
remained that the decision as to renewing the licence of this
music-hall rested solely with the Council. In showing that it
would have no hesitation in provoking even a charge of meddling
prudery, the Council probably gave a salutary warning to people
who were inclined to sail rather too near the wind. But in
Great Britain and America, at all events (though a doubt may
perhaps exist as to some Continental countries), the advertiser

and the aitist are restrained, not only by their own sense of
propriety, but by fear of offending the sense of propriety in their
customers.

Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public
vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find the
name of a station or the destination of a vehicle. In respect of
all these abuses it is a regrettable fact that unpopularity cannot
be expected to deter the advertiser. If a name has once been
fixed in the memory, it remains there long after the method of
its impression has been forgotten, and the purpose of advertise-
ments of the class under discussion is really no more than the
fixing of a trade name in the mind. The average man or woman
who goes into a shop to buy soap is more or less affected by
.a vague sense of antagonism towards the seller. There is a
rudimentary feeling that even the most ordinary transaction of
purchase brings into contact two minds actuated by diametrically
opposed interests. The purchaser, who is not asking for a soap
he has used before, has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper
will try to sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article
which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser
imagines that he in some measure secures himself against a bad
bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for some
specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks. If he has seen
any one soap so persistently advertised that his memory retains
its name, he will ask for it, not because he has any reason to
believe it to be better or cheaper than others, but simply because
he baffles the shopkeeper, and assumes an authoritative attitude
by exerting his own freedom of choice. This curious and obscure
principle of action probably lies at the root of all poster advertis-
ing, for the poster does not set forth an argument as does the
newspaper advertisement. It hardly attempts to reason with
the reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory. It
is possible, by lavish advertising, to go so far in this direction
that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer becomes synony-
mous with the name of a commodity, so that when the consumer
thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept inevitably couples
the maker's name with the word " soap " itself. In order that
the poster may leave any impression upon his mind, it must of
course first attract his attention. The assistance which the
advertiser receives from the artist in this connexion is discussed
in the article POSTER.

The fact that the verb " to circularize " was first used in 1848,
sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the practice of
plying possible purchasers with printed letters and
pamphlets. The penny postage was not established
in England until 1840; the halfpenny post for circulars circular.
was not introduced until 1855. In the United States
a uniform rate of postage at two cents was not established until
1883. In both countries cheap postage and cheap printing have
so greatly encouraged the use of circulars that the sort of people
whom the advertiser desires to reach — those who have the most
money to spend, and whose addresses, published in directories,
indicate their prosperous condition — are overwhelmed by trades-
men's price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other
suggestions for the spending of money. The addressing of en-
velopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry
in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United
States. It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert advertisers
that what is called " general circularizing " is unprofitable, and
that circulars should only be sent to persons who have peculiar
reason to be interested by their specific subject-matter. It may
be noted, as an instance of the assiduity with which specialized
circularizing is pursued, that the announcement of a birth,
marriage or death in the newspapers serves to call forth a
grotesque variety of circulars supposed to be adapted to the
momentary needs of the recipient.

In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other
than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add
that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which
is known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming,
Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a tomb-
stone:—

ADVERTISEMENT

239

Sacred

To the memory of
Nathaniel Godbold Esq.

Inventor & Proprietor
of that excellent medicine

The Vegetable Balsam
For the Cure of Consumptions & Asthmas.

He departed this Life
The i;th. day of Deer. 1799

Aged 69 years.
Hie Cineres, ubiqUe Fama.

The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press
has within the last twenty years or so become so important a
AOver- tas^ t'lat a 8reat number of writers and artists — many
Using in of the latter possessing considerable abilities — gain a
periodical livelihood from this pursuit. The ingenuity displayed
'n mo^ern newspaper advertising is unquestionably
due to American initiative. The English newspaper
advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the most
part of the mere reiteration of a name. An advertiser who
took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an inch,
and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the column.
Such departures from this childlike method as were made were for
the most part eccentric to the point of incoherence. It may, how-
ever, be said in defence of English advertisers, that newspaper
publishers for a long time sternly discountenanced any attempt
to render advertisements attractive. So long as an advertiser
was rigidly confined to the ordinary single-column measure, and
so long as he was forbidden to use anything but the smallest
sort of type, there was very little opportunity for him to attract
the reader's attention. The newspaper publisher must always
remember that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the
news, not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the ad-
vertisements are relegated to a position and a scope, in respect
of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, the adver-
tiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of publication.
Of late The Times, followed by almost all newspapers in the
United Kingdom, has given the advertiser as great a degree of
liberty as he really needs, and many experienced advertisers in
America incline to the belief that the larger licence accorded to
American advertisers defeats its own ends. The truth would
seem to be that the advertiser will always demand, and may
fairly expect, the right to make his space as fantastic in appear-
ance as that allotted to the editor. When some American editors
see fit to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, and
to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first page of a
newspaper, continuing one on page 2, another on page 4, and
another on page 6, to the bewilderment of the reader, it can
hardly be expected that the American advertiser should submit
to any very strict code of decorum. The subject of the relation
between a newspaper proprietor and his advertisers cannot be
dismissed without reference to the notable independence of
advertisers' influence, which English and American newspaper
proprietors authorize their editors to display. Whenever an in-
surance company or a bank goes wrong, the cry is raised that all
the editors in Christendom had known for years that the directors
were imbeciles and rogues, but had conspired to keep mute for
the sake of an occasional advertisement. When the British
public persisted, not long ago, in paying premium prices for the
shares of over-capitalized companies, the crash had no sooner
come than the newspapers were accused of having puffed pro-
motions for the sake of the money received for publishing pros-
pectuses. As a matter of fact, in the case of the best dailies in
England and America, the editor does not stand at all in awe of
the advertiser, and time after time the Money Article has ruth-
lessly attacked a promotion of which the prospectus appeared
in the very same issue. It is indeed to the interest of the ad-
vertiser, as well as to the interest of the reader, that this inde-
pendence should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as
an advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bond fide
circulation among persons who believe it to be a serious and
honestly conducted newspaper. All advertisers know that the
minor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and are
scattered broadcast among people who pay nothing for their

copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of
view. The most striking difference between the periodical press
of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the former country
the magazines and reviews play but a secondary role, while in the
United States the three or four monthlies possessing the largest
circulation are of the very first importance as advertising
mediums. One reason for this is that the advertisements in an
American magazine are printed on as good paper, and printed
with as great care, as any other part of the contents. There are
probably very few among American magazine readers who do
not habitually look through the advertising pages, with the cer-
tainty that they will be entertained by the beauty of the adver-
tiser's illustrations and the quaint curtness of his phrases.
Another reason is that the American monthly magazine goes to
all parts of the United States, while, owing to the time required
for long journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily
paper can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United
Kingdom. In comparison with points on the Pacific coast,
Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the excep-
tion of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no
New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in
Chicago. The American advertiser would, therefore, have to
spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to
reach as widespread a public as one successful magazine offers
him.

There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers
have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as
" insets," consisting of separate cards or sheets printed at the
advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at a specific
charge for every thousand copies. This system of insetting has
the grave inconvenience that the advertiser finds himself com-
pelled to print as many insets as the publisher asserts that he
can use. The publisher, on the other hand, is somewhat at the
mercy of too enthusiastic agents and employes, who estimate
over-confidently the edition of the periodical which will probably
be printed for a certain month, and advertisers have had reason
to fear that many of their insets were wasted. The added weight
and bulk of the insets cause inconvenience and expense to the
newsdealer, as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are
equivalent to at least sixteen additional pages. Some news-
dealers have further complicated the inset question by threaten-
ing to remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them;
and with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine
publishers have seriously considered the advisability of alto-
gether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of confin-
ing their advertisements to the sheets they themselves print.
In connexion with this subject, it may be added that many
readers habitually shake loose bills out of a magazine before they
begin to turn the pages, and that railway stations, railway
carriages and even public streets are thus littered with trampled
and muddy advertisements. The old practice of distributing
handbills in the streets is dying a natural death, more or less
hastened by local by-laws, and when the loose bills in magazines
and cheap novels have ceased to exist no one will be the loser.

Advertisements in the weekly press are on the whole more
successful in England than in America. A few American
weeklies cope successfully with the increasing competition of
the huge Sunday editions of American daily papers. But even
the most successful among them — a paper for boys — has hardly
attained the prosperity of some among its English contemporaries
in the field of weekly journalism.

The merchant who turns to these pages for practical sugges-
tions concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given
no better advice than to betake himself to an established adver-
tising agent of good repute, and be guided by his counsels. The
chief part that he can himself play with advantage is to note
from day to day whether the agent is obtaining advantageous
positions for his announcements. Every advertiser will naturally
prefer a right-hand page to a left-hand page, and the right side
of the page to the left side of the page; while the advertiser
who most indefatigably urges his claims upon the agent will,
in the long run, obtain the largest share of the favours to be

240

ADVERTISEMENT

distributed. To the merchant who inclines to consider adver-
tising in connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it
may be suggested that a new channel of trade demands very
serious attention. What is called m England " postal trade,"
and in America " mail order business," is growing very rapidly.
Small dealers in both countries have complained very bitterly
of the competition they suffer from the general dealers and
from stores made up of departments which, under one roof,
offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of merchandise.
This general trading, which, on the one hand, seriously threatens
the small trader, and on the other hand offers greater possibilities
of profit to the proportionately small number of persons who
can undertake business on so large a scale, becomes infinitely
more formidable when the general dealer endeavours not only
to attract the trade of a town, but to make his place of business
a centre from which he distributes by post his goods to remote
parts of the country. In America, where the weight of parcels
carried by post is limited to 4 Ib, and where the private
carrying companies are forced to charge a very much higher
rate for carriage from New York to California than for shorter
distances, the centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but
it is no secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in
those parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London
habitually avail themselves of the English parcel post, which
carries packages up to n Ib, in order to procure a great
part of their household supplies direct from general dealers in
London. A trading company, which conducts its operations
upon such a scale as this, can afford to spend an almost un-
limited sum in advertising throughout the United Kingdom,
and even the trader who offers only one specific class of merchan-
dise is beginning to recognize the possibility of appealing to the
whole country.

The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations

dealing with advertisements in public places in certain

regulation °^ t^le countries of Continental Europe and in the

United States of America, the chief authority for

which is an official return issued by the British Home Office

in 1903.

France. — The permission of the owner is alone required for
the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but build-
ings, walls, &c., belonging to_the government or local authorities
are reserved exclusively for official notices, &c.; these alone
can be printed on white paper, all others must be on coloured
paper. Municipal authorities control the size, construction, &c.,
of hoardings used for advertising purposes, and the police have
full powers over the exhibition of indecent or other objectionable
advertisements. The Societe pour la protection des paysages,
founded in 1901, has for one of its objects the prevention of
advertisements which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise
objectionable.

Germany. — By §43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance
permission to post any trade advertisement in a public street,
square, &c., must be first obtained from the local police. The
police also control (by §55 of the Imperial Press Law 1874)
advertisements which are not of a trade character, but this
regulation does not affect the right of the federal legislatures
to make regulations in regard to them (§30). It would be
impossible to give in any detail the police regulations as to
advertisements which exist, e.g. in Prussia, but the following
rules in force in Berlin may be given: — Public advertisements in
public streets and places may be posted only on the appliances,
such as pillar posts, &c., provided for the purpose. Owners of
property may post advertisements on their own property but
only such as concern their own interests. Advertisements on
public conveyances are forbidden. In 1902 a Prussian law was
passed authorizing the police to forbid all advertisement hoard-
ings, &c., which would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes
in rural districts. The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1902 prohibits
the placing of any advertisements, posters, &c., on a monument
officially protected under the act, if it would be likely to injure
the appearance of the monument. As instances of the numerous
local provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited

those of Augsburg and Liibeck, by which any advertisement that
would injure the StadtbUd or appearance of the town may be
prohibited and removed by the local authority (see G. Baldwin
Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1905). Full powers
exist under the Imperial Criminal Code for the suppression of
indecent or objectionable advertisements.

Austria. — Permission of the police is required for the exhibi-
tion of printed notices in public places other than such as are of
purely local or industrial interest, such as notices of entertain-
ment, leases, sales, &c., or theatre programmes, and these can
only be shown in places approved by the local authorities (Press
Law 1862). The presj-police act as advertisement censors and
determine whether an advertisement can be allowed or not.
In Hungary there are no general laws or regulations, but the
municipalities have power to issue ordinances dealing with the
question.

Italy. — All control rests with the municipal and communal
authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements
may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being
placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings.

Switzerland. — The Federal Government has no authority to
deal with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations,
e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods
by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police the
power of censoring all advertisements. Many of the communal
authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions
and regulations. In Zurich the police choose the advertising
stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of the
right of erecting advertisements. The Society known as the
Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pittoresque or Schweitzeri-
scher Heimatschutz has for one of its objects the preservation of
scenery from disfiguring advertisements.

United States. — There is no federal legislation on the subject,
the matter being one for regulation by the states, which in most
cases have left it to the various municipalities and other local
authorities. With regard to indecent and objectionable advert-
isements some states have special legislation on the matter,
others are content with the ordinary criminal laws or police
powers or with the law of nuisance or of trespass. Thus control
can be exercised over such advertisements as are dangerous to
public safety, health or morals. The state of New York prohibits
advertisements of lotteries. It would be impossible to give in
detail the different laws and regulations passed in the various
states or by municipalities. The following are some of the more
striking measures adopted in certain of the states. In Massa-
chusetts no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public
highways. Power has been granted to city and town authorities
to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public parks.
In the District of Columbia no advertisement is allowed which
obstructs a highway, and all distribution of handbills, circulars,
&c., in public streets, parks, &c., is prohibited. This prohibition
against what are generally known as " dodgers " is very general
in the local regulations throughout the states. In Illinois, city
councils are empowered on the incorporation of the city to regu-
late and prevent the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds
for signs, handbills and advertisements, &c., and also the exhibi-
tion of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks. Chicago
has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently have
been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement board
more than 12 ft. square within 400 ft. of a public park or
boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones relating to
the business carried on in the premises where the advertisement
is posted, or of sales, &c., are allowed in streets where three-
quarters of the houses are " residences "only. Prohibition is
also extended to the advertisements of those professing to cure
diseases or giving notice of the sale of medicines. In Boston
there are regulations prohibiting projecting or overhanging
signs in the streets, and special rules as to the height at which
street signs and advertisements must be placed. The distribu-
tion of " dodgers " in the streets is prohibited. Advertisements
for places of amusement must be approved by the committee OP
licences.

ADVICE— ADVOCATE

241

France, Belgium, Italy and certain of the cantons in Switzer-
land impose a tax on advertisements, as do certain of the United
Taxation States of America, where the form is usually that of a
licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies.
In many cases in the United States this is imposed by the muni-
cipalities. In every case both in Europe and America advertise-
ments in newspapers are not subject to any tax.

With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition to the his-
torical article in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, already
mentioned, and that in the Quarterly Review for June 1855, the
Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Advertising issue a jour-
nal, A Beautiful World. The Journal of the Society of Comparative
Legislation (N.S. xvi. 1906) contains an article by W.J.B. Byles on
Foreign Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places.
The advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising
agents, will also be found to contain practical information of
great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. WE.)

ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed),
counsel given after consideration, or information from a distance
giving particulars of something prospective ( e.g. " advice " of
an imminent battle, or of a cargo due). In commerce it is a
common word for a formal notice from one person concerned in
a transaction to another.

ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from adwcare, to summon,
especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so
generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer authorized to
plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used
technically in Scotland (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF) in a sense
virtually equivalent to the English term barrister, and a deriva-
tive from the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries
of Europe where the civil law is in force. The word adwcatus is
not often useti among the earlier jurists, and appears not to
have had a strict meaning. It is. not always associated with
legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to a supporter
or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired object. When it came
to be applied with a more specific limitation to legal services,
the position of the adwcatus was still uncertain. It was different
from, and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who
gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be
identified with the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor
is the merely professional advocate to be confounded with the
more distinguished orator, or patronus, who came forward in
the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis-
tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, when the
profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia, passed about
two centuries B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance
of remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was pro-
hibited. This law, like all others of the kind, was evaded. The
skilful debater was propitiated with a present; and though he
could not sue for the value of his services, it was ruled that any
honorarium so given could not be demanded back, even though
he died before the anticipated service was performed. The traces
of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing practice of
rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services.

The term adwcatus came eventually to be the word employed
when the bar had become a profession, and the qualifications,
admission, numbers and fees of counsel had become a matter
of state regulation, to designate the pleaders as a class of pro-
fessional men, each individual advocate, however, being still
spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with whose interest
he was entrusted. The advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was
an officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the
present day, was connected with the collection of the revenue.

The lawyers who practised in the English courts of common
law were never officially known as advocates, the word being
reserved for those who practised in the courts of the civil and
canon law (see DOCTORS' COMMONS). There was formerly an
important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, or more
shortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law officer
of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' Commons,
and in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. He discharged
for these courts the duties which correspond to those of the

solicitor of the treasury (see SOLICITOR). His opinion was taken
by the foreign office on international matters, and on high
ecclesiastical matters he was also consulted; all orders in council
were submitted to him for approval. The office may now be
said to be obsolete, for after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss,
the. last holder, in 1872, it was not filled up. There was also a
second law officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the
admiralty advocate. This office has long been vacant. Advo-
cate is also the title still in use in some of the British colonies
to denote the chief law officer of the crown there. For instance,
in Sierra Leone (until 1896), Lagos and Cyprus he is called the
king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius,
procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India
advocate-general. In France, the awcats, as a body, were re-
organized under the empire by a decree of the isth of December
1810. There is, however, a distinction between awcats and
avoues. The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators
or agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft
and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and prepare
their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of the awcat, on
the other hand, consists in giving advice as to the law, and con-
ducting the causes of his clients by written and oral pleadings.
The number of awcats is not limited; every licentiate of law
being entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached
to each court, and aftet presentation to the court, taking the oath
of office and passing three years in attendance on some older
advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate.

In Germany the adwcat no longer forms a distinct class of
lawyer. Since 1879, when a sweeping judicature act (Deutsche
Justizgesetzgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, the adw-
cat in his character of adviser, as distinguished from the pro-
curator, who formerly represented the client in the courts, has
become merged in the Rechtsanwalt, who has the dual character
of counsellor and pleader.

In the middle ages the word adwcatus (Fr. avoue, Ger. Vogt)
was used on the continent as the title of the lay lord charged
with the protection and representation in secular
matters of an abbey. The office is traceable as early advocatus
as the beginning of the sth century in the Roman ecciesiae.
empire, the churches being allowed to choose defen-
sores from the body of advocates to represent them in the courts.
In the Prankish kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay
representatives of the churches appear as agentes, defensores
and adwcati; and under the Carolingians it was made obli-
gatory on bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials
in every county where they held property. The office was not
hereditary, the advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot alone,
or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count. The
same causes that led to the development of the feudal system
also affected the advocatus. In times of confusion churches and
abbeys needed not so much a legal representative as an armed
protector, while as feudal immunities were conceded to the
ecclesiastical foundations, these required a representative to
defend their rights and to fulfil their secular obligations to the
state, e.g. to lead the ecclesiastical levies to war. A new class
of adwcatus thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a
grant of land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, had
by the beginning of the nth century become hereditary.

In France the adwcati (avougs) were of two classes — (i) great
barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or abbeys rather
as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified
for the protection they afforded by a domain and r^ach
revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of avow.
Normandy was advocatus of nearly all the abbeys in
the duchy; (2) petty seigneurs, who held their awueries as heredi-
tary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. The avoue
of an abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a
bishop. Their function was generally to represent the abbot in
his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in the
courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in the
abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers of the
abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint.

ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF— ADVOWSON

242

In England the word adwcatus was never used to denote an
hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger
abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions
England. anc^ privileges were not dissimilar to those of the
continental advocati. The word adwcatus, however,
was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an
ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance was
an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for in-
stitution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a
benefice came to be called in English an " advowson " (adwcatio).

The adwcatus played a more important part in the feudal
polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than in France,
where his functions, confined to the protection of the interests
of religious houses, were superseded from the I3th century on-
wards by the growth of the central power and the increasing
efficiency of the royal administration. They had, indeed, long
ceased to be effective for their original purpose; and from the
time when their office became a fief they had taken advantage of
their position to pillage and suppress those whom it was their
function to defend. The medieval records, not in France only,
are full of complaints by abbots of their usurpations, exactions
and acts of violence.

In Germany the title of adwcatus (Vogt) was given not only
to the advocati of churches and abbeys, but to the officials
appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the
German emperor to administer their immediate domains, in
Vogt. contradistinction to the counts, who had become
hereditary princes of the Empire. The territory so
administered was known as Vogtland {terra adwcatorum) , a
name still sometimes employed to designate the strip of
country which embraces the principalities of Reuss and adjacent
portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria. These imperial
advocati tended in their turn to become hereditary. Sometimes
the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt of some particular
part of his immediate domain. In the Netherlands as well as
in Germany advocati were often appointed in the cities, by the
overlord or by the emperor, sometimes to take the place of the
bailiff (Ger. Schultheiss, Dutch schout, Lat. scultetus), some-
times alongside this official.

See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. 1883, Niort), s. " Advocati "; A.
Luchaire, Manuel des -institutions franfaises (Paris, 1892) ; Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. " Advocatus ec-
clesiae," where further references will be found.

ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which
what in England are called barristers are known in Scotland.
They professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh;
but they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may
act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is cus-
tomary for those who practise as barristers to pass as advocates
in Scotland. This body has existed by immemorial custom.
Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded on no statute
or charter of incorporation. The body formed itself gradually,
from time to time, on the model of the French corporations of
awcats, appointing like them by a general vote, a dean or doyen,
who is their principal officer. It also differs from the English
and Irish societies in that there is no governing body similar to
the benchers, nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate
discipline and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of
court. No curriculum of study, residence or professional train-
ing was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but
the faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for
admission. The candidate undergoes two private examinations
— the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, he
may produce evidence of his having graduated as master of arts
in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent degree in an
English or foreign university; and the other, at the interval of
a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law. He must,
before the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at
classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish university,

and at classes of civil law, public or international law, consti-
tutional law and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other
approved university. He has then to undergo the old academic
form of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the
pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, has
degenerated into a mere form. A large proportion of the candi-
date's entrance fees (amounting to £339) is devoted to the
magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which literary
investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful.

ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, devil's advocate, the name popularly
given to the promoter of the Faith (promoter fidei), and officer of
the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose duty is to
prepare all possible arguments against the admission of any one
to the posthumous honours of beatification and canonization.
This functionary is first formally mentioned under Leo X.(isi3-
1521) in the proceedings in connexion with the canonization of St
Lorenzo Giustiniani. In 1631 Urban VIII. made his presence,
either in person or by deputy, necessary for the validity of any
act connected with the process of beatification or canonization
(see CANONIZATION). The phrase, " devil's advocate," has by an
easy transference come to be used of any one who puts himself
up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, to argue a
case in which he does not necessarily believe.

ADVOWSON, or ADVOWZEN (through O. Fr. adwuson, from
Lat. adwcatio, a summons to), the right of presentation to
a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because the patron
defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents.
At what period the right of advowson arose is uncertain; it
was probably the result of gradual growth. The earliest trace
of the practice is found in the decree of the council of Orange,
A.D. 441, which allowed a bishop, who had built a church in the
diocese of another bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to
consecrate the church. The 1 23rd Novel of Justinian, promul-
gated about the end of the 5th century, decreed " that if any
man should erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto
by himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his live-
lihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, they may
be ordained." The S7th Novel empowered the bishop to examine
them and judge of their qualifications, and, where those were
sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk. In England, for quite
two centuries after its conversion, the clergy administered only
pro tempore in the parochial churches, receiving their maintenance
from the cathedral church, all the appointments within the dio-
cese lying with the bishop. But in order to promote the building
and endowment of parochial churches those who had contributed
to their erection either by a grant of land, by building or by
endowment, became entitled to present a clerk of their own
choice to the bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived
from such contribution. After the Norman Conquest, when the
boundaries between church and state were more clearly marked,
it became usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without
the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops.

Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in gross.
Originally the right of nominating1 or presenting was annexed
to the person who built or endowed the church, but the right
gradually became annexed to the manor in which it was built,
for the endowment was considered parcel of the manor, the
church being built for the use of the inhabitants, and the tithes
of the manor being attached to the church. Consequently
where the right of patronage (the right of the patron to present
to the bishop the person whom he has nominated to become
rector' or vicar of the parish to the benefice of which he claims
the right of advowson) remains attached to the manor, it is called
an advowson appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance

1 The distinction between nomination to a living and presentation
is to be noted. Nomination is the power, by virtue of a manor or
otherwise, to appoint a clerk to the patron of a benefice, to be by
him presented to the ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron
in offering his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of
his gift. Nomination and presentation, though generally used in
law for the same thing, must be so distinguished, for it is possible
that the rights of nomination may be in one person, and the rights
of presentation in another.

ADYE

243

or sale without any special conveyance. But where, as is often
the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, and
so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson in gross.
An advowson may also be partly appendant, and partly in gross,
e.g. if an owner granted to another every second presentment,
the advowson would be appendant for the grantor's turn and
in gross for the grantee's.

Advowsons are further distinguished into presentative and
collative. In a presentative advowson, the patron presents a
clergyman to the bishop, with the petition that he be instituted
into the vacant living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find
the clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part
is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron
or by presentee. In a collative advowson the bishop is himself
the patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper
patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised
within the statutory period of six months after the vacancy
occurred. No petition is necessary in this case, and the bishop
is said to collate to the benefice. Before 1898 there were also
donative advowsons, but the Benefices Act 1898 made all dona-
tions with cure of souls presentative. In a donative advowson,
the sovereign, or any subject by special licence from the sover-
eign, conferred a benefice by a simple letter of gift, without
any reference to the bishop, and without presentation and in-
stitution. The incumbent of such a living was to a great extent
free from the jurisdiction of the bishop, who could only reach
him through the action of an ecclesiastical court.

The Benefices Act of 1898 did not make any substantial
change in the legal character of advowsons, which remain
practically the same as before the act. Briefly, it prevents the
dealing with the right of presentation as a thing apart from the
advowson itself; increases the power of the bishops to refuse
the presentation of unfit persons, and removes several abuses
which had arisen in the transfer of patronage. Under the pre-
viously existing law, simony, or " the corrupt presentation of
any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or
reward," renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons
privy or party to it to penalties;, a presentation to a vacant
benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can purchase
for himself a next presentation. An advowson may, however,
be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give the right
to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy an advowson
even though it be only an estate for life, and present himself on
the next vacancy. Under the Benefices Act, advowsons may
not be sold by public auction except in conjunction with landed
property adjacent to the benefice; transfers of patronage must
be registered in the registry of the diocese, and no such transfers
can be made within twelve months after the last admission or
institution to the benefice. Restrictions had also been imposed
on the transfer of patronage of churches built under the Church
Building Acts and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices
in the gift of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to
augment others; but agreements may be made as to the patron-
age of such churches in favour of persons who have contri-
buted to their building or enlargement without being void for
simony.

The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner
whether he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners (who,
if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of age) or mort-
gagee (who must present the nominee of the mortgagor), or a
bankrupt (who, although the advowson belongs to his creditors,
yet has the right to present to a vacancy). Certain owners of
advowsons are temporarily or permanently disabled from exer-
cising the right which devolves upon other persons; and the
crown as patron paramount of all benefices can fill all churches
not regularly filled by other patrons. It thus presents to all
vacancies caused by simoniacal presentations, or by the incum-
bent having been presented to a bishopric or in benefices belong-
ing to a bishopric when the see is vacant by the bishop's death,
translation or deprivation. Where a presentation belongs to
a lunatic, the lord chancellor presents for him. Where it belongs
to a Roman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the

university of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the river
Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that river.

Besides the qualifications required of a presentee by canon
law, such as being of the canonical age, and in priest's orders
before admission, sufficient learning and proper orthodoxy or
morals, the Benefices Act requires that a year shall have elapsed
since a transfer of the right of patronage, unless it can be shown
that such transfer was not made in view of a probable vacancy;
that the presentee has been a deacon for three years; and that
he is not unfit for the discharge of his duties by reason of physical
or mental infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrass-
ment, grave misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical
office, evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his
moral character since his ordination, or being party to an illegal
agreement with regard to the presentation; that notice of the
presentation has been given to the parish of the benefice. Except
by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the incumbent of a seques-
tered benefice cannot be presented. The act also gives to both
patron and presentee an alternative mode of appeal against a
bishop's refusal to institute or admit, except on a ground of
doctrine or ritual, to a court composed of an archbishop of the
province and a judge of the High Court nominated for that
purpose by the lord chancellor, a course which, however, bars
resort being had to the ordinary suits of duplex querela or action
of quare impedit. In case of refusal of one presentee, a lay
patron may present another, and a clerical patron may do so
after an unsuccessful appeal against the refusal.

Upon institution the church is full against everybody except
the crown, and after six months' peaceable possession the clerk
is secured in possession of the benefice, even though he may
have been presented by a person who is not the proper patron.
The true patron can, however, exercise his right to present at
the next vacancy, and can reserve the advowson from an usurper
at any time within three successive incumbencies so created
adversely to his right, or within sixty years. Collation, which
otherwise corresponds to institution, does not make the church
full, and the true patron can dispossess the clerk at any time,
unless he is a patron who collates. Possession of the benefice
is completed by induction, which makes the church full against
any one, including the crown. If the proper patron fails to exer-
cise his right within six calendar months from the vacancy, the
right devolves or lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an
ordinary patron to the bishop, and if he makes similar default
to the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the crown.
If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has accrued to it,
it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a vacancy of a
benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown presents. Until
the right of presentation so accruing to a bishop or archbishop
is exercised, the patron can still effectually present but not if
lapse has gone to the crown.

(See also BENEFICE; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR.)

AUTHORITIES. — Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines
Ecclesiasticae, or, the Antiquities of the English Church; Mirehouse,
On Advowson; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law.

ADYE, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1000), British general, son
of Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the
ist of November 1819. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836,
was promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the
Crimean War as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general
of artillery (C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel). In
the Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity.
Promoted brevet-colonel in 1860, he was specially employed in
1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy-
adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned
home. From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and
stores at the War Office. He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, and
was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor of
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and surveyor-
general of the ordnance in 1880. In 1882 he was chief of staff
and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, and served
throughout the campaign (G.C.B . and thanks of parliament) . He
held the government of Gibraltar from 1883 to 1886. Promoted

244

ADYTUM— AEDUI

lieutenant-general in 1879, general and colonel commandant of
the Royal Artillery in 1884, he retired in 1886. He unsuccess-
fully contested Bath in the Liberal interest in 1892. He died
on the 26th of August 1900. He was author of A Review of
The Crimean War; The Defence of Cawnpore; A Frontier Cam-
paign in Afghanistan; Recollections of a Military Life; and
Indian Frontier Policy.

ADYTUM, the Latinized form of aSvTOv (not to be entered),
the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which was
forbidden to all but the officiating priests. The most famous
adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi.

ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is un-
known), a tool used for cutting and planing. It is somewhat
like an axe reversed, the edge of the blade curving inward and
placed at right angles to the handle. This shape is most suitable
for planing uneven timber, as inequalities are " hooked off " by
the curved blade. (See TOOLS.)

ABACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeacidae, was the
son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus. His
mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, which
was afterwards called by her name. The island having been
depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon it into
human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called Myrmidones
(/uip/iTj/ces = ants) . Aeacus ruled over his people with such justice
and impartiality that after his death he was made judge of the
lower world together with Minos and Rhadamanthus. By his
wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His
successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates,
Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina (Pau-
sanias ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenios
and helped Poseidon and Apollo to build the walls of Troy.

See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901.

AECLANUM, an ancient town of Samnium, Italy, ism. E.S.E.
of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella).
It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had
become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 B.C. by setting
on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and
new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via
Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has
ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphi-
theatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered.
Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via
Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to
Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the
Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia;
while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellini)
may also follow an ancient line. H. Nissen (Italische Landes-
kunde, Berlin, 1902, ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he
believes to have been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum
to Trevicum and thence to Ausculum; but Th. Mommsen
(Corpus Inscrip. Lot., Berlin, 1883, ix. 602) is more likely to be
right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly
from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though
the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that
the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of
later date.

AEDESIUS (d. A.D. 355), Neoplatonist philosopher, was born
of a noble Cappadocian family. He migrated to Syria, attracted
by the lectures of lamblichus, whose follower he became. Ac-
cording to Eunapius, he differed from lamblichus on certain
points connected with magic. He taught at Pergamum, his
chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus. He seems to have
modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine.

See Ritter and Preller, 552; Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophic;
T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (Cambridge, 1901).

AEDICULA (diminutive of Lat. aedis or aedes, a temple or
house), a small house or temple, — a household shrine holding
small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates.

AEDILE (Lat. aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of
certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a
temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, where
the plebeian archives were kept. They were originally two in

number, called " plebeian " aediles. They were created in the
same year as the tribunes of the people (494 B.C.), their persons
were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least after 471) they were
elected at the Comitia Tributa out of the plebeians alone.
Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised
certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and
managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to Livy
(vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations, an extra day
was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear
the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to
undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedile-
ship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two
" curule " aediles were appointed — at first from the patricians
alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from
either — at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the
consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting
in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They
took over the management of the Roman and Megalesian games,
the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing
edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the
curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their
functions gradually approximated and became practically
identical.

Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three
heads: — (i) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of
temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving;
regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated
buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths
and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of
gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally,
including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also
punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus,
or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provi-
sions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and
the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn
for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the
games: superintendence and organization of the public games,
as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals
(e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often
spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favour
with a. view to official advancement.

In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called Cereales,
whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under
Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juridical
functions and the care of the games being transferred to the
praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the ap-
pointment of a praefectus urbi. In the 3rd century A. D. it
disappeared altogether.

AUTHORITIES. — Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) ; Hoff-
mann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) ; Goll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum
Imperio (1860) ; Labatut, Les £diles el les mceurs (1868) ; Marquardt-
Mommsen, Handbuch der romischen Altertiimer, ii. (1888); Soltau,
Die ursprungliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn,
1882).

AEDUI, HAEDUI or HEDUI (Gr. AMouoi), a Gallic people of
Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the
Arar (Sa6ne) and Liger (Loire). The statement in Strabo (ii. 3.
192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is
incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of
the modern departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire, C6te d'Or and
Nievre. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedi-
tion of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century B.C. Before
Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans,
and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of
the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on
the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually
quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with
the assistance of a German chieftain named Ariovistus, the
Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the
senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival
in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar restored their independence. In spite
of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar
(B.C. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia

AEGADIAN ISLANDS— AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

245

were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled
their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted
a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augusto-
dunum (mod. Autun). During the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 21),
they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum,
but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus, Ann. iii.
43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from
the emperor Claudius the distinction oi the jus honorum. The
oration of Eumenius (q.v.), in which he pleaded for the restora-
tion of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows
that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the
Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobrelus (according to
Mommsen, "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually,
possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go
beyond the frontier. Certain clienles, or small communities,
were also dependent upon the Aedui.

See A. E. Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule, ii. (1876-1893) ; T. R.
Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899).

AEGADIAN ISLANDS (Ital. I sole Egati; anc. Aegates In-
sulae), a group of small mountainous islands off the western
coast of Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat
of the Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C.,
which ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the
largest, pop. (1901) 6414, lies 10 m. S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo
(Phorbantia) 8m. W.; while Maritime, the ancient Upa crjoxis,
1 5 m. W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group.
They belonged to the Pallavicini family of Genoa until 1874,
when they were bought by Signer Florio of Palermo.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric
civilization, previously called " Mycenaean" because its existence
was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's
excavations at Mycenae in 1876. Subsequent discoveries, how-
ever, have made it clear that MyCenae was not its chief centre
in its earlier stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly,
it is more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title.

I. History of Discovery and Distribution of Remains. — Mycenae
and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a
prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical
Greeks. The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel,
its gate with heraldic lions, and the great " Treasury of
Atreus " had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's
time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or
at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, civiliza-
tion. It was not till Schliemann exposed the contents of the
graves which lay just inside the gate (see MYCENAE), that
scholars recognized the advanced stage of art to which pre-
historic dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained. There
had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before
1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might
have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel
graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that
certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the XVIII th Dynasty tomb
of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar
forms, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise
habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined
while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the
Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were
lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a
sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths
of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken
seriously. Both at Sevres and Neuchatel Aegean vases have
been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in the
one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia. Ludwig
Ross, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards,
called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as
Insdsleine; but it was not till 1878 that C. T. Newton demon-
strated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866
primitive structures were discovered in the island of Therasia
by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the Suez Canal works;
and when this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neigh-
bouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives of the French
School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immedi-

ately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone
and metal objects, were found and dated by the geologist
Fouque, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration
of the superincumbent eruptive stratum. Meanwhile, in 1868,
tombs at lalysus in Rhodes had yielded to M. A. Biliotti many
fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and
fourth " Mycenaean "; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and
presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than
they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric
of uncertain date. Nor was a connexion immediately detected
between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb
at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut " bee-hive " grave near the
Argive Heraeum.

Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad
(q.v.) did not excite surprise. But the " Burnt City " of his
second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and
vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the
discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which
was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle
of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves
three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric
period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both
the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not
that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved
by the identification of the Inselsteine and the lalysus vases with
the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier
Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relation between objects
of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was
generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while
certainly posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent
of the Mycenaean. Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik
in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata,
but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his " Lydian " city
of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed till
Dr W. Dorpfeld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after the
first explorer's death (see TROAD). But by laying bare in 1884
the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns (<?.».), Schlie-
mann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric
domestic life which was amplified two years later by Chr.
Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work
at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as
had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one
he had exposed. From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean
sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the con-
tinuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser
graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's
princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at
Athens. In that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already
rifled but retaining some of their furniture, at Arkina and Eleusis
in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the
west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The
richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889,
and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths'
work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting,
and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which
remained an enigma till the excavation of Cnossus. In 1890 and
1893 Stae's cleared out certain less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus
in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut " bee-hives " or
chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina
and Salamis, at the Heraeum (see ARGOS) and Nauplia in the
Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian
Larissa. During the excavations on the Acropolis at Athens,
terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style
were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as
had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the
temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean.
The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded
in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in
the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its
neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation
in the later Aegean periods. Prehistoric research had now begun
to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean

246

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

islands, Antiparos, los, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all
found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean
period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching
corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the
Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects, but
not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British
School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all
the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic. A map of Cyprus in
the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O.
Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than
five-and-twenty settlements in and about the Mesaorea district
alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis,
has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found
outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware,
like that of Hissarlik, in central Phrygia and at Pteria' (q.i).), and
the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into
north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic
specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyn-
dacus, Sangarius and Halys. In Egypt in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie
found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and
farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no
fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been
recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris
and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style
which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of
Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found
at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially
Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations
of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund. South-eastern Sicily,
ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in

1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear
in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration
from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia
has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded
objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from
Saragossa. One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the
Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages,
viz. Crete, so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as
the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, and probably for long
its political and social centre. The island first attracted the
notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes
found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic
monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna; but the first
undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects
extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in

1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the
S. plain (Messara) by F. Halbherr. W. J. StiUman and H.
Schliemann both made unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and
A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeed-
ing years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered
evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things
would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him
to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not sus-
pected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897-98 opened
the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued,
for which see CRETE. Thus the " Aegean Area " has now come
to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic
peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolia. Evidence
is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Off-
shoots are' found in the W. Mediterranean, in Sicily, Italy,
Sardinia and Spain, and in the E. in Syria and Egypt. About
the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed.

II. General Nature of the Evidence. — For details of monumental
evidence the articles on CRETE, MYCENAE, TIRYNS, TROAD,
CYPRUS, &c., must be consulted. The most representative site
explored up to now is Cnossus (see CRETE, sect. Archaeology),
which has yielded not only the most various but the most
continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight
of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik,
Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palai-
kastro and Gournia.

A. The internal evidence at present available comprises—

(1) Structures. — Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built
dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, Greek
mainland and N.W. Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small
shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of
one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro
by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and
frescoes. From like sources and from inlay-work we have also
representations of palace's and houses.

(2) Structural Decoration. — Architectural features, such as
columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration,
such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay.

(3) Furniture. — (a) Domestic, such as vessels of all sorts and
in many materials, from huge store-jars down to tiny unguent-
pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables,
&c., these aU in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) Sacred,
such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these
we have also numerous pictorial representations, (c) Funerary,
e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta.

(4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory,
cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or
modelled in clay, faience, paste, &c. Very little trace has yet
been found of large free sculpture, but many examples exist of
sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble
or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay,
the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented
with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decora-
tion. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent.
Engraved objects in great number, e.g. ring-bezels and gems;
and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.

(5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and bronze,
and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid.
Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body-
armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead,
like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae.

(6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches (fibulae), pins, razors,
tweezers, &c., often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the
Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived.

(7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in
Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin,
papyrus, &c.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends
written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on
stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see
CRETE).

(8) Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto kind, in
which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use
and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or
simple wrappings.

(9) Public works, such as paved and stepped roadways,
bridges, systems of drainage, &c.

B. There is also a certain amount of external evidence to be
gathered from —

(1) Monuments and records of other contemporary civiliza-
tions, e.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes;
imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non- Aegean lands;
allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or
Babylonian records.

(2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially
the Hellenic, such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems,
the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c. ; statements as to
the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by
Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus
Siculus, &c.

(3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, &c., in the Aegean
area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which
they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems.
There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to
be considered.

III. General Features of Aegean Civilization. — The leading
features of Aegean civilization, as deduced from the evidence,
must be stated very briefly.

(i) Political Organization. — The great Cretan palaces and
the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

GRAPHIC ART

PLATE I.

FIG. i— FLYING FISH FRESCO, PHYLAKOPI.

Cf. J.H S. Suppl. Papers, iv.

FIG. 2.— BULL, WITH LEAPING BULL-FIGHTER TIRYNS.

Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns, Plate XIII.

FIG. 4.— MIDDLE MINOAN VASE,' CNOSSUS.

B.S A. ix. i2c, Fig. 75.

W •

FIG. 3— LAMP-STAND, PHYLAKOPI.

Cf J B.S. Suppl Papers, iv Plate XXII.
I. 246.

FIG. 6.— FILLER VASE. ZAKRO.

J.H.S. vol. xxii. Plate XII

FIG. 5.— MINIATURE FRESCOES. SHOW-
ING SPECTATORS AT ATHLETIC
SPORTS, CNOSSUS.

From Photo by Dr. A. J. Evans.

By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.

PLATE II.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

PLASTIC ART

-

FIG. 2.— MARBLE IDOLS, AMORGOS; 6-n FIDDLE
AND MALLET TYPES, 12-14, DEVELOPED TYPES.

Man. 1901, 185, No. 146.

By permission of the Royal Anlhrojx lopicnl Instilute

JIG. i— FAIENCE PLAQUE, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. ix. Plate III.

FIG. 3.— COLOURED BAS-RELIEF IN GESSO FIG. 4.— MARBLE HEAD

DURO, REPRESENTING MALE TORSO FROM AMORGOS (ASH-

WITH FLEUR-DE-LIS COLLAR. MOLEAN MUSEUM). FIG. 5— BULL IN PAINTED PLASTER, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. vii. 17. Fig. 6. Photo by Dr A. J. Evans.

FIGS. 6, 7.— IVORY FIGURES AND HEADS OF ATHLETES, BULL-FIGHTERS OR ACROBATS, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. viii. Plates II. and III., and p. 72 sq.

By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

247

Plena

Map showing the distribution of
AEGEAN SITES

containing little more than one great residence, and dominating
lower towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all periods.
Independent local developments of art before the middle of the
2nd millennium B.C. suggest the early existence of independent
units in various parts, of which the strongest was the Cnossian.
After that date the evidence goes strongly to show that one
political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief
periods, over almost all the area (see later). The great number
of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus perhaps indicates that the
centre of power was always there.

(2) Religion.— The fact that shrines have so far been found
within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that
the kings kept religious power in their own hands; perhaps
they were themselves high-priests. Religion in the area seems
to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest
period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in dominant
features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, &c.) and control-
ling fertility. This cult passed through an aniconic stage, from
which fetishes survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars,
trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), &c.
When the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the
Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young
god, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands. The god was
probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair
represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations
with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves,
as uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual
fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts
of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and
human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and
simulacra, invocation, &c., were practised. The dead, who
returned to the Great Mother, were objects of a sort of hero-
worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous
features of Hellenic religion, especially in the cults of Artemis
and Aphrodite. (See CRETE.)

(3) Social Organization. — There is a possibility that features
of a primeval matriarchate long survived; but there is no
certain evidence. Of the organization of the people under the
monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations
of armed men that it seems doubtful if there. can have been
any professional military class. Theatral structures found at
Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts of the palaces,
were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal assize,
rather than for popular assemblies. The Cnossian remains
contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account-
keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a
considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was
comfortable and even luxurious from early times. Fine stone
palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments,

large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary
conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply
of water and for drainage, attest this fact. Even the smaller
houses, after the Neolithic period, seem also to have been of
stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete
had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, win-
dows, folding and sliding doors, &c. In this later period, the
distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been
held to indicate the seclusion of .women in harems, at least
among the ruling caste. Cnossian frescoes show women grouped
apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and
many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and wine and
beer were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious
uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Artificers'
implements of many kinds were in use, bronze succeeding
obsidian and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found
carefully shaped to the human person. There was evidently
olive- and vine-culture on a large scale in Crete at any rate.
Chariots were in use in the later period, as is proved by the
pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably,
the horse also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem
impression. Main ways were paved. Sports, probably more
or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bull-fighting, dancing,
boxing, armfd combats. 8 4 3 E

(4) Commerce was practised to some extent in very early
times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian over
all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early Minoan
art. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the
Greek mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete.
After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with Egypt, and
Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean
(see below). No traces of currency have come to light, unless
certain axe-heads, too slight for practical use, had that char-
acter; but standard weights have been found, and representa-
tions of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet
proved (by being found outside the area) epistolary correspond-
ence with other lands. Representations of ships are not common,
but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings
and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts.
Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine
motives in decoration.

(5) Treatment of the Dead. — The dead in the earlier period
were laid (so far as we know at present) within cists constructed
of upright stones. These were sometimes inside caves. After
the burial the cist was covered in with earth. A little later, in
Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the
remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the
bones at once (" scarification "), or left to rot in separate cists
awhile; afterwards the skeletons were collected and the cists

248

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

re-used. The coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the
knees drawn up to the chin and are found in excavated chambers
or pits. In the later period a peculiar " bee-hive " tomb became
common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as
in the magnificent Mycenaean " Treasuries ") constructed dome-
wise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late
type, paralleled in the later Cnossian cemetery. The latest
type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a
horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above.
At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned.
Weapons, food, water, unguents and various trinkets were laid
with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar
seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves
were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted sarco-
phagus, found at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult
of the dead.

(6) Artistic Production. — Ceramic art reached a specially high
standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle of the
3rd millennium B.C. in Crete. The products of that period com-
pare favourably with any potters' work in the world. The
same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal
work. Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone and ivory,
engraving on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of
the 2nd millennium. After 2000 B.C. all these arts revived, and
sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a
small scale, carved stone vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and
bronze, advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and
vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the
iSth century B.C. than at any subsequent period before the 6th
century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of faience
objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also
familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a
strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance
and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of
later Hellenic art. Architectural ornament was also highly
developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns
may be judged by those from the " Treasury of Atreus " now set
up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have examples
in Mycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian paintings.
The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at
Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to be mentioned. It should be
compared with stone work in Crete, especially the steatite vases
with reliefs found at Hagia Triada. On the whole, Aegean art,
at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia
respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts.

IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilization. — The
evidence, summarized above, though very various and volumin-
ous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the questions which may
be asked as to the origin, nature and history of this civilization,
or to answer any but a few questions with absolute certainty.
We shall try to indicate the extent to which it can legitimately
be applied.

A. Distinctive Features. — The fact that Aegean civilization is
distinguished from all others, prior or contemporary, not only
by its geographical area, but by leading organic characteristics,
has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied
seriously and impartially. The truth was indeed obscured for
a time by persistent prejudices in favour of certain alien Medi-
terranean races long known to have been in relation with the
Aegean area in prehistoric times, e.g. the Egyptians and especi-
ally the Phoenicians. But their claims to be the principal
authors of the Aegean remains grew fainter with every fresh
Aegean discovery, and every new light thrown on their own
proper products; with the Cretan revelations they ceased
altogether to be considered except by a few Homeric enthusiasts.
Briefly, we now know that the Aegean. civilization developed
these distinctive features, (i) An indigenous script expressed
in characters of which only a very small percentage are identical,
or even obviously connected, with those of any other script.
This is equally true both of the pictographic and the linear
Aegean systems. Its nearest affinities are with the " Asianic "
scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west

Anatolian (Pamphylian, Lycian and Carian) inscriptions. But
neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical
aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means
certain that there is parentage. The Aegean script may be,
and probably is, prior in origin to the " Asianic "; and it may
equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the small
number of common characters being considered) be an entirely
independent evolution from representations of natural objects
(see CRETE). (2) An Art, whose products cannot be confounded
with those of any other known art by a trained eye. Its obliga-
tions to other contemporary arts are many and obvious, especi-
ally in its later stages; but every borrowed form and motive
undergoes an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean
craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character.
The secret of this character lies evidently in a constant attempt
to express an ideal in forms more and more closely approaching
to realities. We detect the dawn of that spirit which afterwards
animated Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives,
reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have
supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression
already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the
Greek mainland (Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural
plans and decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces is
of two main types. First (and perhaps earliest in time), the
chambers are grouped round a central court, being engaged one
with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater
oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally
by pillars. Second, the main chamber is of what is known as
the megaron type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the
plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side,
and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps
hypaethral; there is no central court, and other apartments
form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this
duality of type see CRETE. In spite of many comparisons made
with Egyptian, Babylonian and " Hittite " plans, both these
arrangements remain incongruous with any remains of prior or
contemporary structures elsewhere. Whether either plan suits
the " Homeric palace " does not affect the present question.
(4) A type of tomb, the dome or " bee-hive," of which the grandest
examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan " larnax " coffins,
also, have no parallels outside the Aegean. There are other
infinite singularities of detail; but the above are more than
sufficient to establish the point.

B. Origin and Continuity. — With the immense expansion of
the evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has
arisen how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration
covers at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one
and continuous. Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now
know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive Neo-
lithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, represented
by a stratum which (on that site in particular) is in places nearly
20 ft. thick, and contains stone implements and sherds of hand-
made and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive develop-
ment in technique from bottom to top. This Cnossian stratum
seems to be throughout earlier than the lowest layer at Hissarlik.
It closes with the introduction of incised, white-filled decoration
on pottery, whose motives are presently found reproduced in
monochrome pigment. We are now in the beginning of the
Bronze Age, and the first of Evans's " Minoan " periods (see
CRETE). Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification,
eight more periods have been distinguished by the explorer of
Cnossus, each marked by some important development in the
universal and necessary products of the potter's art, the least
destructible and therefore most generally used archaeological
criterion. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose
close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean
Age is conventionally held to end. Iron came into general Aegean
use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a
body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins
of the earlier dominion. The important point is this, that
throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic
Age (named by Evans, " Minoan I. i, 2, 3; II. i, 2, 3; III. i.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

249

2, 3 " ; see CRETE), there is evidence of a perfectly orderly
and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From
one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives of decoration
develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than
two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning
can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent artistic intrusion
can be detected. This fact, by itself, would go far to prove
that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially
the same throughout. It is, moreover, supported by less abun-
dant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for in-
stance, shows the same orderly development from at any rate
Period II. 2 to the end. About institutions we have less certain
knowledge, there being but little evidence for the earlier periods;
but in the documents relating to religion, the most significant of
all, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change.
We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing through all
the normal stages down to theoanthropism in the latest period.
There is no appearance of intrusive deities or cult-ideas. We
may take it then (and the fact is not disputed even by those
who, like Dorpfeld, believe in one thorough racial change, at
least, during the Bronze Age) that the Aegean civilization was
indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essen-
tially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area
throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. This conclusion
can hardly entail less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass
of those who possessed this civilization continued racially the
same.

There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods,
evidences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of
small conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization
of the conquered people and became assimilated to the latter.
The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in Period II.
i or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the description
of palace-plans above. Before Period III. i it was largely re-
built, and arguments have been brought forward by Dorpfeld
to show that features of the second type were then introduced.
A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch at Phaestus,
and possibly at Hagia Triada. Now the second type, the
" megaron " arrangement, characterizes peculiarly the palaces
discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at Mycenae, Tiryns
and Hissarlik, where up to the present no signs of the first type,
so characteristic of Crete, have been observed. These northern
" megara " are all of late date, none being prior to Minoan III. i.
At Phylakope, a " megaron " appears only in the uppermost
Aegean stratum, the underlying structures being more in con-
formity with the earlier Cretan. At the same epoch a notable
change took place in the Aegean script. The pictographic
characters, found on seals and discs of Period II. in Crete, had
given way entirely to a linear system by Period III. That
system thenceforward prevailed exclusively, suffering a slight
modification again in III. 2 and 3.

These and other less well marked changes, say some critics,
are signs of a racial convulsion not long after 2000 B.C. An old
race was conquered by a new, even if, in matters of civilization,
the former capta victorem cepit. For these races respectively
Dorpfeld suggests the names " Lycian " and " Carian, " the
latter coming in from the north Aegean, where Greek tradition
remembered its former dominance. These names do not greatly
help us. If we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomen-
clature, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats,
both Lycians and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having
formerly possessed the civilizations attributed to them in pre-
historic times — signs which research has hitherto wholly failed
to find. The most that can be said to be capable of proof is
the infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at the end
of Minoan Period II. ; but it probably brought about no change
of dynasty and certainly no change in the prevailing race.

A good deal of anthropometric investigation has been devoted
to human remains of the Aegean epoch, especially to skulls and
bones found in Crete in tombs of Period II. The result of this,
however, has not so far established more than the fact that
the Aegean races, as a whole, belonged to the dark, long-headed

Homo Medilerraneus, whose probable origin lay in mid-eastern
Africa — a fact only valuable in the present connexion in so far
as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source for Aegean civilization.
Not enough evidence has been collected to affect the question
of racial change during the Aegean period. From the skull-
forms studied, it would appear, as we should expect, that the
Aegean race was by no means pure even in the earlier Minoan
periods. It only remains to be added that there is some ground
for supposing that the language spoken in Crete before the later
Doric was non-Hellenic, but Indo-European. This inference
rests on three inscriptions in Greek characters but non-Greek
language found in E. Crete. The language has some apparent
affinities with Phrygian. The inscriptions are post-Aegean by
many centuries, but they occur in the part of the island known
to Homer as that inhabited by the Eteo-Cretans, or aborigines.
Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets.

C. History of Aegean Civilization. — History of an inferential
and summary sort only can be derived from monuments in the
absence of written records. The latter do, indeed, exist in the
case of the Cretan civilization and in great numbers; but they
are undeciphered and likely to remain so, except in the im-
probable event of the discovery of a long bi-lingual text, partly
couched in some familiar script and language. Even in that
event, the information which would be derived from the Cnossian
tablets would probably make but a small addition to history,
since in very large part they are evidently mere inventories of
tribute and stores. The engraved gems probably record divine
or human names. (See CRETE.)

(i) Chronology. — The earliest chronological datum that we
possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain Cretan
hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. i and others
discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred by him
to the 1st Dynasty. He goes so far as to pronounce the latter
to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms being unlike
anything Nilotic. If that be so, the period at which stone im-
plements were beginning to be superseded by bronze in Crete
must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will be remembered that
below all Evans's " Minoan " strata lies the immensely thick
Neolithic deposit. To date the beginning of this earliest record
of human production is impossible at present. The Neolithic
stratum varies very much in depth, ranging from nearly 20 ft.
to 3 ft., but is deepest on the highest part of the hillock. Its
variations may be due equally to natural denudation of a stratum
once of uniform depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound
by later builders. Even were certainty as to these alternatives
attained, we could only guess at the average rate of accumula-
tion, which experience shows to proceed very differently on
different sites and under different social and climatic conditions.
In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems to have proceeded
at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft. per thousand years. Reckoning by
that standard we might push the earliest Neolithic remains back
behind 10,000 B.C.; but the calculation would be worthy of little
credence.

Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus,
and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic
Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism
of remains belonging to the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2500 B.C. accord-
ing to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) with
products of Minoan Period II. 2. Characteristic Cretan pottery
of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in conjunction
with Xllth Dynasty remains, and various Cretan products of the
period show striking coincidences with Xllth Dynasty styles,
especially in their adoption of spiraliform ornament. The spiral,
however, it must be confessed, occurs so often in natural objects
(e.g. horns, climbing plants, shavings of wood or metal) that too
much stress must not be laid on the mutual parentage of spirali-
form ornament in different civilizations. A diorite statuette,
referable by its style and inscription to Dynasty XIII., was dis-
covered in deposit of Period II. 3 in the Central Court, and a
cartouche of the "Shepherd King," Khyan, was also found at
Cnossus. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C. This brings us
to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan Periods

250

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

III. i, 2, with Dynasty XVIII. (c. 1600-140x5 B.C.). This co-
incidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but previously,
in connexion with discoveries of scarabs and other Egyptian
objects made at Mycenae, lalysus, Vaphio, &c. In Egypt itself
Kefti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves
similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on
Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., are depicted under this
and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes).
Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains
of Dynasty XVIII., especially in the town of Amenophis IV.
Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna; while in the Aegean area itself
we have abundant evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence
beginning with this same Dynasty. To this wave were owed in
all probability the Nilotic scenes depicted on the Mycenae
daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and Cnossus, on pottery of
Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, &c. ; and also many forms
and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan coffins, and the faience industry
of Cnossus. These serve to date, beyond all reasonable question,
Periods III. 1-2 in Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle,
the Vaphio tomb, &c., to the i6th and isth centuries B.C., and
Period III. 3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of
the sixth stratum at Hissariik, the lalysus burials, the upper
stratum at Phylakope, &c., to the century immediately suc-
ceeding.

The terminus ad quern is less certain — iron does not begin to
be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and
then not exclusively. If we fix its introduction to about 1000
B.C. and make it coincident with the incursion of northern tribes,
remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, we
must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp out
Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area.
But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated the
" Geometric '' Age, with which, for convenience at any rate, we
may close the history of Aegean civilization proper.

(2) Annals. — From these and other data the outlines of primi-
tive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus. A people,
agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the Mediterranean
race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote
Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security
was combined with great natural fertility, remained in a savage
and unproductive condition until far into the 4th millennium
B.C. In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain
civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with
Dynasties XI. and XII. (2500 B.C. ?) the scattered communities
of the centre of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical
state, whose capital was at Cnossus. There the king, probably
also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone
palace, and received the tribute of feudatories, of whom, prob-
ably, the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messara plain,
was chief. The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with
Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g.
to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and to
Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian obsidian
knives. A system of pictographic writing came into use early
in this Palace period, but only a few documents, made of durable
material, have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous
character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great
strides, and from ceramic forms we may legitimately infer also
a high skill in metallurgy. The absence of fortifications both
at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was in-
ternally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in
very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of
the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime
commerce. Gournia and Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends:
Zakro must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the
starting-point for the African coast. The acme of this dominion
was reached about the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., and there-
after there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline.
Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly,
it appears, on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g.
Tiryns and Hissariik, other communities of the early race began
to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the

more advanced culture of Crete, in proportion to their nearness
of vicinity. Early Hissariik shows less Cretan influence and
more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early Melos. The inner Greek
mainland remained still in a backward state. Five hundred
years, later — about 1600 B.C. — we observe that certain striking
changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become
astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic
developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of
one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans
have stayed their previous decadence, and are once more pos-
sessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a
more convenient and expressive written character by stages of
which one is best represented by the tablets of Hagia Triada.
The art of all the area gives evidence of one spirit and common
models ; in religious representations it shows the same anthropo-
morphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects
produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean
intercourse has widened and become more busy. Commerce
with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and
Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun
to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central and
western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.
There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one
Aegean centre, and that all the area had come under its political,
social and artistic influence.

How was this brought about, and what was the imperial
centre? Some change seems to have come from the north;
and there are those who go so far as to say that the centre
henceforward was the Argolid, and especially " golden " Mycenae,
whose lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification
of Aegean art on all other Aegean lands. Others again cite the
old-established power and productivity of Crete; the immense
advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and geo-
graphical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean
civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the
gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the
Aegean. They point to the fact that, even in the new period, the
palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still remained
with Crete. There alone we have proof that the art of writing
was commonly practised, and there tribute- tallies suggest an
imperial organization; there the arts of painting and sculpture
in stone were most highly developed ; there the royal residences,
which had never been violently destroyed, though remodelled,
continued unfortified; whereas on the Greek mainland they
required strong protective works. The golden treasure of the
Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is not more splendid than
would have been found at Cnossus had royal burials been spared
by plunderers, or been happened upon intact by modern ex-
plorers. It is not impossible to combine these views, and place
the seat of power still in Crete, but ascribe the Renascence there
to an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil
fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its
essential character.

If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived. The security
of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 B.C.,
the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and Cretan art
suffered an irreparable blow. As the comparatively lifeless
character which it possesses in the succeeding period (III. 3)
is coincident with a similar decadence all over the Aegean area,
we can hardly escape from the conclusion that it was due to the
invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland
and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained
politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no
culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which
they found. Who these were we cannot say; but the prob-
ability is that they too came from the north, and were pre-
cursors of the later " Hellenes." Under their rule peace was
re-established, and art production became again abundant
among the subject population, though of inferior quality. The
Cnossian palace was re-occupied in its northern part by chieftains
who have left numerous rich graves; and general commercial
intercourse must have been resumed, for the uniformity of the

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

RELIGION

PLATE III.

FIG. i.— LION-GUARDED GODDESS AND FIG. 2.— MALE DIVINITY BE- FIG. 3.— GOLD SIGNET FROM ACROPOLIS

SHRINE, ON A CLAY SEALING FROM TVVEEN LIONS, ON A LENTOID TREASURE, MYCENAE, SHOWING THE GOD

CNOSSUS. GEM FROM KYDONIA, CRETE. DESS BENEATH A SACRED TREE, WITH
B.S./l. vii. 29, Fig. o. J.H.S. ai. 163, Fig. «. ADORANTS AND SACRED EMBLEMS.

J.H.S. xxi. 108, Fig. 4.

FIG. 5.— CLAY SEALINGS FROM ZAKRO, WITH MINOTAUR TYPES.

B.S.A. vii. 133, Fig. 45.

FIG. 4— BIRDS ON A TRIAD OF
PILLARS, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. viii. 29, Fig. 14.

FIG. 6— DUAL PILLAR WORSHIP, ON A GOLD SIGNET
RING, CNOSSUS.

J.H.S. xxi. 170, Fig. 48.

FIG. 7.— FAIENCE FIGURE OF THE GODDESS, WITH

SERPENT ATTRIBUTES, CNOSSUS.
I. 250. B.S.A. ix. 75, Fig. 54.

FIG. 8— FACADE OF SMALL TEMPLES, COMPLETED
FROM A FRESCO PAINTING, CNOSSUS.

J.H.S. xxi. 193, Fig. 66.
By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.

PLATE IV.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION

TYPES AND COSTUMES, ETC.

FIG. i.— TESSERAE OF PORCELAIN MOSAIC IN FORM OF HOUSES
AND TOWERS, CNOSSUS. B.s.A. via. is, Pi*. 8.

FIG, 2.— CUP-BEARER, CNOSSUS

Pholc by Dr A. J. Evans

FIGS. 3, 5.— IVORY HEADS
FROM SPATA (ATTICA).
Reichcl, Homerische Waflen, 1901, p. 103.
By permission of A. Holder, Vienna.

FIG. 4.— FRESCO PAINTING
OF GIRL, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. vii. 57, Fig. 17.

FIG. 5.— See FIG. 3.

FIG. 6.— FAIENCE FIGURE
OF FEMALE VOTARY
OF SNAKE-GODDESS
CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. a. 77, Fig. 56.

FIG. 7— KEFTIU (CRETAN)
BEARING AEGEAN
VASE AS TRIBUTE TO
PHARAOH.

From H. R. Hall, Oldest Civilization
in Greece (1901).

By permission of the Society for the
Promotion of Hellenic Studies.

AEGEAN SEA— AEGINA

251

decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become
more marked than ever.

About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe. The
palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt
or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean art,
as a living thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean
isles including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus,
and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian coasts, there is some
reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean
art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such
artistic faculty as survived elsewhere issued in the lifeless
geometric style which is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but
wholly unworthy of it. Cremation took the place of burial of
the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for
a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another in-
cursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors,
but possessed of superior iron weapons — those tribes which later
Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians. They crushed
a civilization already hard hit; and it took two or three centuries
for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, and probably
preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean
racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to
have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements,
known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration and the Aeolic
and Dorian " colonizations "; and when once more we see the
Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, though it has
not lost all memory of its earlier culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Much of the evidence is contained in archaeo-
logical periodicals, especially Annual of Ike British School at Athens
(1900- ); Monumenti Antichi and Rendiconti d. R. Ac. d. Lincei
(1901- ); Ephemeris Archaiologike (1885- ); Journal of
Hellenic Studies, Alhenische Mittheilungen, Bulletin de correspondance
hellenique, American Journal of Archaeology, &c. (all since about
1885). SPECIAL WORKS: H. Schliemann's books (seeScnuEMANN),
summarized by C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (1891);
Chr. Tsountas, Mvicfjuai (1893); Chr. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt,
The Mycenaean Age (1897); G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, Histoire de
/'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi. (1895); W. DSrpfeld, Troja (1893) and
Troja und Ilios (1904) ; A. Furtwangler and G. Loschke, Mykenische
Vasen (1886); A. S. Murray, Excavations in Cyprus (1900); W.
Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (1901 foil.); H. R. Hall, The Oldest
Civilization of Greece (1901); A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and
Pillar Cult " in Journ. Hell. Studies (1901) and " Prehistoric Tombs
of Knossos " in Archaeologia (1905); F. Noack, Homerische Palaste
(1903); Excavations at Phylakopi, by members of the British
School at Athens (1904) ; Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), Excavations
at Gournia (1907); D. G. Hogarth, "Aegean Religion" in
Hastings' Diet, of Religions (1906). For a recent view of the place
of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic culture see Die
Hellenische Kultur by F. Baumgarten, &c. (1905). Various
summaries, controversial articles, &c., formerly quoted, are now
superseded by recent discoveries. See also CRETE, MYCENAE,
TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE, &c. (D. G. H.)

AEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the
archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the
east, bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the
Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea.
The name Archipelago (q.v.) was formerly applied specifically to
this sea. The origin of the name Aegean is uncertain. Various
derivations are given by the ancient grammarians — one from
the town of Aegae; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons
who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father
of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in it.
The following are the chief islands: — Thasos, in the extreme
north, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting the
Gulf of Saros; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the
peninsula of Gallipoli (Thracian Chersonese); Euboea, the largest
of all, lying close along the east coast of Greece; the Northern
Sporades, including Sciathos, Scopelos and Halonesos, running
out from the southern extremity of the Thessalian coast, and
Scyros, with its satellites, north-east of Euboea; Lesbos and
Chios; Samos and Nikaria; Cos, with Calymnos to the north;
all off Asia Minor, with the many other islands of the Sporades;
and, finally, the great group of the Cyclades, of which the largest
are Andros and Tenos, Naxos and Pares. Many of the Aegean
islands, or chains of islands, are actually prolongations of pro-
montories of the mainland. Two main chains extend right

across the sea — the one through Scyros and Psara (between which
shallow banks intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped
promontory east of it; and the other running from the south-
eastern promontory of Euboea and continuing the axis of that
island, in a southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos,
Nikaria and Samos. A third curve, from the south-easternmost
promontory of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Crete, Carpathos
and Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean
from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan Sea, in
which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, north of the
line, between it and the Aegean proper. The Aegean itself is
naturally divided by the island-chains and the ridges from which
they rise into a series of basins or troughs, the deepest of which
is that in the north, extending from the coast of Thessaly to
the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated southward by the Northern
Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the peninsula of Gallipoli. The
greater part of this trough is over 600 fathoms deep. The pro-
fusion of islands and their usually bold elevation give beauty
and picturesqueness to the sea, but its navigation is difficult
and dangerous, notwithstanding the large number of safe and
commodious gulfs and bays. Many of the islands are of volcanic
formation; and a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan
Sea on the north, including Milo and Kimolos, Santorin (Thera)
and Therasia, and extends to Nisyros. Others, such as Paros,
are mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some.
The larger islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys
and plains. The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic,
figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and silk. The people are em-
ployed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for bream,
mullet and other fish. The men are hardy, well built and hand-
some; and the women are noted for their beauty, the ancient
Greek type being well preserved. The Cyclades and Northern
Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the Greek shore,
belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey.

AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of
Cecrops, was king of Athens and the father of Theseus. He was
deposed by his nephews, but Theseus defeated them and re-
instated his father. When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver
Athens from the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus
that, if he were successful, he would change the black sail carried
by his ship for a white one. But, on his return, he forgot to
hoist the white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had
lost his life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was
keeping watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the
Aegean. The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a
shrine, and one of the Attic demes was named after him.

Plutarch, Theseus; Pausanias i. 22; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus
Ixiv. 207.

AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA), an island of Greece in the Saronic
Gulf, 20 m. from the Peiraeus. Tradition derives the name from
Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the
island. In shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from N.W. to
S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. m. The
western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well
cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton,
vines, almonds and figs. The rest of the island is rugged and
mountainous. The southern end rises in the conical Mount Oros,
and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow
fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the
climate is the most healthy in Greece. The island forms part
of the modern nomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms
an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance.
The chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the
island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants.
Capo dTstria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square,
erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, which was
subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The
museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the
collection was transferred to Athens in 1834.

Antiquities. — The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred
in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner
of the island. Excavations were made on its site in 1811 by

252

AEGINA

Baron Haller von Hallerstein and the English architect C. R.
Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of sculpture
from the pediments, which was bought in 1812 by the crown
prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the Glypto-
thek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. Thor-
valdsen. Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient
parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and
the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the
figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich
was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each
pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a 'fallen
warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel-
ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the
composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In 1901
Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation of
the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a
fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich,
have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain
in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. Accord-
ing to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards
the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions,
into a series of groups of two or three figures each. A figure of
Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set
farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of
this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants
over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose
opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other
figures also — the bowmen especially — face towards the angles,
and so give more variety to the composition. The western
pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the
earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the
eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to
episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third
pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but
never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures
see GREEK ART. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable
for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the
cella into the opisthodomus. This opisthodomus was completely
fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it
to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine).

It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was
dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent
excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine
of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with
Britomartis and Dictynna.

The excavations have laid bare several other buildings, includ-
ing an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains
of an earlier temple. The present temple probably dates from
the time of the Persian wars. In the town of Aegina itself are
the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one
column of this still remains stahding, and its foundations are
fairly preserved.

AUTHORITIES. — Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pi. ii.-vii.;
C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina, &c.
(London, 1860); Ch. Gamier, Le Temple de Jupiter Panhellenien a
Egine (Paris, 1884) ; Ad. Furtwangler and others, Aegina, Heiligtum
der Aphaia (Munich, 1906), where earlier authorities are collected
and discussed. , (E. GR.)

History. — (i) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus (v. 83),
was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally
subject. The discovery in the island of a number of gold orna-
ments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests
the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina
for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and
Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies,
vol. xiii. p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized
before the pth century B.C. One of the earliest facts known to
us in its history is its membership in the League of Calauria,
which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian)
Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was
probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean,
for the suppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the

Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the
Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime
importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is
usually stated, on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.)
of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement
is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that
Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money.
Thus it was the Aeginetans who, within thirty or forty years of
the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced
to the western world a system of such incalculable value to
trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and
measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek
world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance
of the island. It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian
league; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos,
a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of
King Amphicrates (Herod, iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier
half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one
of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Nau-
cratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of European Greece that has
a share in this factory (Herod, ii. 178). At the beginning of the
5th century it seems to have been an entrep6t of the Pontic
grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod, vii.
147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th
centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina
founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers
(viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this
statement.

The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost
exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state
of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by
Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical
problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the
hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the
goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetans had carried
off from Epidaurus, their parent state. The Epidaurians had
been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian
deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian
olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal
of the Aeginetans to continue these offerings, the Athenians
endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miracu-
lously frustrated — according to the Aeginetan version, the
statues fell upon their knees, — and only a single survivor returned
to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades'
widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is
assigned by Herodotus for this " old feud "; recent writers, e.g.
J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon
and Peisistratus, c. 570 B.C. It may be questioned, however,
whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis
of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetio-
logical traditions, explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the
kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use
of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the
change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the
Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostili-
ties between the two states in the early years of the 5th century
B.C. is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by
Athens about 507 B.C., appealed to Aegina for assistance. The
Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images
of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subse-
quently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged
the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make
reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they
should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and con-
tent themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus,
when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues
for the restoration of Hippias. In 491 B.C. Aegina was one of
the states which gave the symbols of submission (" earth and
water ") to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to
punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I. (<?.t'.), one of the
Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who
were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful ;

AEGINA

253

WK

NORTH TERRACE WALL

I

SOUTH TERR ACE WALL

Reproduced by permission, from Furtwiinglt
Aegina , das Heiligtum der Aphaia

LOWER TERRACE WALL

THE SANCTUARY OF APHAEA
Yards

Metres
10

V.E.R.Fiechter.del.

but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a
second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides,
seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens
as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of
the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the
Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a
festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot
with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the
island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city,
and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy
vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian
force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engage-
ment followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subse-
quently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the
Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of
Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the
interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the
invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. (cf. Herod, vi. 49
with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the follow-
ing are the principal: — (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies
that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 B.C.,
nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period.

Emery Walker, so.

Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after 507
B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 B.C.
(ii.) It is only for two years (490 and 491) out of the twenty-five
that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no
incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon and
Salamis, seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the
war is described as the most important one then being waged
in Greece (Herod, vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens
would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the lonians in 498
B.C. if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an
incidental indication of time, which points to the period after
Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by
Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years
that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to
Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod, v. 89). As the
final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty
years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 B.C. as
the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of
hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the
building of the 200 triremes " for the war against Aegina " on
the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of
Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod, vii. 144; Ath. Pol. 22. 7). It is

254

AEGINETA— AEGISTHUS

probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracin,
back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebe
and Aegina (c. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromu
before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made b
Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came ti
nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomati
form of " sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the out
break of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostage
some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lastec
from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this wa
is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to recorc
after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able
to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to
the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians
were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was neces
sary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the
naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers
on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480
(Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337).

In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans
played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus.
The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would
naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina
rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was
awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to
have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as oi
the Athenian (Herod, viii. 91). There are other indications, too,
of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of
defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to
credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by
Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. GREEK
HISTORY, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the
philo-laconian policy of Cimon (q.ii.) secured Aegina, as a member
of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian
foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of
Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Pelopon-
nesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth
and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens
after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456
B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of
the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to restore
to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead
letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.)
Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy
in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis,
on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new
home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.1 A force
landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the
sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander
restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the
island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for opera-
tions against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness,
however, was at an end. The part which it plays hence-
forward is insignificant.

It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to
the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the
power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years
after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as
relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of
Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been
principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from
the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be explained by
her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was
forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won at
Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of
her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a
state — we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history
of the modern world— finds an explanation in the economic
conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon
a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept
Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the
. ' Pericles called Aegina the "eye-sore" (M,^) of the Peiraeus.

number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the
number must have been out of all proportion to that of the
free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does
but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.

The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple.
So long as the island retained its independence the government
was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy
and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while
it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the
same time, that it could count upon little support.J

(2) Modern. — Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the
successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of
Pergamum and Rome. In 1537 the island, then a prosperous
Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barba-
rossa (Khair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian strongholds in
the Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718) to
the Turks. In 1826-1828 the town became for a time the capital
of Greece and the centre of a large commercial population (about
10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Herodotus loc. cit.; Thucydides i. 105, 108,
ii. 27, iv. 56, 57. For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the
relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, Aristoteles und Athen
ii. 280-288, is indispensable. See also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi.'
11. 102-120. (E. M. W.)

AEGINETA, PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of
Aegina, whence he derived his name. According to Le Clerc's
calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era;
but Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus) places him with more prob-
ability in the 7th. The title of his most important work, as
given by Suidas, is 'ETTITO^S 'larpidys Bi/3Xta 'Eirra (Synopsis
of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating
of operative surgery, is of special interest for surgical history.
The whole work in the original Greek was published at
Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in 1538.
Several Latin translations have been published, and an
excellent English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams
(1844-1848).

AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of Zeus,

Fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels and

bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre. Originally symbolical

of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from iuaau, signifying

rapid, violent motion. When the god shakes it, Mount Ida is

wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with

tear. He sometimes lends it to Athene and (rarely) to Apollo.

[n the later story (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said

to have used the skin of the goat Amaltheia (aiyis = goat-skin) ,

which suckled him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to

do battle against the giants. Another legend represents the aegis

as a fire-breathing monster like the Chimaera, which was slain

>y Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus

Siculus iii. 70). It appears to have been really the goat's skin

used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would

generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially

envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and

>ehind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence,

>y transference, it would be employed to denote at times the

shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the

purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this

double meaning the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as

an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, sometimes

as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels

of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the centre. It is

often represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes

and warriors, and_on cameos and vases.

See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre (1857); L. Preller

Jriechische Mylhologie, i. (1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-

ncydopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and

saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites, and Smith's Dictionary of Greek

nd Roman Antiquities (yd ed., 1890).

AEGISTHUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his
wn daughter Pelopia. Having been exposed by his mother to
onceal her shame, he was found by shepherds and suckled by a
oat — whence his name. His uncle Atreus, who had married

AEGOSPOTAMI— .ELFRIC

255

Pelopia, took him to Mycenae, and brought him up as his own
son. When he grew up Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly
with his father over Mycenae, until they weie deposed by
Agamemnon on his return from exile. After the departure of
Agamemnon to the Trojan war, Aegisthus seduced his wife
Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra). and with her
assistance slew him on his return. Eight years later his murder
was avenged by his son Orestes.

Homer, Od. iii. 263, iv. 517; Hyginus, Fab. 87.

AEGOSPOTAMI (i.e. " Goat Streams "), a small creek issuing
into the Hellespont, N.E. of-Sestos, the scene of the decisive
battle in 405 B.C. by which Lysander destroyed the last Athenian
armament in the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). The township of
that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and
4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant.

jELFRIC, called the " Grammarian " (c. 955-1020?), English
abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the
Benedictine monastery at Winchester under ^Ethelwold, who
was bishop there from 963 to 984. jEthelwold had carried on
the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey of
Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts.
He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching.
jElfric no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Win-
chester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cernel (Cerne Abbas,
Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop jElfheah
(Alphege), ^Ethelwold's successor, at the request of the chief
benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman ^Ethelmaer, to teach the
Benedictine monks there. He was then in priest's orders.
/Ethelmaer and his father ^Ethelweard were both enlightened
patrons of learning, and became iElfric's faithful friends. It
was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, it appears, of ^Ethel-
weard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies
(ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the ^Elfric Society), com-
piled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, arch-
bishop of Canterbury (990-994). The Latin preface to the first
series enumerates some of ^Elfric's authorities, the chief of whom
was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means
exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the
first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations
Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as ex-
pounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature,
1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to
modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling
Homilies. The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain
and direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year;
the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history.
/Elfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed.
Thorpe, ii. 466) , and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons
and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii. 262 seq.) was
appealed to by the Reformation writers as a proof that the early
English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transub-
stantiation.1 His Latin Grammar and Glossary"1 were written
for his pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of
homilies, the Lives of the Saints, dates from 996 to 997. Some
of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of
rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed.
W. W. Skeat, 1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society)
the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as
verse by Professor Skeat. By the wish of ^Ethelweard he also
began a paraphrase 3 of parts of the Old Testament, but under
protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable
for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained
at Cernel. It has been suggested that this part of his life was

_ * See A Testimonie of Antiquitie, shewing the auncient fayth in the
Church of England touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of
the Lord here publikely preached, printed by John Day (1567). It
was quoted in John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610).

1 Ed. J. Zupitza in Sammlung englischer Denkmaler (vol. i., Berlin,
1880).

3 Edited by Edward Thwaites as Heptateuchus (Oxford, 1698) ;
modern edition in Grein's Bibliothek der A . S. Prosa (vol. i. Cassel and
Gottingen, 1872). See also B. Assmann, Abl JElfric's . . . Esther
(Halle, 1885), and Abt Mfric's Judith (in Anglia, vol. x.).

chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of
Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 998 his Canons * as a pastoral
letter for Wulfsige, the bishop of Sherborne, the diocese in which
the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued resi-
dence there. He became in 1005 the first abbot of Eynsham
or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of ./Ethelmaer's.
After his elevation he wrote an abridgment for his monks of
jEthelwold's De consuetudine monachorum,6 adapted to their
rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter to Wulfgeat of
Ylmandun6; an introduction to the study of the Old and New
Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623);
a Latin life of his master .flJthelwold7 ; a pastoral letter for
Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin
and English; and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus.*
The Colloquium* a Latin dialogue designed to serve his
scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his
life at Cernel. It is safe to assume that the original draft of
this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, ^Elfric Bata, was by
.iElfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like.
The last mention of /Elfric Abbot, probably the grammarian,
is in a will dating from about 1020.

There have been three suppositions about ^Elfric. (i) He was
identified with ./Elfric (995-1005), archbishop of Canterbury.
This view was upheld by John Bale (///. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum
. . . 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by
Humphrey Wanley (Cataiogus librorum septentrionalium, &c.,
Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of George Hickes's Antiquae
literaturae septentrionalis) ; by Elizabeth Elstob, The English-
Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St Gregory (1709; new edition,
1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, jElfrico, Dorobernensi,
archiepiscopo, Commentarius (ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in
which the conclusions of earlier writers on Alfric are reviewed.
Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally
archbishop of Canterbury. (2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concilia
. . . (1639, vol. i. p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum
episcopum, and suggested ^Elfric Putta or Putto, archbishop of
York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the
name. The identity of ^Elfric the grammarian with JElfric
archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton,
in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation
reprinted in J. P. Migne's Palrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70,
Paris, 1853). (3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum
anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406)
suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of
Crediton. The main facts of his career were finally elucidated
by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W.
Niedner's Zeitschrift fur hislorische Theologie (vols. for 1855 and
1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent
writings on the subject.

Sketches of /Elfric's career are in B. Ten Brink's Early English
Literature (to Wiclif) (trans. H. M. Kennedy, New York, 1883, pp.
105-1 12), and by J. S. Westlake in The Cambridge History of English
Literature (vol. i., 1907, pp. 116-129). An excellent bibliography
and account of the critical apparatus is given in Dr R. Wulker's
Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsdchsischen Litteratur (Leipzig,
1885, pp. 452-480). See also the account by Professor Skeat in Pt. iv.
pp. 8-6 1 of his edition of the Lives of the Saints, already cited, which
gives a full account of the MSS., and a discussion of jElfric's sources,
with further bibliographical references; and^Elfric, a New Study of
his Life and Writings, by Miss C. L. White (Boston, New York and
London, 1898) in the " Yale Studies in English." Alcuini Interro-
gationes Sigewulfi Presbyteri in Genesin (ed. G. E. McLean, Halle,
1883) is attributed to yElfric by its editor. There are other isolated
sermons and treatises by ^Elfric, printed in vol. iii. of Grein's Bibl.
v. A.S. Prosa.

4 Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England (1840), with the later pastoral for Wulfstan.

5 See E. Breck, A Fragment of JElfric; translation of Mlhelwold's
De Consuetudine Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipzig,
1887).

6 llmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire.

7 Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron. Monast. de Abingdon
(vol. ii. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858).

8 See Oswald Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft
(vol. iii., 1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 el seq.) in the Rolls Series.

9 See an article by J. Zupitza in theZeitschrij 'tfiir deutsches Altertum
(vol. xix., new series, 1887).

256

AELIA CAPITOLINA— AEMILIA VIA

AELIA CAPITOLINA, the city built by the emperor Hadrian,
A.D. 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jeru-
salem (q.v.), which was in ruins when he visited his Syrian
dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family name,
and Capitolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a
temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple.

AELIAN (AELIANUS TACTICUS), Greek military writer of
the 2nd century A.D., resident at Rome. He is sometimes
confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to
below. Aelian's military treatise, Tcum/ci) Gecopia, is dedicated
to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and
the date A.D. 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of
Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practised by the
Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims
to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was
a. lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief
value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding
works on the, art of war, and in the fulness of his technical
details in matters of drill. Critics of the i8th century — Guichard
Folard and the prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking
Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate
successors, the Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated
the text for their own use, Aelian exercised a great influence.
The emperor Leo VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in
his own work on the military art. The Arabic version of Aelian
was made about 1350. In spite of its academic nature, the
copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the
highest value to the army organizers of the i6th century, who
were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the
semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian
phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid
masses of pikemen and the " squadrons " of cavalry of the
Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the
i6th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill
and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon,
Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by every
soldier of the i6th and lyth centuries who wished to be master
of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the
real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the TO/CTIKI)
Gewpio, is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not
generally accepted.

The first edition of the Greek text is that of Robortelli (Venice,
1552); the Elzevir text (Leiden, 1613) has notes. The text in
W. Rustow and H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller (1855) is
accompanied by a translation, notes and reproductions of the original
illustrations. A Latin translation by Theodore Gaza of Thessalonica
was included in the famous collection Veteres de re militari scriptores
(Rome and Venice, 1487, Cologne, 1528, &c.). The French transla-
tion of Machault, included in his Milices des Grecs et Remains (Paris,
1615) and entitled De la Sergenterie des Grecs, a German translation
from Theodore Gaza (Cologne, 1524), and the English version of Jo.
B(ingham), which includes a drill manual of the English troops in
the Dutch service, Tacticks of Aelian (London, 1616), are of import-
ance in the military literature of the period. A later French transi-
tion by Bouchard de Bussy, La Mihce des Grecs ou Tactique d'ltlien
(Paris, 1737 and 1757); Baumgartner's German translation in his
incomplete Sammlune oiler Knegsschriftsteller der Griechen (Mann-
heim and Frankenthal, 1779), reproduced in 1786 as Von Schlachtord-
nungen, and Viscount Dillon's English version (London, 1814) may
also be mentioned. See also R. Forster, Studien zu den griechischen
Taktikern (Hermes, xii., 1877, pp. 444-449); F. Wustenfeld, Das
Heerwesen der Muhammedaner und die arabische Uebersetzung
der Taktik des Aelianus (Gottingen, 1880); M. Jahns, Gesck. der
Kriegswissenschaften, i. 95-97 (Munich, 1889); Rustow and Kochly,
Gesch. des griechischen Kriegswesens (1852); A. de Lort-Serignah,
La Phalange (1880); P. Serre, Etudes sur I'histoire militaireet mari-
time des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. Miiller, in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894).

AELIAN (CLAUDIUS AELIANUS), Roman author and teacher
of, rhetoric, born at Praeneste, flourished under Septimius
Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. 222). He
spoke Greek so perfectly that he was called " honey-tongued "
(fie\iy\<j}<T(ros); although a Roman he preferred Greek authors,
and wrote in Greek himself. His chief works are: On the Nature
of Animals, curious and interesting stories of animal life, fre-
quently used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784;
Jacobs, 1832); Various History — for the most part preserved

only in an abridged form — consisting mainly of anecdotes of
men and customs (ed. Lunemann, 1811). Both works are valu-
able for the numerous excerpts from older writers. Considerable
fragments of two other works On Providence and Divine Mani-
festations are preserved in Suidas; twenty Peasants' Letters,
after the manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed
to him.

Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864-
1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming,
1576, and Stanley, 1665 ; of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895.

.ffiLRED, AILRED, ETHELRED . (1109-1166), English theo-
logian, historical writer and abbot of Rievaulx, was born at
Hexham about the year 1 109. In his youth he was at the court
of Scotland as an attendant of Henry, son of David I. He was
in high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect
of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in
Yorkshire, which was founded in 1131 by Walter Espec. Here
^Elred remained for some time as master of the novices, but
between the years 1142 and 1146 was elected abbot of Revesby
in Lincolnshire and migrated thither. In 1146 he became abbot
of Rievaulx. He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was
credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his
reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased.
In 1164 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway. He
found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic
and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by the
family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant. He induced
a Galwegian chief to take the habit of religion, and restored
the peace of the country. Two years later he died of a decline,
at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. In the year
1191 he was canonized. His writings are voluminous and have
never been completely published. Amongst them are homilies
" on kthe burden of Babylon in Isaiah "; three books " on
spiritual friendship "; a life of Edward the Confessor; an
account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the tract called
Relatio de Standardo. This last is an account of the Battle of
the Standard (1138), better known than the similar account by
Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, and in places obscured
by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric.

See the Vita Alredi in John of Tynemouth's Nova Legenda Anglie
(ed. C. Horstmann, 1901, vol. i. p. 41), whence it was taken by
Capgrave. From Cajpgrave the work passed into the Bollandist
Acta Sanctorum (Jan. ii. p. 30). This life is anonymous, but of an
early date. The most complete printed collection of /Elred's works
is in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. cxcv. ; but this does not include
the Miracula Hagulstaldensis Ecclesiae which are printed in I. Raine's
Priory of Hexham, vol. i.(Surtees Society, 1864). A complete list of
works attributed to jdred is given in T. Tanner's Bibliotheca Britan-
nico-Hibernica ( 1 748) , pp.'247-2Jj.8. The Relatio de Standardo has been
critically edited by R. Hewlett in Chronicles, &c., of Stephen, Henry
II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886). (H. W. C. D.)

AEMILIA VIA, or AEMILIAN WAY. (i) A highroad of Italy,
constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, from
whom it takes its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, a
distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain of the
Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the Apennines
on the left. The 7gth milestone from Ariminum found in the
bed of the Rhenus at Bononia records the restoration of the
road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 2 B.C.
(Notiz. Scav., 1902, 539). The bridge by which it crossed the
Sillaro was restored by Trajan in A.D. 100 (Notizie degli Scam,
1888, 621). The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and
some of the original bridges still exist. After Augustus, the road
gave its name to the district which formed the eighth region of
Italy (previously known as Gallia or Provincia Ariminum), at
first in popular usage (as in Martial), but in official language as
early as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see EMILIA). The
district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the Adriatic,
S. by the river Crustumium (mod. Conca), and W. by the Apen-
nines and the Ira (mod. Staffora) at Iria (mod. Voghera), and
corresponds approximately with the modern district.

(2) A road constructed in 109 B.C. by the censor M. Aemilius
Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and Luna to Vada Sabatia and
thence over the Apennines to Dertona (Tortona), where it joined

AEMILIUS— AENESIDEMUS

257

the Via Postumia from Genua to Cremona. We must, however
(as Mommsen points out in C.I.L. v. p. 885), suppose that the
portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to Genua at
least must have existed before the construction of the Via
Postumia in 148 B.C. Indeed Polybius (iii. 39. 8) tells us (and
this must refer to the time of the Gracchi if not earlier) that the
Romans had in his time built the coast road from the Rhone to
Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the coast road in Italy
itself should not have been constructed previously. It is, how-
ever, a very different thing to open a road for traffic, and so to
construct it that it takes its name from that construction in
perpetuity. (T. As.)

AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO EMILIO ) (d. 1529), Italian his-
torian, was born at Verona. He obtained such reputation in his
own country that he was invited to France in the reign of
Charles VIII., in order to write in Latin the history of the kings
of France, and was presented to a canonry in Notre Dame. He
enjoyed the patronage and support of Louis XII. He died at
Paris on the 5th of May 1529. His De Rebus gestis Francorum
was translated into French in 1581, and has also been translated
into Italian and German.

AENEAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and
Aphrodite, one of the most important figures in Greek and
Roman legendary history. In Homer, he is represented as the
chief bulwark of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite
of the gods, who frequently interpose to save him from danger
(Iliad, v. 311). The legend that he remained in the country
after the fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom (Iliad, xx.
308; Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be
of comparatively late origin. The story of his emigration is
post-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by Virgil
in the Aeneid. Carrying his aged father and household gods on
his back and leading his little son Ascahius by the hand, he makes
his way to the coast, his wife Creusa being lost during the con-
fusion of the flight. After a perilous voyage to Thrace, Delos,
Crete and Sicily (where his father dies), he is cast up by a storm,
sent by Juno, on the African coast. Refusing to remain with
Dido, queen of Carthage, who in despair puts an end to her life,
he sets sail from Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands
at the mouth of the Tiber. He is hospitably received by Latinus,
king of Latium, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and founds
a city called after her, Lavinium. Turnus, king of Rutuli, a
rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and Latinus, but is
defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river Numicius. The story
of the Aeneid ends with the death of Turnus. According to
Livy (i. i. 2), Aeneas, after reigning a few years over Latium,
is slain by the Rutuli; after the battle, his body cannot be found,
and he is supposed to have been carried up to heaven. He
receives divine honours, and is worshipped under the name of
Jupiter Indiges (Dionysius Halic. i. 64).

See J. A. Hild, La Legende d"£nee avant Vergile (1883) ; F. Cauer,
De Fabulis Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus (1884) and Die
Romische Aeneassage, von Naevius bis Vergilius (1886); G. Boissier,
"La Legende d'Enee " in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1883;
A. Forstemann, Zur Geschichte des Aeneasmythus (1894); articles
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (new ed., 1894); Reseller's
Lexicon der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
antiquiles; Preller's Griechische und romische Mythologie; and
especially Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (1867).

Romances. — The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of
Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle
ages. The Roman d' Eneas (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain
authorship (attributed by some to Benoit de Sainte-More), the
first French poem directly imitated from the Aeneid, is a fairly
:lose adaptation of the original. The trouvere, however, omits
he greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, and adorns his
arrative with gorgeous descriptions, with accounts of the mar-
vellous properties of beasts and stones, and of single combats
among the knights who figure in the story. He also elaborates
the episodes most attractive to his audience, notably those of
~)ido and Aeneas and Lavinia, the last of whom plays a far
Qore important part than in the Aeneid. Where possible, he
iibstitutes human for divine intervention, and ignores the idea

1.9

of the glorification of Rome and Augustus, which dominates
the Virgilian epic. On this work were founded the Eneide or
Eneit (between 1180 and 1190) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written
in Flemish and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian
dialect, and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490.

See Eneas, ed. J. Salverda de Grave (Halle, 1891); see also A.
Peij, Essai sur li romans d' Eneas (Paris, 1856); A. Duval in Hist.
litteraire de la France, xix. ; Veldeke's Eneide, ed. Ettmtiller (Leipzig,
1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); Eneydos, ed. F. J. Furni-
vall (1890). For Italian versions see E. G. Parodi in Studi di
filologia romanza (v. 1887).

AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest
Greek writers on the art of war. According to Aelianus Tacticus
and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises ("Yiroij.vrina.Ta.)
on the subject; the only one extant deals with the best methods
of defending a fortified city. An epitome of the whole was made
by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The work is
chiefly valuable as containing a large number of historical illus-
trations. Aeneas was considered by Casaubon to have been a
contemporary of Xenophon and identical with the Arcadian
general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon (Hellenica,
vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.).

Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), Gronovius' (1670) and Ernesti's
(1763) editions of Polybius; also separately, with notes, by J. C.
Orelli (Leipzig, 1818). Other texts are those of W. Riistow and
H. Kochly (Griechische Kriegsschriflsteller, vol. i. Leipzig, 1853) and
A. Hug, Prolegomena Critica ad Aeneae . , . editionem (Zurich
University, 1874). See also Count Beausobre, Commentaires sur
la defense des places a' Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. Hug, Aeneas
von Stymphalos (Zurich, 1877) ; C. C. Lange, De Aeneae commentario
poliorcetico (Berlin, 1879) ; M. H. Meyer, Observationes in Aeneam
Tacticum (Halle, 1835); Haase, in Jahns Jahrbuch, 1835, xiv. i;
Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschafien, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich,
1889); Ad. Bauer, in Zeitschrift fur allg. Geschichte, &c., 1886, i.;
T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E.
Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894).

AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in
Crete and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first
century B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as
the third sceptical school and revived to a great extent the
doctrine of Pyrrho and Timon. His chief work was the Pyr-
rhonian Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero. His philosophy
consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and
doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory and
a theory of morality. Of these the two former are important.
The reasons for doubt are given in the form of the ten " tropes ":

(1) different animals manifest different modes of perception;

(2) similar differences are seen among individual men; (3) even
for the same man, sense-given data are self-contradictory,
(4) vary from time to time with physical changes, and (5) accord-
ing to local relations; (6) and (7) objects are known only in-
directly through the medium of air, moisture, &c., and are in a
condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and
motion; (8) all perceptions are relative and interact one upon
another; (9) our impressions become less deep by repetition
and custom; and (10) all men are brought up with different
beliefs, under different laws and social conditions. Truth varies
infinitely under circumstances whose relative weight cannot be
accurately gauged. There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge,
for every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges
and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so that the
sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective validity. The
second part of his work consists in the attack upon the theory
of causality, in which he adduces almost entirely those considera-
tions which are the basis of modern scepticism. Cause has no
existence apart from the mind which perceives; its validity is
ideal, or, as Kant would have said, subjective. The relation
between cause and effect is unthinkable. If the two things
are different, they are either simultaneous or in succession. If
simultaneous, cause is effect and effect cause. If not, since
effect cannot precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there
must be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not
itself. By these and similar arguments he arrives at the funda-
mental principle of Scepticism, the radical and universal opposi-
tion of causes; iravrl \6yt? \6yos dm/carat. Having reached

AEOLIAN HARP— AEQUI

this conclusion, he was able to assimilate the physical theory
of Heraclitus, as is explained in the Hypotyposes of Sextus
Empiricus. For admitting that contraries co-exist for the
perceiving subject, he was able to assert the co-existence of
contrary qualities in the same object. Having thus disposed
of the lideas of truth and causality, he proceeds to undermine
the ethical criterion, and denies that any man can aim at Good,
Pleasure or Happiness as an absolute, concrete ideal. All
actions are product of pleasure and pain, good and evil. The
end of ethical endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour
is vain and illogical. The main tendency of this destructive
scepticism is essentially the same from its first crystallization
by Aenesidemus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day
(see SCEPTICISM). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus
see AGRIPPA, SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. See also CARNEADES and
ARCESILAUS. Of the Hvpp&vfioi \oyoi nothing remains; we
have, however, an analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius.

See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; E. Saisset, jEnesideme,
Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preller, §§ 364-370.

AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. harpe eolienne; Ger. Aolsharje,
Windharfe; Ital. arpa d" Eolo), a stringed musical instrument,
whose name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind. The
aeolian harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft. long, 5 in.
wide, and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine,
and having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins.
A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but
tuned in exact unison, and left rather slack, are attached to
the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard wood,
one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally pro-
vided with two rose sound-holes. To ensure a proper passage
for the wind, another pine board is placed over the strings,
resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or on a con-
tinuation of the ends raised from i to 3 in. above the strings.
Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, who im-
proved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, which was
called by them Windfang and Windflugel; the upper board was
prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape of a funnel, in
order to direct the current of air on to the strings. The aeolian
harp is placed across a window so that the wind blows obliquely
across the strings, causing them to vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e.
(the fundamental note not being heard) the half or octave, the
third or interval of the twelfth, the second octave, and the
third above it, in fact the upper partials of the strings in regular
succession. With the increased pressure of the wind, the dis-
sonances of the nth and i3th overtones are heard in shrill dis-
cords, only to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force of
the wind abates. The principle of the natural vibration of
strings by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient
times; King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to
hang his kinnor (kithard) over his bed at night, when it sounded
in the midnight breeze. The same is related of St Dunstan of
Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with sorcery. The
Chinese at the present day fly kites of various sizes, having
strings stretched across apertures in the paper, which produces
the effect of an aerial chorus.

See Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, where the aeolian
harp is first described (1602-1608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop
of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and
Musical Strings, pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket
Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon,
article " Aeolsharfe." An illustration is given in Rees' Encyclo-
pedia, plates, vol. ii. Misc. pi. xxv. (K. S.)

AEOLIS (AEOLIA), an ancient district of Asia Minor, colonized
at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks. The name was applied
to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lectum,
i.e. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The Aeolians founded
twelve cities on the mainland, including Cyme, and numerous
towns in Mytilene: they were said also to have settled in the
Troad.and even within the Hellespont.

AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of
Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of
Aeolia. In the Odyssey (x. i) he entertains Odysseus, gives him
a favourable wind to help him on his journey, and a bag in which

the unfavourable winds have been confined. Out of curiosity,
or with the idea that it contains valuable treasures, Odysseus'
companions open the bag; the winds escape and drive them
back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them with bitter
reproaches. According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on one of the
Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyle
(Stromboli), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in a vast
cavern (Virgil, Aen. i. 52). Another genealogy makes him the
son of Poseidon and Arne, granddaughter of Hippotes, and a
descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythical
ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67).

AEON, a term often used hi Greek (ai&v) to denote an indefinite
or infinite duration of time; and hence, by metonymy, a being
that exists for ever. In the latter sense it was chiefly used by
the Gnostic sects to denote those eternal beings or manifestations
which emanated from the one incomprehensible and ineffable
God. (See GNOSTICISM.)

AEPINUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German
natural philosopher, was born at Rostock in Saxony on the
1 3th of December 1724. He was descended from John Aepinus
(1499-1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aiirtivos) of the
family name Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and con-
troversialist at the time of the Reformation. After studying
medicine for a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the
physical and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained
such distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin
academy of sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as
member of the imperial academy of sciences and professor of
physics, and remained there till his retirement in 1798. The rest
of his life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the i oth of August
1802. He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine II.,
who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured,
without success, to establish normal schools throughout the
empire under his direction. Aepinus is best known by his re-
searches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and mag-
netism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis
et Magnetismi, published at St Petersburg in 1759, was the first
systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical reason-
ing to these subjects. He also published a treatise, in 1761, De
distributione caloris per tetturem, and he was the author of memoirs
on different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure
mathematics, contained in the journals of the learned societies
of St Petersburg and Berlin. His discussion of the effects of
parallax in the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited
great interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of
the two transits of Venus that took place in the i8th century.

AEQUI, an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs con-
stantly in Livy's first decade as hostile to Rome in the first three
centuries of the city's existence. They occupied the upper
reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and Himella; the
last two being mountain streams running northward to join
the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been taken by the
Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and again about ninety
years later (id. xiv. 106), but they were not finally subdued
till the end of the second Samnite war (Livy ix. 45, 'x. i;
Diod. xx. 101), when they seem to have received a limited form
of franchise (Cic. Off. i. n, 35). All we know of their subsequent
political condition is that after the Social war the folk of Cliternia
and Nersae appear united in a res publica Aequiculorum, which
was a municipium of the ordinary type (C.I.L. ix. p. 388). The
Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioli (298 B.C.)
must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as such) all
over the district; through it lay the chief (and for some time
the only) route (Via Valeria) to Luceria and the south.

Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman con-
quest we have no record; but since the Marsi (<?.».), who lived
farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect closely akin
to Latin, and since the Hernici (q.v.), their neighbours to the
south-west, did the same, we have no ground for separating
any of these tribes from the Latian group (see LATINI). If we
could be certain of the origin of the q in their name and of the
relation between its shorter and its longer form (note that the i

AERARII— AERATED WATERS

259

in Aeguiculus is long — Virgil, Aen. vii. 744 — which seems to con-
nect it with the locative of aequum " a plain," so that it would
mean "dwellers in the plain"; but in the historical period
they certainly lived mainly in the hills), we should know whether
they were to be grouped with the q or the p dialects, that is to
say, with Latin on the one hand, which preserved an original q,
or with the dialect of Velitrae, commonly called Volscian (and
the Volsci were the constant allies of the Aequi), on the other
hand, in which, as in the Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original
q is changed into p. There is no decisive evidence to show
whether the q in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q
as in Latin quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European k + u as
in equtts, Umb. ekvo-. The derivative adjective Aequicus might
be taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the Sabini,
but it is not clear that this adjective was ever used as a real
ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aequi, or Aequicoli.

At the end of the Republican period the Aequi appear, under
the name Aequiculi or Aequicoli, organized as a municipium,
the territory of which seems to have comprised the upper part
of the valley of the Salto, still known as Cicolano. It is probable,
however, that they continued to live in their villages as before.
Of these Nersae (mod. Nesce) was the most considerable. The
polygonal terrace walls, which exist in considerable numbers in
the district, are shortly described in Romische Mitteilungen
(1903), 147 seq., but require further study.

See further the articles MARSI, VOLSCI, LATINI, and the refer-
ences there given; the place-names and other scanty records of
the dialect are collected by R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 300 ff. (R. S. C.)

AERARII (from Lat. aes, in its subsidiary sense of " poll-
tax"), originally a class of Roman citizens not included in
the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a poll-tax
arbitrarily fixed by the censor. They were (i) the inhabitants of
conquered towns which had been deprived of local self-govern-
ment, who possessed the jus conubii and jus commercii, but no
political rights; Caere is said to have been the first example of
tf"s (353 B.C.); hence the expression "in tabulas Caeritum
referre " came to mean " to degrade to the status of an aerarius ":
(2) full citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the
result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), of dishonour-
able acts in private life (e.g. bigamy) or of conviction for certain
crimes; (3) persons branded by the censor. Those who were
thus excluded from the tribes and centuries had no Vote, were in-
capable of filling Roman magistracies and could not serve in the
army. According to Mommsen, the aerarii were originally the
non-assidui (non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the
comitia and the army. By a reform of the censor Appius
Claudius in 312 B.C. these non-assidui were admitted into the
tribes, and the aerarii as such disappeared. But in 304, Fabius
Rullianus limited them to the four city tribes, and from that
time the term meant a man degraded from a higher (country)
to a lower (city) tribe, but not deprived of the right of voting
or of serving in the army. The expressions " tribu movere "
and " aerarium facere," regarded by Mommsen as identical in
meaning (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), are
explained by A. H. J. Greenidge — the first as relegation from a
higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the
second as exclusion from the centuries. Other views of the
original aerarii are that they were: — artisans and freedmen
(Niebuhr); inhabitants of towns united with Rome by a hos-
pilium publicum, who had become domiciled on Roman terri-
tory (Lange) ; only a class of degraded citizens, including neither
the cives sine suJTragio nor the artisans (Madvig) ; identical with

capite censi of the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge).
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia in Roman Law (1894), where
ommsen's theory is criticized; E. Belot, Histoire des chevaliers
remains, i. p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin,
.1853); P. Willems, Le Droit public remain (1883); A. S. Wilkins
in Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) ; and
the usual handbooks of antiquities.

AERARIUM (from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of " money "),
the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given in
ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense

L11C

,Ke

Me

to the public finances. The treasury contained the moneys and
accounts of the state, and also the standards of the legions;
the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the senate
and other papers and registers of importance. These public
treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn, on the eastern
slope of the Capitoline hill, and, during the republic, were in
charge of the urban quaestors (see QUAESTOR), under the super-
intendence and control of the senate. This arrangement con-
tinued (except for the year 45 B.C., when no quaestors were
chosen) until 28 B.C., when Augustus transferred the aerarium
to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the senate from
ex-praetors; in 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores
aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of
office; Claudius in A.D. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated
by the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted
two ex-praetors, under the same conditions. In addition to the
common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged
with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund,
also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium" 'sanctum (or sanctius),
probably originally consisting of the spoils of war, afterwards
maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manu-
mitted slaves, this source of revenue being established by a
lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in
cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 16, xxvii. 10). Under the
emperors the senate continued to have at least the nominal
management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate
exchequer, called fiscus. But after a time, as the power of the
emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the senate
existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased.
Besides creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in A.D. 6
a military treasury (aerarium militare), containing all moneys
raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the army,
including a pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was largely
endowed by the emperor himself (see Monumenlum Ancyranum,
iii. 3 5) and supported by the proceeds of the tax on public sales
and the succession duty. Its administration was in the hands
of three praefecti aerarii militaris, at first appointed by lot, but
afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank,
for three years. The later emperors had a separate aerarium
privatum, containing the moneys allotted for their own use,
distinct from the fiscus, which they administered in the interests
of the empire.

The tribuni aerarii have been the subject of much discussion.
They are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores
Iribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian
organization, levied the war-tax (tributum) in the tribes and the
poll-tax on the aerarii (q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of
the equites and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the
lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) the list of judices was composed, in addition
to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these were
the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected
with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain.
According to Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the
equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed
from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by Augustus.
According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii were not officials
at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite
distinct from the curatores Iribuum, who undertook certain
financial work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in
the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended
to include all those who possessed the property qualification
that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni aerarii.

See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with Furneaux's notes; O. Hirsch-
feld, " Das Aerarium militare in der romischen Kaiserzeit," in
Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, vol. xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario et
Fisco Romanorum (Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and
dictionaries of antiquities. On the tribuni aerarii see E. Belot, Hist,
des chevaliers remains, ii. p. 276; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula Academica,
ii. p. 242; J. B. Mispoulet, Les Institutions poliliques des Remains
(1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, iii. p. 189;
A. S. Wilkins in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
(3rd ed., 1890).

AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger pro-
portion of carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary

AERONAUTICS

atmospheric pressure occur in springs in various parts of the
world (see MINERAL WATERS) . Such waters, which also generally
hold in solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents,
early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when carbon
dioxide (" fixed air ") became familiar to chemists the possibility
was recognized, as by Joseph Priestley (Directions for impregnat-
ing water with fixed air . . . to communicate the peculiar Spirit
and Virtues of Pyrmontu>ater,iTj2), of imitating them artificially.
Many of the ordinary aerated waters of commerce, however, do
not pretend to reproduce any known natural water; they are
merely beverages owing their popularity to their effervescing
properties and the flavour imparted by a small quantity of some
salt such as sodium bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup. Their
manufacture on a considerable scale was begun at Geneva so
far back as 1790 by Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the
soda water prepared in London by j. Schweppe, who had been
a partner of Paul's, is referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his
Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs, published in
1798. Many forms of apparatus are employed for charging the
water with the gas. A simple machine for domestic use, called a
gasogene or seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes con-
nected one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises
nearly to the top of the upper and smaller globe. Surmounting
the small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow tube
that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large
globe. To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with water,
and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, is placed a
mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid,
which with water yields carbon dioxide. The valve head is
then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is
made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper
vessel. The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus
produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the valve,
being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of the gas.
In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in little
steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing the water
which has to be aerated. On a large scale, use is made of con-
tinuously acting machinery which is essentially of the type
devised by Joseph Bramah. The gas is prepared in a separate
generator by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium bicarbonate
or whiting, and after being washed is collected in a gas-holder,
whence it is forced with, water under pressure into a receiver or
saturator in which an agitator is kept moving. Some manu-
facturers buy their gas compressed in steel cylinders. The
water thus aerated or carbonated passes from the receiver, in
which the pressure may be 100-200 Ib on the square inch, to
bottling machines which fill and close the bottles; if beverages
like lemonade are being made the requisite quantity of fruit
syrup is also injected into the bottles, though sometimes the
fruit syrup mixture is aerated in bulk. For soda water sodium
bicarbonate should be added to the water before aeration, in
varying proportions up to about 1 5 grains per pint, but the simple
carbonated water often does duty instead. Potash water, lithia
water and many others are similarly prepared, the various salts
being used in such amounts as are dictated by the experience
and taste of the manufacturer. Aerated waters are sent out
from the factories either in siphons (q.v.) or in bottles; the
latter may be closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal
stoppers consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against
an indiarubber ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas. For
use in " soda-fountains " the waters are sent out in large
cylinders.

See W. Kirkby, Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester,
1902).

AERONAUTICS, the art of "navigating" the "air." It is divis-
ible into two main branches — aerostation, dealing properly with
machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, and aviation,
dealing with the problem of artificial flight by means of flying
machines which, like birds, are heavier than the air, and also
with attempts to fly made by human beings by the aid of
artificial wings fitted to their limbs.

Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the legends

or myths of men or animals which are supposed to have travelled
through the air, such as Pegasus, Medea's dragons and Daedalus,
as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, wings appear as the means by
which aerial locomotion is effected. In later times there are
many stories of men who have attempted to fly in the same way.
John Wilkins (1614-1672), one of the founders of the Royal
Society and bishop of Chester, who in 1640 discussed the possi-
bility of reaching the moon by volitation, says in his Mathe-
matical Magick (1648) that it was related that " a certain English
monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's time," flew from a
town in Spain for a distance of more than a furlong; and that
other persons had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nurem-
berg. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown
several times across Lake Trasimene. At the beginning of the
1 6th century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy
of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook
to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to France.
He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to the ground
and broke his thigh-bone in the fall — an accident which he ex-
plained by asserting that the wings he employed contained some
fowls' feathers, which had an " affinity " for the dung-hill, whereas
if they had been composed solely of eagles' feathers they would
have been attracted to the air. This anecdote furnished Dunbar,
the Scottish poet, with the subject of one of his rude satires.
Leonardo da Vinci about the same time approached the problem
in a more scientific spirit, and his notebooks contain several
sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs. In the
following century a lecture on flying delivered in 1617 by
Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at Tubingen, and pub-
lished eleven years later, incited a poor monk to attempt to put
the theory into practice, but his machinery broke down and he
was killed.

In Francis Bacon's Natural History there are two passages
which refer to flying, though they scarcely bear out the assertion
made by some writers that he first published the true principles
of aeronautics.

The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air:
— " Certainly many birds of good wing (as kites and the like)would
bear up a good weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and
close, and in great breadth, will likewise bear up a great weight, being
even laid, without tilting up on the sides. The farther extension of
this experiment might be thought upon." The second passage is more
diffuse, but less intelligible; it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching
the Flying of unequal Bodies in the Air: — "Let there be a body of
unequal weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) ; if you throw
it from you with the light end forward, it will turn, and the weightier
end will recover to be forwards, unless the body be over long. The
cause is, for that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure
of the parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though
heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all violent
motions ; and when the hinder part nioveth swifter (for that it less
endureth pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for
it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more
easily draw forward the lighter part." The fact here alluded to is
the resistance that bodies experience in moving through the air,
which, depending on the quantity of surface merely, must exert a
proportionally greater effect on rare substances. The passage itself,
however, after making every allowance for the period in which it
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and unphilosophical.

In his posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, published at
Rome in 1680-1681, G.A.Borelli gave calculations of the enormous
strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and his proposition
cciv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Esl impossibile ut homines pro-
priis viribus artificiose iiolare possint, points out the impossibility
of man being able by his muscular strength to give motion to
wings of sufficient extent to keep him suspended in the air. But
during his lifetime two Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Bcsnier
about 1678, are said to have succeeded in making short flights.
An account of some of the modern attempts to construct flying
machines will be found in the article FLIGHT AND FLYING; here
we append a brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of
the problem.

The very first essential for success is safety, which will probably
only be attained with automatic stability. The underlying principle
is that the centre of gravity shall at all times be on the same vertical
line as the centre ofpressure. The latter varies with the angle of
incidence. For square planes it moves approximately as expressed

AERONAUTICS

261

by Joessel's formula, € + (0-2+0-3 sin a) L, in which C is the distance
from the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the angle of
incidence. The movement is different on concave surfaces. The
term aeroplane is understood to apply to flat sustaining surfaces,
but experiment indicates that arched surfaces are more efficient.
S. P. Langleyproposed the word aerodrome, which seems the prefer-
able term for apparatus with wing-like surfaces. This is the type to
which results point as the proper one for further experiments. With
this it seems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 40 to 50 Ib
can be sustained per indicated h.p., or about twice that quantity
per resistance or thrust " h.p., and that some 30 or 40% of the
weight can be devoted to the machinery, thus requiring motors, with
their propellers, shafting, supplies, &c., weighing less than 20 Ib
per h.p. It is evident that the apparatus must be designed to be as
light as possible, and also to reduce to a minimum all resistances
to propulsion. This being kept in view, the strength and conse-
quent section required for each member may be calculated by the
methods employed in proportioning bridges, with the difference
that the support (from air pressure) will be considered as uniformly
distributed, and the load as concentrated at one or more points.
Smaller factors of safety may also have to be used. Knowing the
sections required and unit weights of the materials to be employed,
the weight of each part can be computed. If a model has been made
to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sized apparatus
may approximately be ascertained by the formula

in which W is the weight of the model, S its surface, and W and S'
the weight and surface of the intended apparatus. Thus if the model
has been made one-quarter size in its homologous dimensions, the
supporting surfaces will be sixteen times, and the total weight sixty-
four times those of the model. The weight and the surface being
determined, the three most important things to know are the angle
of incidence, the " lift," and the required speed. The fundamental
formula for rectangular air pressure is well known: P = KV2S, in
which P is the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms,
K a coefficient (0-0049 for British, and o-n for metric measures),
V the velocity in miles per hour or in metres per second, and S the
surface in square feet or in square metres. The normal on oblique
surfaces, at various angles of incidence, is given by the formula
P = KV2S7j, which latter tactor is given both for planes and for arched
surfaces in the subjoined table : —

PERCENTAGES OF AIR PRESSURE AT VARIOUS ANGLES
OF INCIDENCE

PLANES (DUCHEMIN FOR-

MULA, VERIFIED BY LANGLEY).

WlNGS (LlLIENTHAL).

-, p 2Sina

Concavity I in 12.

Angle.

Nor-

Lift.

Drift.

Nor-

fflcll.

Lift.

Drift.

Tan-
gential

a.

tricil.

rjcosa.

rjsina.

TJCOSO.

ijsina.

force.

*

*

a.

-9°

o-o

o-o

o-o

+0-070

-8°

0-040

0-0396

-0-0055

+0-067

-7°

0-080

0-0741

— 0-0097

+0-064

-6°

O-I2O

0-1193

-0-0125

+0-060

-5°

0-160

0-1594

-0-0139

+0-055

-4°

O-2OO

0-1995

-0-0139

+0-049

-3°

0-242

0-2416

— 0-0126

+0-043

-2°

0-286

0-2858

— O-OIOO

+0-037

— i°

0-332

0-3318

—0-0058

+0-031

0°

o-o

O-O

0-0

0-381

0-3810

—o-o

+0-024

I O

0-035

0-035

0-00061 1

0-434

0-434

+0-0075

+0-016

+2°

0-070

0-070

0-00244

0-489

0-489

+0-0170

+0-008

+3°

0-104

0-104

0-00543

0-546

0-545

+0-0285

o-o

+4°

0-139

0-139

0-0097

0-600

o-597

+0-0418

— 0-007

+5°

0-174

0-173

0-0152

0-650

0-647

+0-0566

— 0-014

+6°

0-207

0-206

0-0217

0-696

0-692

+0-0727

— 0-021

+7°

0-240

0-238

0-0293

0-737

o-73i

+0-0898

— 0-028

+8°

0-273

0-270

0-0381

0-771

0-763

+0-1072

-0-035

+9°

0-305

0-300

0-0477

0-800

0-790

+0-1251

—O'O42

10°

0-337

0-332

0-0585

0-825

0-812

+0-1432

-0-050

11°

0-369

0-362

0-0702

0-846

0-830

+0-1614

-0-058

12°

0-398

0-390

0-0828

0-864

0-845

+0-1803

— 0-064

13°

0-431

0-419

0-0971

0-879

0-856

+0-1976

— O-O7O

14°

0-457

0-443

0-1155

0-891

0-864

+0-2156

-0-074

15°

0-486

0-468

0-1240

0-901

0-870

+0-2332

— O-O76

The sustaining power, or " lift," which in horizontal flight must
be equal to the weight, can be calculated by the formula
L = KV2S7^:osa, or the factor may be taken direct from the table, in
which the " lift " and the "drift" have been obtained by multiply-
ing the normal T? by the cosine and sine of the angle. The last column
shows the tangential pressure on concave surfaces which O. Lilien-
thal found to possess a propelling component between 3° and 32°,

V =

and therefore to be negative to the relative wind. Former modes
of computation indicated angles of 10° to 15° as necessary for sup-
port with planes. These were prohibitory in consequence of the
great " drift "; but the present data indicate that, with concave
surfaces, angles of 2° to 5° will produce adequate " lift." To com-
pute the latter the angle at which the wings are to be set must first
be assumed, and that of +3° will generally be found preferable.
Then the required velocity is next to be computed 'by the formula

L~

STJCOSO '

or for concave wings at +3°

~

Having thus determined the weight, the surface, the angle of inci-
dence and the required speed for horizontal support, the next step
is to calculate the power required. This is best accomplished by first
obtaining the total resistances, which consist of the " drift " and of
the head resistances due to the hull and framing. The latter are
arrived at preferably by making a tabular statement showing all
the spars and parts offering head resistance, and applying to each
the coefficient appropriate to its " master section," as ascertained by
experiment. Thus is obtained an " equivalent area " of resistance,
which is to be multiplied by the wind pressure due to the speed. Care
must be taken to resolve all the resistances at their proper angle of
application, and to subtract or add the tangential force, which con-
sists in the surface S, multiplied by the wind pressure, and by the
factor in the table, which is, however, o for 3° and 32°, but positive
or negative at other angles. When the aggregate resistances are
known, the " thrust h.p." required is obtained by multiplying the
resistance by the speed, and then allowing for mechanical losses in
the motor and propeller, which losses will generally be 50% of
indicated h.p. Close approximations are obtained by the above
method when applied to full-sized apparatus. The following example
will make the process clearer. The weight to be carried by an appar-
atus was 189 Ib on concave wings of 143-5 sq. ft. area, set at a positive
angle of 3°. There were in addition rear wings of 29-5 sq. ft., set at
a negative angle of 3°; hence, L = 189 = 0-005 XV2X 143-5X0-545.

Whence V=

-1—2

= 22 miles per hour.

0-005 X 143-5X0-545

at which the air pressure would be 2-42 ft per sq. ft. The area
of spars and man was 17-86 sq. ft., reduced by various coefficients
to an " equivalent surface " of 11-70 sq. ft., so that the resistances
were : —

Drift front wings, 143-5X0-0285X2-42 . . . =9-90 ft
„ rear wings, 29-5 X (0-043 -0-242 Xo-0523)X2-42 =2-17,,

Tangential force at 3° =0-00 ,,

Head resistance, 11-70X2-42 =28-31 „

Total resistance

= 40-38 Ib

4— -

Speed 22 miles per hour. Power =— rr - = 2-36 h.p. for the

o / «5

" thrust " or 4-72 h.p. for the motor. The weight being 189 ft, and
the resistance 40-38 ft, the gliding angle of descent was ^ ^JL =

tangent of 12°, which was verified by many experiments.

The following expressions will be found useful in computing such
projects, with the aid of the table above given: —

1. Wind force, F^KV2.

2. Pressure, P = KVS.

3. Velocity, V=

4. Surface S varies as

5. Normal, N = KSW,

6. Lift, L = KSVVoso.

7. Weight, W = L = Ncoso.

8. Drift, D=KSV2t;sina.

9. Head area E, get an equiva-

lent.

10. Head resistance, H = EF.

11. Tangential force, T = Po.

12. Resistance, R = D+H±T.

13. Ft. ft, M = RV.

RV

14. Thrust, h.p.,=IT-

Aerostation. — Possibly the flying dove of Archytas of Tarentum
is the earliest suggestion of true aerostation. According to Aulus
Gellius (Nodes Atticae) it was a " model of a dove or pigeon
formed in wood and so contrived as by a certain mechanical art
and power to fly: so nicely was it balanced by weights and put
in motion by hidden and enclosed air." This " hidden and
enclosed air " may conceivably represent an anticipation of the
hot-air balloon, but it is at least as probable that the apparent
flight of the dove was a mere mechanical trick depending on
the use of fine wires or strings invisible to the spectators.

In the middle ages vague ideas appear of some ethereal sub-
stance so light that vessels containing it would remain suspended
in the air. Roger Bacon (1214-1294) conceived of a large
hollow globe made of very thin metal and filled with ethereal
air or liquid fire, which would float on the atmosphere like a ship

262

AERONAUTICS

on water. Albert of Saxony, who was bishop of Halberstadt
from 1366 to 1390, had a similar notion, and considered that a
small portion of the principle of fire enclosed in a light sphere
would raise it and keep it suspended. The same speculation
was advanced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who
died in 1626 at the age of forty-six, and by Caspar Schott (1608-
1666), also a Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Wiirzburg,
though for fire he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he
believed to float above the atmosphere. So late as 1755 Joseph
Galien (1690-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philo-
sophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed
to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose it in
a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and intended
to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's ark!
A somewhat different but equally fantastic method of making
heavy bodies rise is quoted by Schott from Lauretus Laurus,
according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled with nitre,
sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the sun. Laurus
also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will ascend in the
same circumstances, because dew is shed by the stars and drawn
up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the day. The same
notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655) in his
romances describing journeys to the moon and sun, for his
French traveller fastens round his body a multitude of very
thin flasks filled with the morning's dew, whereby through the
attractive power of the sun's heat on the dew he is raised to
the middle regions of the atmosphere, to sink again, however, on
the breaking of some of the flasks.

A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for
aerial navigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (1631-
1687), in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodromo owiero
Saggio di alcune invenzioni nuove promesso all' Arle Maestro..

His idea, though useless
and unpractical in so far
that it could never be
carried out, is yet de-
serving of notice, as the
principles involved are
sound; and this can be
said of no earlier
attempt. His project
was to procure four
copper balls of very
large dimensions (fig. i),
yet so extremely thin
that after the air was
exhausted from them
they would be lighter
than the air they dis-
placed and so would
rise; and to those four
balls he proposed to
attach a boat, with sails,
&c., which would carry
up a man. He sub-
mitted the whole matter
to calculation, and pro-
posed that the globes should be about 25 ft. in diameter and
-j^th of an inch in thickness; this would give from all four balls a
total ascensional force of about 1200 Ib, which would be quite
enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the obvious
objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be quite im-
possible to construct a globe of so large a size and of such small
thickness which would even support its own weight without col-
lapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear the external
atmospheric pressure when the internal air was removed. Lana
himself noticed this objection, but he thought that the spherical
form of the copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thin-
ness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain
the enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point
of the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break
the metal. His proposal to exhaust the air from the globes

FlG. I. — Lana's Aeronautical Machine.

by attaching to each a tube 36 ft. long, fitted with a stopcock,
and so producing a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was
ignorant of the invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke
about 1650.

We now come to the invention of the balloon, which was
due to Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740-1810) and Jacques
fitienne Montgolfier (1745-1799), sons of Pierre Mont-
golfier, a large and celebrated papermaker at Annonay,
a town about 40 m. from Lyons. The brothers had
observed the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere,
and it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour
of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it might
rise and carry the bag with it into the air. Towards the end of
1782 they inflated bags with smoke from a fire placed under-
neath, and found that either the smoke or some vapour emitted
from the fire did ascend and carry the bag with it. Being thus
assured of the correctness of their views, they determined to
have a public ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accord-
ingly invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay,
to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of June
1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spectators,
a linen globe of 105 ft. in circumference was inflated over a
fire fed with small bundles of chopped straw. When released
it rapidly rose to a great height, and descended, at the expiration
of ten minutes, at the distance of about i^m. This was the
discovery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined
that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or other
vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it was not till
some time later that it was recognized that the ascending power
was due merely to the lightness of heated air compared to an
equal volume of air at a lower temperature. In this balloon,
no source of heat was taken up, so that the air inside rapidly
cooled, and the balloon soon descended.

The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted so much
attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741-
1819), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee d'Histoire
Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying the expense of
repeating the experiment. The balloon was constructed by
two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superintendence
of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles. The first suggestion was to
copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles proposed the appli-
cation of hydrogen gas, which was adopted. The filling of the
balloon, which was made of thin silk varnished with a solution of
elastic gum, and was about 13 ft. in diameter, was begun on the
23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen
gas was obtained by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid upon iron
filings, and was introduced through
leaden pipes; but as the gas was
not passed through cold water, great
difficulty was experienced in filling
the balloon completely; and alto-
gether about 500 ft of sulphuric acid
and twice that amount of iron
filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins
were issued daily of the progress of
the inflation; and the crowd was
so great that on the 26th the bal-
loon was moved secretly by night
to the Champ de Mars, a distance
of 2 m. On the next day an im-
mense concourse of people covered
the Champ de Mars, and every spot
from which a view could be ob-
tained was crowded. About five
o'clock a cannon was discharged as

the signal for the ascent, and the balloon when liberated rose to
the height of about 3000 ft. with great rapidity. A shower of
rain which began to fall directly after it had left the earth in no
way checked its progress; and the excitement was so great, that
thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them ladies, stood
exposed, watching it intently the whole time it was in sight, and

FIG. 2. — Charles' and
Robert's Balloon.

AERONAUTICS

263

were drenched to the skin. The balloon, after remaining in the
air for about three-quarters of an hour, fell in a field near
Gonesse, about 15 m. off, and terrified the peasantry so much
that it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at
this time known by the name of inflammable air; and balloons
inflated with gas have ever since been called by the people
air-balloons, the kind invented by the Montgolfiers being desig-
nated fire-balloons. French writers have also very frequently
styled them after their inventors, Charlieres and Montgolfikres.
On the i pth of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated
the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the
king, the queen, the court and an immense number of spectators.
The inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven
minutes, when the balloon rose to the height of about 1500 ft.,
and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of about 2 m.,
in the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon,
in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, which
were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite uninjured,
except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in consequence
of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this took place
before the ascent. The balloon, which was painted with orna-
ments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance (fig. 3).

FIG. 3. — Montgolfier's Balloon.

The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Jean
Frangois Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785), a native of Metz, who
was appointed superintendent of the natural history collections
of Louis XVIII. On the i5th of October 1783, and following
days, he made several ascents (generally alone, but once with
a companion, Girond de Villette) in a captive balloon (i.e. one
attached by ropes to the ground), and demonstrated that there
was no difficulty in taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which
was kindled in a brazier suspended under the balloon, when in
the air. The way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on
the 2ist of November 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis
d'Arlandes first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The
experiment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette,
in the Bois de Boulogne. A large fire-balloon was inflated at
about^two o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft., and passing
over the Invalides and the Ecole Militaire, descended beyond
the Boulevards, about 9000 yds. from the place of ascent, having
been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the air.

Only ten days later, viz. on the ist of December 1783, Charles
ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas.

The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the same kind
previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was constructed
by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the ascent.
It was 27 ft. in diameter, and the car was suspended from a
hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened to a
net, which covered the upper hemisphere. The balloon ascended
very gently from the Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and
after remaining for some time at an elevation of about 2000 ft.,
it descended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town about
27 m. from Paris, when Robert left the car, and Charles made
a second ascent by himself. He had intended to have replaced
the weight of his companion by a nearly equivalent quantity
of ballast; but not having any suitable means of obtaining such
at the place of descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave
the word to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened,
ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 m. After staying
in the air about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the
place of ascent, although he believed the distance traversed,
owing to different currents, to have been about 9 m. In this
second journey he experienced a violent pain in his right ear and
jaw, no doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also
witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day;
for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as
he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he
descended.

All the features of the modern balloon as now used are more
or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the top, sus-
pended the car from a hoop, which was itself attached to the
balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his use of hydrogen gas,
there are anticipations that must be noticed. As early as 1766
Henry Cavendish showed that this gas was at least seven times
lighter than ordinary air, and it immediately occurred to Dr.
Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, that a thin bag filled with hydrogen
gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. He provided, accordingly,
the allantois of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture
such a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have
failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great dis-
covery, almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years
afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, who found
that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are too heavy, and
that China paper is permeable to the gas. But in 1782, the year
before the invention of the Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating
soap-bubbles by inflating them with hydrogen gas.

Researches on the use of gas for inflating balloons seem to have
been carried on at Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the
experiments of the Montgolfiers; and when the news of the
latter reached America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson,
members of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, con-
structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen
gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several preliminary
experiments, in which animals were let up to a certain height
by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter
the car for a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he
remained in the air about ten minutes, and only then effected
his descent by making incisions in a number of the balloons,
through fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching.

Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experi-
ments in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a
topic of general discussion, still it was not till five First
months after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent ascents la
a balloon into the air that any aerostatic experiment ?™^
was made in England. In November 1783 Count
Francesco Zambeccari (1756-1812), an Italian who happened to
be in London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft. in diameter,
and weighing n ft. It was publicly shown for several days,
and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas
and launched from the Artillery ground at one o'clock. It
descended after two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex,
48 m. from London. This was the first balloon that ascended
from English ground. On the 22nd of February 1784 a hydrogen
gas balloon, 5 ft. in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in
Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders,

264

AERONAUTICS

FIG. 4. — Lunardi's Balloon.

75 m. distant. This was the first balloon that crossed the
Channel. The first person who rose into the air from British
ground appears to have been J. Tytler,1 who ascended from
the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784,
in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on
the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where
he rose.

But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced
aerostation into Great Britain. Although Tytler had the
precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial success
were all but unknown ; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited
an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London. He was secre-
tary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, and his
published letters to his guardian, the chevalier Compagni,

written while he was carrying
out his project, and detail-
ing all the difficulties, &c., he
met with as they occurred,
give an interesting and vivid
account of the whole matter.
His balloon was 33 ft. in
circumference (fig-4) , and was
exposed to the public view
at the Lyceum in the Strand,
where it was visited by up-
wards of 20,000 people. He
originally intended to ascend
from Chelsea Hospital, but
the conduct of a crowd at a
garden at Chelsea, which de-
stroyed the fire-balloon of a
Frenchman named de Moret,
who announced an ascent on
the nth of August, but was
unable to keep his word, led
to the withdrawal of the
leave that had been granted. Ultimately he was permitted to
ascend from the Artillery ground, and on the isth of September
1 784 the inflation with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended
that an English gentleman named Biggin should accompany
Lunardi; but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged
it prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full rather
than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged
to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence
of the prince of Wales and an enormous crowd of spectators.
He took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon
was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise or
lower it at pleasure. Shortly after starting the pigeon escaped,
and one of the oars became broken and fell to the ground. In
about an hour and a half he descended at South Mimms, in
Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered from the
cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after the lapse of
about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near Ware, where
he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants to come to his
assistance; but at length a young woman, taking hold of one
of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, which they
then did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense,
and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He was pre-
sented to the king, and was courted and flattered on all sides.
To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during his
ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, mistaking
the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by his supposed
destruction that she died in a few days ; but, on the other hand,
he says he was told by the judges " that he had certainly saved
the life of a young man who might possibly be reformed, and be
to the public a compensation for the death of the lady "; for the
jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom they must
ultimately have condemned, when the balloon appeared, and
to save time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court

1 Mr Tytier contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have
been virtually editor of, the second edition (1778-1783) of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica.

came out to view the balloon. The king also was in conference
with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon was passing,
he broke up the discussion, and with them watched the balloon
through telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in
the Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785)
Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh
and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of no
m.) ; these he described in a second series of letters.

The first ascent from Ireland was made on the igth of January
1785 by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following ipth of July at-
tempted to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into
the sea. The second person who ascended from Ireland was
Richard Maguire. Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the
1 2th of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up. Maguire
in these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and his
offer being accepted he made the ascent. For this he was
knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant. Another attempt to cross
St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the ist of
October 1812, and he had nearly succeeded when in consequence
of a change of wind he was forced to descend into the sea off
Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a fishing-boat. But on
the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, Windham Sadler, succeeded
in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead.

The first balloon voyage across the English Channel was
accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) and Dr. J.
Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7th of January voyages
1785. In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March, aero**
Blanchard, who was one of the most celebrated of
the earlier aeronauts, made his first voyage from Paris
in a balloon 27 ft. in diameter (fig. 5), and descended at Billan-
court near Sevres.
Just as the balloon
was about to start,
a young man jumped
into the car and draw-
ing his sword declared
his determination to
ascend with Blanch-
ard. He was ulti-
mately removed by
force. It has some-
times been incorrectly
stated that he was
Napoleon Bonaparte ;
his name in reality
was Dupont de Cham-
bon. In their Channel
crossing Blanchard
and his companion,
who started from
Dover, when about
one-third across found
themselves descend-
ing, and threw out
every available thing
from the boat or car.
When about three-
quarters across they
were descending A
again, and had to

-Blanchard's Balloon.

FIG. 5.

Balloon of taffeta, 26 ft. in diameter,

covered with a net.

B, Car suspended by cords from hoop C.
throw out not only D> D> D, D, Wings worked by rack-work E.
the anchor and cords, F, Parachute to break the force of descent
but also to strip and should the balloon burst,

throw away part of G' Tube communicating with inside of
their clothing, after balloon-

which they found they were rising, and their last resource, viz.
to cut away the car, was rendered unnecessary. As they ap-
proached the shore the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch
high over the land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes.

On the i sth of June 1785, Pilatre de Rozier made an attempt
to repeat the exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse
direction, and cross from Boulogne to England. For this

AERONAUTICS

265

Early
large
balloons.

purpose he contrived a double balloon, which he expected would
combine the advantages of both kinds — a fire-balloon, 10 ft. in
diameter, being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft. in
diameter, so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the
former it might be possible to ascend or descend without waste
of gas. Rozier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for
rather less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all
seemed to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus
was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to
the ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft.
Rozier was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about
ten minutes. A monument was erected on the place where they
fell, which was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the
starting-point.

The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accounts
are correct) ascended from Lyons on the igth of January 1784.
It was more than 100 ft. in diameter, about 130 ft.
in height, and when distended had a capacity, it is
said, of over half a million cubic feet. It was called
the " Flesselles " (from the name of its proprietor, we
believe), and after having been inflated from a straw fire in
seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons in the car to the
height of about 3000 ft., but descended again after the lapse of
about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in con-
sequence of a rent in the upper part.

Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft. in diameter, was constructed
by the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan, and on the 2 5th of
February he ascended in it from Milan, remaining in the air for
about twenty minutes. This is usually regarded as the first
ascent in Italy (but see Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247).

On the 7th of November 1836, at half-past one o'clock, a
large balloon containing about 85,000 cub. ft. of gas ascended
from Vauxhall Gardens, London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P.,
Monck Mason and Charles Green, and descended about two
leagues from Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, at half-past
seven the next morning, having thus traversed a distance of
about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege was passed in the course of
the night, and Coblentz in the early morning. In consequence
of this journey the balloon became famous as the " Nassau
Balloon " (fig. 6). Charles Green (1785-1870), who constructed
it and subsequently became its owner, was the most celebrated
of English aeronauts, and made an extraordinary number of
ascents. His first, made from the Green Park, London, on the
i pth of July 1821 at the coronation of George IV., was distin-
guished for the fact that for the first time coal-gas was used
instead of hydrogen for inflating the balloon. In 1828 he made
an equestrian ascent from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, London,
seated on his favourite pony. Such ascents have since been
repeated; in 1852 Madame Poitevin made one from Cremorne
Gardens, but was prevented from giving a second performance
by police interference, the exhibition outraging public opinion.
It was in descending from the " Nassau Balloon " in a parachute
that Robert Cocking was killed in 1 83 7 (see PARACHUTE) . Green
was the inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope
trailing below the car. Its function is to reduce the waste of gas
and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper altitude.
When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of the guide-rope
rests on the ground, it is relieved of so much weight and therefore
tends to rise; if on the other hand it rises so that most of the
rope is lifted off the ground, it has to bear a greater weight and
tends to sink.

In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, construtced " Le
Geant," which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that time
and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas. Underneath it
was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the object
of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. The
car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a cottage in
wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft. in length, containing a
small printing-office, a photographic department, a refreshment-
room, a lavatory, &c. The first ascent took place at five o'clock
on Sunday the 4th of October 1863, from the Champ de Mars.
There were thirteen persons in the car, including one lady, the

princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis
and Jules Godard. In spite of the elaborate preparations that
had been made and the stores of provisions that were taken up,
the balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent
being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the
valve-line. At a second ascent, made a fortnight later, there
were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar. The balloon
descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near Nienburg
in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m. A strong wind was
blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 m.
All the passengers were bruised, and some seriously hurt. The
balloon and car were then brought to England, and exhibited
at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864.
The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary
amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of proportion
to what they were entitled to. Nadar's idea was to obtain suffi-
cient money, by the exhibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan

FIG. 6.— The Great Nassau Balloon.

of aerial locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the
principle of the screw; in fact, he spoke of " Le Geant " as " the
last balloon." He also started L'Aeronaute, a newspaper devoted
to aerostation, and published a small book, which was translated
into English under the title The Right to Fly.

Directly after Nadar's two ascents, Eugene Godard con-
structed a fire-balloon of nearly half a million cubic feet capa-
city— more than double that of Nadar's and only slightly less
than that attributed to the " Flesselles " of 1783. The air was
heated by an i8-ft. stove, weighing, with the chimney, 980 Ib.
This furnace was fed by straw; and the " car " consisted of a
gallery surrounding it. Two ascents of this balloon, the first
fire-balloon seen in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens
in July 1864. After the first journey the balloon descended at
Greenwich, and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was
injured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding its
enormous size, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half
an hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more
than an hour. In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation
was effected, few who saw the ascent could fail to receive an
impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter of
safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in
the car, could not be other than most dangerous.

266

AERONAUTICS

In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily
Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 1840, deter-
mined to construct a very large balloon, and enable
balloon tne American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his
voyages, favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to
Europe, by taking advantage of the current from west
to east which was believed by many to exist constantly at heights
above 10,000 ft. The project came to nothing owing to the
quality of the material of which the balloon was made. When it
was being inflated in September 1873 a rent was observed after
325,000 cub. ft. of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly
collapsed. The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000
cub. ft., so that it would lift a weight of 14,000 ft. No balloon
voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the breadth
of the Atlantic. In fact only two voyages exceeding 1000 m.
are on record — that of John Wise from St Louis to Henderson,
N.Y., 1 1 20 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry de la Vaulx
from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1193 m., in 1900. On
the nth of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two companions,
Strendberg and Frankel, ascended from Spitzbergen in a daring
attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. distant. One
carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours after the start,
was shot, and two floating buoys with messages were found, but
nothing more was heard of the explorers.

At an early date the balloon was applied to scientific purposes.
So far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from London in
^dentine wn'c^ ^e carried out barometric, thermometric and
ascents. hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of
the air at different heights. In 1803 the St Petersburg
Academy of Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experi-
ments made on mountain-sides by J. A. Deluc, H. B. de Saus-
sure, A. von Humboldt and others must give results different
from those made in free air at the same heights, resolved to
arrange a balloon ascent. Accordingly, on the 3oth of January
1804, Sacharof, a member of the academy, ascended in a gas-
balloon, in company with a French aeronaut, fi. G. Robertson,
who at one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris. The
ascent was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected
at a quarter to eleven. The height reached was less than 15 m.
The experiments were not very systematically made, and
the chief results were the filling and bringing down of several
flasks of air collected at different elevations, and the supposed
observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A telescope
fixed in the bottom of the car and pointing vertically down-
wards enabled the travellers to ascertain exactly the spot over
which they were floating at any moment. Sacharof found
that, on shouting downwards through his speaking-trumpet,
the echo from the earth was quite distinct, and at his height
was audible after an interval of about ten seconds (Phil.
Mag., 1805, 21, p. 193).

Some of the results reported by Robertson appearing doubtful,
Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of
Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their dis-
posal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be utilized
in sending up balloons to test their accuracy. The proposition
was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, who was then
minister of the interior, and accordingly the necessary arrange-
ments were speedily effected, the charge of the experiments
being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. Biot. The principal
object of this ascent was to determine whether the magnetic
force experienced any appreciable diminution at heights above
the earth's surface. On the 24th of August 1804, Gay-Lussac
and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten o'clock
in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were incommoded
by the rotation of the balloon, but they found that, up to the
height of 13,000 ft., the time of vibration of a magnet was ap-
preciably the same as on the earth's surface. They found also
that the air became drier as they ascended. The height reached
was about 13,000 ft., and the temperature declined from 63°
to 51° F. The descent was effected about half -past one, at
Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris.

In a second experiment, which was made on the i6th of Sep-

tember 1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon left the
Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 A.M., and descended at 3.45 P.M.
between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result obtained was
that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience
any sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface which
we can attain to. Gay-Lussac also brought down air collected
at the height of nearly 23,000 ft., and on analysis it appeared
that its composition was the same as that of air collected at the
earth's surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer
stood at 82° F., and at the highest point reached (23,000 ft.)
it was 14-9° F. Gay-Lussac remarked that at his highest point
there were still clouds above him.

From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents
in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter year J. A.
Bixio (1808-1865) and J. A. Barral (1819-1884) made two ascents
of this kind. In the first they ascended from the Paris observa-
tory on the 2gth of June 1850, at 10.27 A-M-i tne balloon being
inflated with hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the
ascent took place without any previous attempt having been
made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. When liber-
ated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming fully inflated it
pressed upon the network, bulging out at the top and bottom.
The ropes by which the car was suspended being too short, the
balloon soon covered the travellers like an immense hood. In
endeavouring to secure the valve-rope, they made a rent in the
balloon, and the gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to
suffocate them. Finding that they were descending then too
rapidly, they threw overboard everything available, including
their coats and only excepting the instruments. The ground
was reached at job. 45m., near Lagny. Of course no observa-
tions were made. Their second ascent was made on the 27th of
July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met
with. At about 20,000 ft. the temperature was 1 5° F., the balloon
being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the cloud,
at 23,000 ft., the temperature sank 10-38° F., no less than
53° F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same
elevation. The existence of these very cold clouds served to
explain certain meteorological phenomena that were observed
on the earth both the day before and the day after the ascent.
Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in most other high
ascents; when liberated, they showed a reluctance to leave the
car, and then fell heavily downwards.

In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved
to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of investi-
gating such meteorological and physical phenomena as require
the presence of an observer at a great height in the atmosphere.
John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was the
observer, and the great " Nassau Balloon " was employed, with
Green himself as the aeronaut. Four ascents were made in
1852, viz. on the i7th and 26th of August, die 3ist of October
and the loth of November. The heights attained were 19,510,
19,100, 12,640 and 22,930 ft., and the lowest temperatures
met with in the four ascents were 8-7° F. (19,380 ft.), 12-4° F.
(18,370 ft.), 16-4° F. (12,640 ft.) and 10-5° F. (22,370 ft.).
The decline of temperature was very regular. A siphon baro-
meter, dry and wet bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and
a Regnault hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a
considerable height was found on analysis not to differ appreci-
ably in its composition from air collected near the ground. For
the original observations see Phil. Trans., 1853, pp. 311-346.

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed
for the purpose of making observations in the higher ,

strata of the atmosphere by means of the balloon. asceats.
For two years nothing was effected, owing to the want
both of an observer and of a suitable balloon. After its re-
appointment at the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee
communicated with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1819-1900), an
aeronaut who had made a good many ascents, and he agreed to
construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft. capacity, on the
condition that the committee would undertake to use it, and pay
£25 for each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying

AERONAUTICS

267

also the cost of gas, &c., so that the expense of each high ascent
amounted to nearly £50. An observer being still wanted, James
Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to take
the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was made on
the i7th of July 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverhampton,
this town being chosen on account of its central position in the
country. Altogether, Glaisher made twenty-eight ascents, the
last being on the 26th of May 1866. Of these only seven were
specially high ascents, although six others were undertaken for
the objects of the committee alone. On the other occasions he
availed himself of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and
other places of entertainment, merely taking his place like the
other passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut and
a smaller balloon were employed. The dates, places of ascent
and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight
ascents were — 1862: July 17, Wolverhampton, 26,177; July 30,
Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377;
August 20, Crystal Palace, 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355;
September i, Crystal Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhamp-
ton, 37,000; September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March
31, Crystal Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163;
June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July n, Crystal Palace, 6623;
July 21, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,590; October 9,
Crystal Palace, 7310. 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897;
April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June 13, Crystal Palace, 3543;
June 20, Derby, 4280; June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August
29, Crystal Palace, 14,581; December i, Woolwich, 5431;
December 30, Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich,
4865; October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich,
4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325.

The primary object of the ascents was to determine the
temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different
elevations to as great a height as could be reached; and the
secondary objects were — (i) to determine the temperature of
the dew-point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well
as by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the
results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer
with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height of 5 m.;
(3) to determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic
condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration of a
magnet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; (7) to note
the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness; (8)
to determine the rate and direction of different currents in the
atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on sound. The
instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers, dry
and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point hygrometer,
Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and minimum
thermometers, a magnet for horizontal vibration, hermetically
sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an electrometer. In
one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up.

The complete observations, both as made and after reduction,
are printed in the British Association Reports, 1862-1866; here
only a general account of the results can be given. It appeared
that the rate of the decline of temperature with elevation near
the earth was very different according as the sky was clear or
cloudy; and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase
with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which were
not anticipated. Even at the height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were
seen high in the air, apparently as far above as they seem
when viewed from the earth. The results of the observations
differed very much, and no doubt the atmospheric conditions
depended not only on the time of day, but also on the season of
the year, and were such that a vast number of ascents would be
requisite to determine the true laws with anything approaching
to certainty and completeness. It was also clear that England
is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, as,
from whatever place the balloon started, it was never safe to be
more than an hour above the clouds for fear of reaching the sea.
It appeared from the observations that an aneroid barometer
could be trusted to read as accurately as a mercurial barometer
to the heights reached. The time of vibration of a horizontal

magnet was taken in very many of the ascents, and the results
of ten different sets of observations indicated that the time of
vibration was longer than on the earth. In almost all the
ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of air in
different directions which varied greatly in thickness. The direc-
tion of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole
mass of air up to 20,000 ft., whilst at other times the direction
changed within 500 ft. of the earth. Sometimes directly oppo-
site currents were met with at different heights in the same
ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered moving
in different directions. The direct distances between the places
of ascent and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon
under the influence of these various currents, were always very
much greater than the horizontal movement of the air as meas-
ured by anemometers. For example, on the I2th of January
1862, the balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. P.M., and descended
at Lakenheath, 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4h.
igm. P.M. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson
anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m.
only. With regard to physiological observations, Glaisher found
that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, as
also did the number of inspirations. The number of his pulsa-
tions was generally 76 per minute before starting, about 90 at
10,000 ft., 100 at 20,000 ft., and no at higher elevations.
But a good deal depended on the temperament of the individual.
This was also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 ft. the
faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be
scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher found the pulsations
of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing was very much
affected, so that panting was produced by the slightest exertion;
at 29,000 ft. he became insensible. In reference to the propa-
gation of sound, it was at all times found that sounds from the
earth were more or less audible according to the amount of mois-
ture in the air. When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train
was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever
reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun was
heard at 10,000 ft. The barking of a dog was heard at the
height of 2 m., while the shouting of a multitude of people
was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 ft. In his ascent
of the sth of September 1862, Glaisher considered that he
reached a height of 37,000 ft. But that figure was based, not
on actual record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft.,
when he became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft. a
minute, and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen
minutes later it was falling 2000 ft. a minute, and the accuracy
of his conclusions has been questioned. Few scientific men
have imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological
observations. In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made
eight or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The
heights attained were not great, but the general result was to
confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see Voyages
atriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, London, 1871, in
which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are noticed. On
the isth of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. Croce-Spinelli and
Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in the balloon " Zenith,"
and reached a height of 27,950 ft.; but only Tissandier came
down alive, his two companions being asphyxiated. This put an
end to such attempts for a time. But Dr A. Berson and Lieut.
Gross attained 25,840 ft. on the nth of May 1894; Berson,
ascending alone from Strassfurt on the 4th of December 1894,
attained about 31,500 ft. and recorded a temperature of — 54° F.;
and Berson and Stanley Spencer are stated by the latter to
have attained 27,500 ft. on the isth of September 1898 when
they ascended in a hydrogen balloon from the Crystal Palace,
the thermometer registering —29° F. On the 3ist of July 1901,
Berson and R. J. Suring, ascending at Berlin, actually noted
a barometric reading corresponding to a height of 34,500 ft.,
and possibly rose 1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of
oxygen inhalations they were unconscious during the highest
portion of the ascent.

The personal danger attending high ascents led Gustave
Hermite and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the

268

AERONAUTICS

sending up of unmanned balloons (ballons sondes) equipped with
automatic recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also
been employed for similar meteorological purposes. (See also
METEOROLOGY.)

The balloon had not been discovered very long before it
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of the
French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was
'balloons f°unded at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau,
the chemist, and Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835).
Four balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of
the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt.
In June 1794 Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general
to reconnoitre the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus,
and two reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours.
It is generally stated that it was to the information so gained
that the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in
constant requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear
that, with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned,
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view.
But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis-
concerted at having their movements so completely watched,
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior
information it was believed they were gaining. An attempt
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be
employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon was
sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons loaded
with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French cam-
paign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the use
of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic corps,
and their management was entrusted to the brothers Godard.
Several reconnaissances were made, and one of especial interest
the day before the battle of Solferino. No information of much
importance seems, however, to have been gained thereby.

In the American Civil War (1861) balloons were a good deal
used by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached
to McClellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain and
about 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The apparatus
consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each; two
balloons, drawn by four horses each, and an acid-cart, drawn by
two horses. The two balloons used contained about 13,000 and
26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation usually occupied about
three hours. (See Royal Engineers' Papers, vol. xii.) By their
aid useful information was gained about the enemy round
Richmond and in other places, but eventually difficulties of
transport and the topography of the theatre of war made balloon-
ing impracticable; and little was heard of it after the first two
years of the war.

The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege of
Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was
kept up between the besieged city and the external world, as
the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which after-
wards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The total
number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the siege,
conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four — the first
having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the last on
the 28th of January 1871. Gambetta effected his escape from
Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon "Armand-Barbes,"
an event which doubtless led to the prolongation of the war.
Of the sixty-four balloons only two were never heard of; they
were blown out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages
was that of the " Ville d'Orleans," which, leaving Paris at
eleven o'clock on the 2ist of November, descended fifteen hours
afterwards near Chris tiania, having crossed the North Sea.
Several of the balloons on their descent were taken by the
Prussians, and a good many were fired at while in the air. The
average size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or
from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. ft. The above facts are extracted
from Les Ballons du siege de Paris, a sheet published by Bulla
and Sons, Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well-
known French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times
of ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the

names of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the
weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those
balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended.
The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally
from the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway)
under the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed
were mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use
whatever was made in the war of balloons for purposes of
reconnaissance.

Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only
dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the
powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85
the French found balloons very useful during their campaign
in Tongking; and the British government also despatched
balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that
to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several
ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it
was said that a great moral effect was produced. The employ-
ment of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars.

We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military operations.
The French in the campaigns of the igth century used varnished silk
balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft. capacity. The Americans in the
Civil War used much larger ones., those of 26,000 cub. ft. being
found the most suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the
present day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft.,
made of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of
goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size, the normal
capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 7000 and 4500
cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin. The usual shape is
spherical; but since 1896 the Germans, and now other nations, have
adopted a long cylindrical-shaped balloon, so affixed to its cable as
to present an inclined surface to the wind and thus act partly on the
principle of a kite. Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasion-
ally be used for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness
far preferable. In the early days of ballooning this had to be manu-
factured in the field, but nowadays it is almost universally carried
compressed in steel tubes. About 100 such tubes, each weighing
75lb, are required to fill a lo,ooo-ft. balloon. Tubes of greater
capacity have also been tried.

The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed to go free
it will usually be rapidly carried away by the wind and the results
of the observations cannot easily be transmitted back. Occasions
may occur when such ascents will be of value, but the usual method
is to send up a captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft.
With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, one
of whom has now particularly to attend to the management of the
balloon, while the other makes the observations.

With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends
on circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in
which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in the
war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose the troops
to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a rule, to be ob-
tained; but in fairly open country all important movements of
troops should be discernible by an experienced observer at any point
within about four or five miles of the balloon. The circumstances,
it may be mentioned, are such as would usually preclude one un-
accustomed to ballooning from affording valuable reports. Not only
is he liable to be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous
situation, but troops and features of the ground often have so
peculiar an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a column of
troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will depend on atmo-
spheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather a balloon is well-nigh
useless; and in strong winds, with a velocity of anything over 20 m.
an hour, efficient observation becomes a matter of difficulty. When
some special point has to be reported on, such as whether there is
any large body of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid
ascent may still be made in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the
balloon would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be
made. It is usually estimated that a successful captive ascent can
only be made in England on half the days of the year. As a general
rule balloon ascents would be made for one of the following objects :—
to examine the country for an enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's
position ; to ascertain the strength of his force, number of guns and
exact situation of the various arms ; also to note the plan of his
earthworks or fortifications. During an action the aerial observer
would be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give
warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer could also
keep the general informed as to the progress of various detached
parties of his own force, as to the advance of reinforcements, or to
the conduct of any fighting going on at a distance. Balloon observa-
tions are also of especial aid to artillery in correcting their aim.

The vulnerability of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been
tested by many experiments with variable results. One established

AERONAUTICS

PLATE I.

r

FIG. i.— CLEMENT-BAYARD DIRIGIBLE.

Photo, Topical Press

I. 858.

FIG. 2— ZEPPELIN VII. (DEUTSCHLAND), WRECKED JUNE 28, 1910.

Photo. Topical Press.

PLATE II.

AERONAUTICS

FIG. .1— BRITISH ARMY DIRIGIBLE, BETA.

Pliolo, Topical Press.

1

FIG. 4.— PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE.

Photo, Topical Press.

AERONAUTICS

269

fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely difficult
to judge, and, as its altitude can be very rapidly altered, it becomes
a very difficult mark for artillery to hit. A few bullet-holes in the
fabric of a balloon make but little difference, since the size of the
perforation is very minute as compared with the great surface of
material, but on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of
it may cause a rapid fall. It is therefore considered prudent to keep
the balloon well away from an enemy, and two miles are laid down
as the nearest approach it should make habitually.

Besides being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have also
been tried in connexion with the naval service. In France especially
regular trials have been made of inflating balloons on board ships,
and sending them aloft as a look-out; but it is now generally con-
tended that the difficulties of storing the gas and of manoeuvring the
balloon are so great on board ship as to be hardly worth the results
to be gained.

A very important development of military ballooning is that of
the navigable balloon. If only a balloon could be sent up and driven
in any required direction, and brought back to its starting-point,
it is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war.

From the very first invention of balloons the problem has
been how to navigate them by propulsion. General J. B. M. C.

Meusnier (1754-1793) proposed an elongated balloon
Aaffoonx m J7^4- ^l was experimented on by the brothers

Robert, who made two ascensions and claimed to
have obtained a deviation of 22° from the direction of a light
wind by means of aerial oars worked by hand. The relative
speed was probably about 3 m. an hour, and it was so evident
that a very much more energetic light motor than any then
known was required to stem ordinary winds that nothing more
was attempted till 1852, when Henri Giffard (1825-1882) as-
cended with a steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness.
The subjoined table exhibits some of the results subsequently
obtained : —

EXPERIMENTS WITH DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS

Year.

Inventor.

Length.

Dia-
meter.

Con-
tents.

Lifting
Capa-
city.

Weight
of
Balloon.

Weight
of
Motor.

H.P.

Speed
per
hour.

Ft.

Ft.

Cub. ft.

Ib.

ft.

Ib.

Miles.

1852

Giffard . . .

144

39

88,300

3,978

2,794

462

3'°

6-71

1872

Dupuy de

L6me . . .

118

49

120,088

8,358

4,728

2OOO

0-8

6-26

1884

Tissandier

92

30

37.439

2,728

933

616

i'5

7-82

1885

Renard and

Krebs . .

165

27

65,836

4,402

2,449

"74

9-0

14-00

1897

Schwarz . .

157

U6)
( 39 )

130,500

8,133

6,800

800?

16-0

17-00

1900

Zeppelin I.

420

39

400,000

25,000

19,000

1500

32-0

18-00

1901

Santos Du-

mont VI.

1 08

20

22,200

16-20

19-00

1908

" Republique "

195

35

130,000

3,100

80

3<>

1908

Zeppelin IV. .

446

42!

450,000

220

Giffard, the future inventor of the injector, devised a steam-
engine weighing, with fuel and water for one hour, 154 ft per
horse-power, and was bold enough to employ it in proximity to
a balloon inflated with coal gas. He was not able to stem a
medium wind, but attained some deviation. He repeated the
experiment in 1855 with a more elongated spindle, which proved
unstable and dangerous. During the siege of Paris the French
government decided to build a navigable balloon, and entrusted
the work to the chief naval constructor, Dupuy de Lome. He
went into the subject very carefully, made estimates of all the
strains, resistances and speeds, and tested the balloon in 1872.
Deviations of 12° were obtained from the course of a wind blow-
ing 27 to 37 m. per hour. The screw propeller was driven by
eight labourers, a steam-engine being deemed too dangerous;
but it was estimated that had one been used, weighing as much
as the men, the speed would have been doubled. Tissandier
and his brother applied an electric motor, lighter than any pre-
viously built, to a spindle-shaped balloon, and went up twice in
1883 and 1884. On the latter occasion he stemmed a wind of
7 m. per hour. The brothers abandoned these experiments,
which had been carried on at their own expense, when the French
War Department took up the problem. Renard and Krebs, the
officers in charge of the War Aeronautical Department at
Meudon, built and experimented with in 1884 and 1885 the fusi-

form balloon " La France," in which the " master " or maximum
section was about one-quarter of the distance from the stem.
The propelling screw was at the front of the car and driven by
an'^ electric motor of unprecedented lightness. Seven ascents
were made on very calm days, a maximum speed of 14 m. an
hour was obtained, and the balloon returned to its starting-point
on five of the seven occasions. Subsequently another balloon
was constructed, said to be capable of a speed of 22 to 28 m.
per hour, with a different motor. After many years of experi-
ment Dr Wolfert built and experimented with in Berlin, in 1897,
a cigar-shaped balloon driven by a gasoline motor. An explosion
took place in the air, the balloon fell and Dr Wolfert and his
assistant were killed. It was also in 1897 that an aluminium
balloon was built from the designs of D. Schwarz and tested in
Berlin. It was driven by a Daimler benzine motor, and attained
a greater speed than " La France "; but a driving belt slipped,
and in coming down the balloon was injured beyond repair.

From 1897 onwards Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, of the
German army, was engaged in constructing an immense balloon,
truly an airship, of most careful and most intelligent design, to
carry five men. It consisted of an aluminium framework con-
taining sixteen gas bags with a total capacity of nearly 400,000
cub. ft., and it had two cars, each containing a 16 h.p. motor.
It was first tested in June 1900, when it attained a speed of
18 m. an hour and travelled a distance of 35 m. before an
accident to the steering gear necessitated the discontinuance of
the experiment. In 1905 Zeppelin built a second airship which
had a slightly smaller capacity but much greater power, its
two motors each developing 85 h.p. This, after making some
successful trips, was wrecked in a violent gale, and was succeeded
by a third airship, which, at its trial in October 1906, travelled
round Lake Constance and showed
itself able to execute numerous curves
and traverses. At a second series of
trials in September 1907, after some
alterations had been effected, it
attained a speed of 36 m. an hour,
remaining in the air for many hours
and carrying nine or eleven passengers.
A fourth vessel of similar design, but
with more powerful motors, was tried
in 1908, and succeeded in travelling
250 m. in ii hours, but owing to a
storm it was wrecked when on land
and burnt at Echterdingen on the sth
of August. Subscriptions, headed by
the emperor, were at once raised to
enable Zeppelin to build another.
Meanwhile in 1901 Alberto Santos Dumont had begun ex-
periments with dirigible balloons in Paris, and on the igth of
October won the Deutsch prize by steering a balloon from St
Cloud round the Eiffel tower and back in half an hour, encounter-
ing on his return journey a wind of nearly 5 metres a second.
An airship constructed by Pierre and Paul Lebaudy in 1904
also made a number of successful trials in the vicinity of Paris;
with a motor of 40 h.p., its speed was about 25 m. an hour,
and it regularly carried three passengers. In October 1907 the
" Nulli Secundus," an airship constructed for the British War
Office, sailed from Farnborough round St Paul's Cathedral,
London, to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a distance of about
50 m., in 3 hours 35 minutes. The weight carried, including
two occupants, was 3400 ft, and the maximum speed was 24 m.
an hour, with a following wind of 8 m. an hour.

Thus the principles which govern the design of the dirigible
balloon may be said to have been evolved. As the lifting power
grows as the cube of the dimensions, and the resistance approxi-
mately as the square, the advantage lies with the larger sizes of
balloons, as of ocean steamers, up to the limits within which
they may be found practicable. Count Zeppelin gained an ad-
vantage by attaching his propellers to the balloon, instead of to
the car as heretofore; but this requires a rigid framework and a
great increase of weight. Le Compagnon endeavoured, in 1892,

2JO

AEROTHERAPEUTICS

to substitute flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former
can be suspended near the centre of resistance. C. Danilewsky
followed him in 1898 and 1899, but without remarkable results.
Dupuy de Lome was the first to estimate in detail the resistances
to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed that in the
aggregate they were greater than he calculated. Renard and
Krebs also found that their computed resistances were largely
exceeded, and after revising the results they gave the formula
R = 0-01685 D2V*, R being the resistance in kilograms, D the
diameter in metres and V the velocity in metres per second.
Reduced to British measures, in pounds, feet and miles per
hour, R = 0-0006876 D2V2, which is somewhat in excess of the
formula computed by Dr William Pole from Dupuy de Lome's
experiments. The above coefficient applies only to the shape
and rigging of the balloon " La France," and combines ah1 resist-
ances into one equivalent, which is equal to that of a flat plane
18% of the " master section." This coefficient may perhaps
hereafter be reduced by one-half through a better form of hull
and car, more like a fish than a spindle, by diminished sections
of suspension lines and net, and by placing the propeller at the
centre of resistance. To compute the results to be expected
from new projects, it will be preferable to estimate the resistances
in detail. The following table shows how this was done by
Dupuy de Lome, and the probable corrections which should
have been made by him: —

RESISTANCES — DUPUY DE LOME'S BALLOON

Computed by Dupuy de L6me.
V — 2'22 m. per sec.

MoreProbable Values.
V = 2-82 m. per sec.

Part.

Area,
Sq.
Metres.

Co-
effici-
ent.

Air
Pres-
sure.

Resist-
ance,
Kg.

Co-
effici-
ent.

Air
Pres-
sure.

Resist-
ance,
Kg.

Hull, with-
out net. .
Car . . .
Men's bodies
Gas tubes .
Small cords
Large cords

172-96

3-25
3-oo
6-40
10-00
9.90

1/3°

rf

i/S

'/5
1/2

1/3

0-665

3-830
0-432
0-400
0-850
3-325
2-194

I/IS

1/5

1/2
1/2
1/2
1/3

0-875

10-091
0-569
1-312
2-750
4-375
2-887

11-031

21-984

When the resistances have been reduced to the lowest possible
minimum by careful design, the attainable speed must depend
upon the efficiency of the propeller and the relative lightness of
the motor. The commercial uses of dirigible balloons, however,
will be small, as they must remain housed when the wind aloft
is brisk. The sizes will be great and costly, the loads small, and
the craft frail and short-lived, yet dirigible balloons constitute
the obvious type for governments to evolve, until they are super-
seded by efficient flying machines. (See further, as to the latter,
the article FLIGHT AND FLYING.)

The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent; for
if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will sometimes trail for
miles over the ground at the rate of ten or twenty miles
'ot'ae'ro an ^our' catching now and then in hedges, ditches, roots
"station. °^ trees, &c.; and, after giving the balloon a terrible
jerk , breaking loose again, till at length some obstruction,
such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords a firm hold. This
danger, however, has been much reduced by the use of the
" ripping-cord," which enables a panel to be ripped open and
the balloon to be completely deflated in a few seconds, just as it
is reaching the earth. But even a very rough descent is usually
not productive of any very serious consequences; as, although
the occupants of the car generally receive many bruises and are
perhaps cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anything worse
occurs. On a day when the wind is light (supposing that there
is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the descent,
and the aeronaut can decide several miles off on the field in
which he will alight. It is very important to have a good supply
of ballast, so as to be able to check the rapidity of the descent,
as in passing downwards through a wet cloud the weight of
the balloon is enormously increased by the water deposited on
it; and if there is no ballast to throw out in compensation, the

velocity is sometimes very great. It is also convenient, if the
district upon which the balloon is descending appear unsuitable
for landing, to be able to rise again. The ballast consists of fine
baked sand, which becomes so scattered as to be inappreciable
before it has fallen far below the balloon. It is taken up in bags
containing about \ cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated
by a spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast
should be so adjusted that there is nearly equilibrium before
leaving, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and has to be
checked by parting with gas. It is almost impossible to liberate
the balloon in such a way as to avoid giving it a rotary motion
about a vertical axis, which continues during the whole time it
is in the air. This rotation makes it difficult for those in the car
to discover in what direction they are moving; and it is only
by looking down along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended
that the motion of the balloon over the country below can be
traced. The upward and downward motion at any instant is
at once known by merely dropping over the side of the car a
small piece of paper: if the paper ascends or remains on the
same level or stationary, the balloon is descending; while, if
it descends, the balloon is ascending. This test is exceedingly
delicate.

REFERENCES. — Tiberius Cavallo, Treatise on the Nature and Prop-
erties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids (London, 1781);
Idem, History and Practice of Aerostation (London, 1785); Vincent
Lunardi, Account of the First Aerial Voyage in England, in a Series
of Letters to his Guardian (London, 1785) ; T. Forster, Annals of some
Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyages (London, 1832) ;MonckMason,
Aeronautica (London, 1838); John Wise, A System of Aeronautics,
comprehending its Earliest Investigations (Philadelphia, 1850) ;
Hatton Tumor, Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures in the
Atmosphere (London, 1865); J. Glaisher, C. Flammarion, W. de
Fonvielle and G. Tissandier, Voyages aeriens (Paris, 1870) (translated
and edited by James Glaisher under the title Travels in the Air
(London, 1871); O. Chanute, Progress in Flying Machines (New
York, 1894) ; W. de Fonvielle, Les Ballons sondes (Paris, 1899) ; Idem,
Histoire de la navigation aerienne (Paris, 1907) ; F. Walker, Aerial
Navigation (London, 1902) ; J. Lecornu, La Navigation aerienne
(Pans, 1903) ; M. L. Marchis, Lemons sur la navigation aerienne (Paris,
1904), containing many references to books and periodicals on
pp. 701-704; Navigating the Air (papers collected by the Aero Club
of America) (New York, 1907); A. Hildebrandt, Airships past and
present (London, 1908).

AEROTHERAPEUTICS, the treatment of disease by atmo-
spheric air: a term which of late has come to be used somewhat
more loosely to include also pneumotherapeutics, or the treat-
ment of disease by artificially prepared atmospheres. The
physical and chemical properties of atmospheric air, under
ordinary pressure or under modified pressure, may be thera-
peutically utilized either on the external surface of the body, on
the respiratory surface, or on both surfaces together. Also
modifications may be induced in the ventilation of the lungs by
general gymnastics or respiratory gymnastics.

The beneficial effects of air under ordinary pressure are now
utilized in the open-air treatment of phthisical patients, and the
main indications of benefit resulting therefrom are reduction of
the fever, improvement of appetite and the induction of sleep.

The air, however, may be modified in composition or in tempera-
ture. Inhalation is the most common and successful method of
applying it — when modified in composition— to the human body.
The methods in use are as follows: (i) Inhalation of gases,
as oxygen and nitrous oxide. -The dyspnoea and cyanosis of
pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, heart failure, &c., are much
relieved by the inhalation of oxygen; and nitrous oxide is
largely used as an anaesthetic in minor operations. (2) Certain
liquids are used as anaesthetics, which volatilize at low tempera-
tures, as chloroform and ether. (3) Mercury and sulphur, both
of which require heat for volatilization, are very largely used.
In a mercurial or sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a
sheet, sits on a chair beneath which a spirit lamp is placed to
vaporize the drug, the best results being obtained when the
atmosphere is surcharged with steam at the same time. The
vapour envelops the patient and is absorbed by the skin. This
method is extensively used in the treatment of syphilis, and also
for scabies and other parasitic affections of the skin. (4) Moist
inhalations are rather losing repute in the light of modern

AERTSZEN— AESCHINES

271

investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower than the
larger bronchial tubes is affected. Complicated apparatus has
been devised for the application, although a wide-mouthed jug
filled with boiling water, into which the drug is thrown, is almost
equally efficacious.

Artificial atmospheres may be made for invalids by respirators
which cover the mouth and nose, the air being drawn through
tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the disinfectant to be used.
This is most valuable in the intensely offensive breath of some
cases of bronchiectasis.

The air may be modified as to temperature. Cold air at
32-33° F. has been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of the
lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse becomes
fuller and slower and the general condition improves. The
more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to
show that this may be immensely valuable in the treatment
of haemoptysis. The inspiration of superheated dry air has
been the subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful
results.

Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its therapeutic
effects. If a current of hot air is directed upon healthy skin, the
latter becomes pale and contracts in consequence of vaso-con-
striction. But if it is directed on a- patch of diseased skin, as
in lupus, an inflammatory reaction is set up and the diseased
part begins to undergo necrosis. This fact has been used with
good results in lupus, otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and
laryngeal troubles.

Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied. The
physiological effects of compressed air were first studied in
diving-bells, and more recently in caissons. Caisson workers at
first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, how-
ever, the opposite effect is produced and intense debility super-
venes. In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series of
troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See
CAISSON DISEASE.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has
been utilized by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to
hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of
the atmosphere can be exactly regulated. This form of treat-
ment has been found of much value in the treatment of emphy-
sema, early pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of
persistent high temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppura-
tion), delayed absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease,
anaemia and chlorosis. But compressed air is contra-indicated
in advanced tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or
intestines.

Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod,
who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod Boot.
By means of this the blood could be drawn into any part to which
it was applied, the vessels of which became gorged with blood at
the expense of internal organs. More recently this method of
treatment has undergone far-reaching developments and is
known as the passive hyperaemic treatment.

There are also various forms of apparatus' by means of which
air at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the lungs,
and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various kinds.
Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which
is much used. A committee of the Brompton Hospital,
London, investigating its capabilities, decided that its use
brought about (i) an increase of chest circumference, and (2)
in cases of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area
of dulness.

AERTSZEN (or AARTSEN), PIETER (1507-1573), caUed
"Long Peter " on account of his height, Dutch historical
painter, was bom and died at Amsterdam. When a youth he
distinguished himself by painting homely scenes, in which he
reproduced articles of furniture, cooking utensils, &c., with
marvellous fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical
painting. Several of his best works — altar-pieces in various
churches — were destroyed in the religious wars of the Nether-
lands. An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a
picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp Museum.
Aertszen was a member of the Academy of St Luke, in whose

books he is entered as Langhe Peter, schilder. Three of his sons
attained to some note as painters.

AESCHINES (380-314 B.C.), Greek statesman and orator, was
born at Athens. The statements as to his parentage and early
life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents,
though poor, were respectable. After assisting his father in his
school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success,
served with distinction in the army, and held several clerkships,
amongst them the office of clerk to the Boule. The fall of
Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and
he was sent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnesus against
Philip. In 347 he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip
of Macedon, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side.
His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346) sent to ratify
the terms of peace led to his accusation by Demosthenes and
Timarchus on a charge of high treason, but he was acquitted
as the result of a powerful speech, in which he showed that his
accuser Timarchus had, by his immoral conduct, forfeited the
right to speak before the people. In 343 the attack was renewed
by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines
replied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted.
In 339, as one of the Athenian deputies (pylagorae) in the Amphi-
ctyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the
Sacred War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix
the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336, when
Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be
rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services to
the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated the
law in bringing forward the motion. The matter remained in
abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their speeches
Against Ctesiphon and On the Crown. The result was a complete
victory for Demosthenes. Aeschines went into voluntary exile
at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards
removed to Samos, where he died in the seventy-fifth year of
his age. His three speeches, called by the ancients " the Three
Graces," rank next to those of Demosthenes. Photius knew of
nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve
published under his name (Hercher, Epislolographi Graeci) are
not genuine.

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. — Demosthenes, De Corona and De Falsa
Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legations and In Ctesiphontem;
Lives by Plutarch, Philostratus and Libanius; the Exegesis of
Apollonius. EDITIONS. — Benseler (1855-1860) (trans, and notes),
Weidner (1872), Blass (1896); Against Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872),
(l878),G.A.and W.H. Simcox( 1866), Drake (i872),Richardson(l889),
Gwatkin and Shuckburgh (1890). ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS. — Leland
(1771), Biddle (1881), and others. See also Stechow, Aeschinis Ora-
toris vita (1841); Marchand, Charakteristik des Redners Aschines
(1876) ; Castets, Eschine, I'Orateur (1875) ; for the political problems
see histories of Greece, esp. A. Holm, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896) ;
A. Schafer, Demosth. und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1856—1858); also
DEMOSTHENES.

AESCHINES (sth century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher.
According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage-maker,
but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60;
Suidas, s.v.). He was an intimate friend of Socrates, who is
reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son alone knew
how to honour him. Diogenes Laertius preserves a tradition
that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help Socrates to escape
from prison. He was always a poor man, and Socrates advised
him ' to borrow from himself, by diminishing his expenditure."
He started a perfumery shop in Athens on borrowed capital,
became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan court, where he
was well received by Aristippus. According to Diog. Laert. (ii.
61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly ignored Aeschines, but
this does not agree with Plutarch, De adulators et amico (c. 26).
On the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, he returned to
Athens, and, finding it impossible to profess philosophy publicly
owing to the contempt of Plato and Aristotle, was compelled to
teach privately. He wrote also forensic speeches; Phrynichus,
in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions
his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes
also spoke highly of him (Ilepi I8(uv). He wrote several philo-
sophical dialogues: (i) Concerning virtue, whether it can be

272

AESCHYLUS

Lite.

taught; (2) Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning riches, whether
they are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is to
be feared, — but those extant on the several subjects are not
genuine remains. J. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of
them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Sihae
Philologicae, and they have been edited by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig,
1786), and K. F. Hermann, De Aeschin. Socrat. relig. (Gott.
1850). The genuine dialogues appear to have been marked by
the Socratic irony; an amusing passage is quoted by Cicero in
the De inventione (i. 31).

See Hirzel, Der Dialog, i. 129-140; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers,
vol. iii. p. 342 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry, London, 1905).

AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the
only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive,
and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of the Greek
drama, was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. His father,
Euphorion, belonged to the " Eupatridae " or old nobility of
Athens, as we know on the authority of the short Life of the
poet given in the Medicean Manuscript (see note on
"authorities" at the end). According to the same
tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle of Greece
against Persia; and was present at the battles of Marathon,
Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, in the years 490-479. At least
one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with him at Marathon,
and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act of bravery;
and the brothers' portraits found a place in the national picture
of the battle which the Athenians set up as a memorial in
the Stoa Poecile (or " Pictured Porch ") at Athens.

The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus'
poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native
genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly in-
spired by the personal share he took in the great actions of a
heroic national uprising. In the same way, the poet's brooding
thoughtfulness on deep questions — the power of the gods, their
dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, the future life in
Hades — though largely due to his turn of mind and temperament,
was doubtless connected with the place where his childhood
was passed. Eleusis was the centre of the most famous worship
of Demeter, with its processions, its ceremonies, its mysteries,
its impressive spectacles and nocturnal rites; and these were
intimately connected with the Greek beliefs about the human
soul, and the underworld.

His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more
than forty years. In 499, his 26th year, he first exhibited at
Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at Athens,
was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. The total
number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have been ninety;
and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named or nameable
which survive only in fragments, amount to over eighty, so that
Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable tradition. It is well
known that in the sth century each exhibitor at the tragic con-
tests produced four plays; and Aeschylus must therefore have
competed (between 499 and 458) more than twenty times, or once
in two years. His first victory is recorded in 484, fifteen years
after his earliest appearance on the stage; but in the remaining
twenty-six years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was
successful at least twelve times. This clearly shows that he was
the most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458;
and for more than half that time was usually the victor in the
contests. Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional
position among his contemporaries is the well-known decree
passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to exhibit
a play of Aeschylus should " receive a chorus," i.e. be officially
allowed to produce the drama at the Dionysia. The existence
of this decree, mentioned in the Life, is strongly confirmed by
two passages in Aristophanes: first in the prologue of the
Acharnians (which was acted in 425, thirty-one years after the
poet's death), where the citizen, grumbling about his griefs and
troubles, relates his great disappointment, when he took his seat
in the theatre " expecting Aeschylus," to find that when the
play came on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the
Frogs (acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested

in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former com-
plains (Fr. 866) that " the battle is not fair, because my own
poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and
therefore he will have it with him to recite " — a clear reference, as
the scholiast points out, to the continued production at Athens
of Aeschylus' plays after his death.

Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is
said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's life
that deserve mention are connected with his Sicilian visits, and
the charge preferred against him of revealing the " secrets of
Demeter." This tale is briefly mentioned by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2),
and a late commentator (Eustratius, i2th century) quotes from
one Heraclides Pontius the version which may be briefly given
as follows: —

The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there
was a reference to Demeter. The audience suspected him of
revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet fled
to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved his life
for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd respected
the inviolable sanctuary. He was afterwards charged with the
crime before the Areopagus; and his plea " that he did not
know that what he said was secret " was accepted by the court
and secured his acquittalt The commentator adds that the
prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was the real
cause of the leniency of his judges. The story was afterwards
developed, and embellished by additions; but in the above
shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main fact
seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic.

As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that
certain descriptions in the Persae, and the known facts that he
wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king Lycurgus,
persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his having a special
knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely that he had visited
it. This, however, remains at best a conjecture. For his repeated
visits to Sicily, on the other hand, there is conclusive ancient
evidence. Hiero the First, tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned
about twelve years (478-467), and amongst other efforts after
magnificence invited to his court famous poets and men of letters,
had founded a new town, Aetna, on the site of Catana which he
captured, expelling the inhabitants. Among his guests were
Aeschylus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides. About 476
Aeschylus was entertained by him, and at his request wrote
and exhibited a play called The Women of Aetna in honour of
the new town. He paid a second visit about 472, the year in
which he had produced the Persae at Athens; and the play is
said to have been repeated at Syracuse at his patron's request.
Hiero died in 467, the year of the Seven against Thebes; but
after 458, when the Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find
the poet again in Sicily for the last time. In 456 he died, and
was buried at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph in
two elegiac couplets saying: " Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus,
son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat-
bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon
can speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well." The
authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says it w.as
inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while Athenaeus
and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus. Probably most people
would agree that only the poet himself could have praised the
soldier and kept silence about the poetry.

Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name
little need be said. Pausanias' tale, how Dionysus appeared to
the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and bade
him write a tragedy — or the account in the Life, how he was
killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise whose shell
the bird was unable to crack — clearly belong to the same class
of legends as the story that Plato was son of Apollo, and that
a swarm of bees settled upon his infant lips as he lay in his
mother's arms. Less supernatural, but hardly more historical,
is the statement in the Life that the poet left Athens for Sicily
in consequence of his defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by
Sophocles; or the alternative story of the same authority that
the cause of his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes

AESCHYLUS

273

slain at Marathon was preferred to his own. Apart from the
inherent improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither
story fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles'
success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with
the Septem; and the Marathon elegy must have been written in
490, fourteen years before his first visit to Sicily.

In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously
far more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with
Work tne fragments of more than seventy others), and par-
ticularly in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics.
The real importance of our poet in the development of the drama
(see DRAMA: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four
known predecessors — who are at best hardly more than names

»to us — is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review of
the rise of tragedy (Poet. iv. 13), names no one before Aeschy-
lus. He recognizes, it is true, a long process of growth, with
several stages, from the dithyramb to the drama; and it is not
difficult to see what these stages were. The first step was the
addition to the old choric song of an interlude spoken, and in
early days improvised, by the leader of the chorus (Poet. iv.
12). The next was the introduction of an actor (wro/cptri?? or
" answerer "), to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue
added to recitation. The " answerer " was at first the poet
himself (Ar. Rhet. iii. i). This change is traditionally attributed
to Thespis (5363.0.), who is, however, not mentioned by Aristotle.
The mask, to enable the actor to assume different parts, by
whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' day.
The third change was the enlarged range of subjects. The lyric
dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and the inter-
ludes had, of course, to follow suit. Nothing in the world so
tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; and it is
interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, as ever,
eager for " some new thing ") nevertheless opposed at first the
introduction of other tales. But the innovators won; or other-
wise there would have been no Attic drama.

In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in
honour of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical)
interlude by the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one
actor (at first the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in
more than one part.

But everything points to the fact that in the development of
the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator. The two
things that were important, when the 5th century began, if
tragedy was to realize its possibilities, were (i) the disentangle-
ment of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an
artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and (2)
its general elevation of tone. Aeschylus, as we know on the
express authority of Aristotle (Poet. iv. 13), achieved the first
by the introduction of the second actor; and though he did
not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse and con-
summation by the overwhelming effect of his serious thought,
the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic purpose,
and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness of the construction
and presentment of his tragedies.

As to the importance of the second actor no argument is
needed. The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy
between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the mask,
a series of messengers), as must have been the case when Aeschy-
lus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic sense at all,
but rather narrative. The discussion, the persuasion, the in-
struction, the pleading, the contention — in short, the interacting
personal influences of different characters on each other — are
indispensable to anything that can be called a play, as we
understand the word; and, without two "personae dramatis"
at the least, the drama in the strict sense is clearly impossible.
The number of actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus
are due the perception and the adoption of the essential step;
and therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very real sense
to be called the 'ounder of Athenian tragedy.

Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Septem contra
Tkebas, Promet teus, Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, five
can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's name

is preserved in the Arguments; and the other two approximately.
The dates rest, in the last resort, on the oi8a<TKa\la.i, or the official
records of the contests, of which we know that Aristotle (and
others) compiled catalogues; and some actual fragments have
been recovered. The order of the plays is probably that given
above; and certainly the Persae was acted in 472, Septem in
467, and the last three, the trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is
generally, though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest;
and the best authorities tend to place it not far from 490. The
early date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme
simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) opening,
and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 54, or the
highest of all the seven plays. The chief doubt is in regard to
Prometheus, which is variously placed by good authorities; but
the very low percentage of lyrics (only 27, or roughly a quarter
of the whole), and still more the strong characterization, a
marked advance on anything in the first three plays, point to
its being later than any except the trilogy, and suggest a date
somewhere about 460, or perhaps a little earlier. A few com-
ments on the extant plays will help to indicate the main points
of Aeschylus' work.

Supplices. — The exceptional interest of the Supplices is due to
its date. Being nearly twenty years earlier than any other
extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in the evolution of
Attic drama which would otherwise have been unrepresented.
Genius, as Patin says, is a " puissance libre," and none more so
than that of Aeschylus; but with all allowance for the " un-
controlled power " of this poet, we may feel confident that we
have in the Supplices something resembling in general structure
the lost works of Choerilus, Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th-
century pioneers of drama.

The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus
(who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their
father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to Argos,
to escape the marriage which they abhor. They claim the pro-
tection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but timid; and
he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to the people,
who agree to protect the fugitives. The pursuing fleet of suitors
is seen approaching; the herald arrives (with a company of
followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the cowering Danaids
to the ships and finally attempts to drag them away. Pelasgus
interposes with a force, drives off the Egyptians and saves the
suppliants. Danaus urges them to prayer, thanksgiving and
maidenly modesty, and the grateful chorus pass away to the
shelter offered by their protectors.

It is clear that we have here the drama in its nascent stage,
just developing out of the lyric pageant from which it sprang.
The interest still centres round the chorus, who are in fact the
" protagonists " of the play. Character and plot — the two
essentials of drama, in the view of all critics from Aristotle
downwards — are both here rudimentary. There are some
fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a single situation.
The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation of the king, the re-
solve of the people; the defeat of insolent violence; and the
rescue. It should not be forgotten, indeed, that the play is one
of a trilogy — an act, therefore, rather than a complete drama.
But we have only to compare it with those later plays of which
the same is true, to see the difference. Even in a trilogy, each
play is a complete whole in itself, though also a portion of a
larger whole.

Persae. — The next play that has survived is the Persae, which
has again a special interest, viz. that it is the only extant Greek
historical drama. We know that Aeschylus' predecessor, Phryni-
chus, had already twice tried this experiment, with the Capture
of Miletus and the Phoenician Women; that the latter play
dealt with the same subject as the Persae, and the handling of
its opening scene was imitated by the younger poet. The plot
of the Persae is still severely simple, though more developed
than that of the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the
first quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the
anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge
army. Then comes the messenger with the news of Salamis.

274

AESCHYLUS

including a description of the sea-fight itself which can only
be called magnificent. We realize what it must have been for
the vast audience — 30,0x30, according to Plato (Symp. 175 E)—
to hear, eight years only after the event, from the supreme poet
of Athens, who was himself a distinguished actor in the war,
this thrilling narrative of the great battle. But this reflexion at
once suggests another; it is not a tragedy in the true Greek
sense, according to the practice of the 5th-century poets. It
may be called in one point of view a tragedy, since the scene is
laid in Persia, and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of
the Persian pride. But its real aim is not the "pity and terror"
of the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of
Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one place,
over the ruin of their foe. This is best shown by the praise of
Aeschylus' great admirer and defender Aristophanes, who (Frogs,
1026-1027) puts into the poet's mouth the boast that in the
Persae he had " glorified a noble exploit, and taught men to be
eager to conquer their foe."

Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, the
Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, the experi-
ment was not repeated either by the author or his successors.
One further point may be noted. Aeschylus always has a taste
for the unseen and the supernatural; and one effective incident
here is the raising of Darius's ghost, and his prophecy of the
disastrous battle of Plataea. But in the ghost's revelations
there is a mixture of audacity and naivete, characteristic at
once of the poet and the early youth of the drama. The dead
Darius prophesies Plataea, but has not heard of Salamis; he
gives a brief (and inaccurate) list of the Persian kings, which
the queen and chorus, whom he addresses, presumably know;
and his only practical suggestion, that the Persians should not
again invade Greece, seems attainable without the aid of super-
human foresight.

Septem contra Thebas. — Five years later came the Theban
Tragedy. It is not only, as Aristophanes says (Frogs, 1024),
" a play full of the martial spirit," but is (like the Supplices)
one of a connected series, dealing with the evil fate of the Theban
House. But instead of being three acts of a single story like the
Supplices, these three plays trace the fate through three genera-
tions, Laius, Oedipus and the two sons who die by each other's
hands in the fight for the Theban sovereignty. This family fate,
where one evil deed leads to another after many years, is a larger
conception, strikingly suited to Aeschylus' genius, and con-
stitutes a notable stage in the development of the Aeschylean
drama. And just as here we have the tragedy of the Theban
house, so in the last extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces
the tragedy of the Pelopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin
to Orestes' vengeance and purification. And the names of several
lost plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy.

The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and
again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in detail.
Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; and the
two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the kingdom. Eteo-
cles has driven out Polynices, who fled to Argos, gathered a host
under seven leaders (himself being one), and when the play opens
has begun the siege of his own city. The king appears, warns
the people, chides the clamour of women,appoints seven Thebans,
including himself, to defend the seven gates, departs to his post,
meets his brother in battle and both are killed. The other six
chieftains are all slain, and the enemy beaten off. The two dead
princes are buried by their two sisters, who alone are left of the
royal house.

Various signs of the early drama are here manifest. Half the
play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole action
is recited by messengers; and the fatality whereby the predicted
mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about is no accidental
stroke of destiny, but the choice of the king Eteocles himself.
On the other hand, the opening is no longer lyric (like the two
earlier plays) but dramatic; the main scene, where the mes-
senger reports at length the names of the seven assailants, and
the king appoints the seven defenders, each man going off in
silence to his post, must have been an impressive spectacle.

One novelty should not be overlooked. There is here the first
passage of 5idi>ota, or general reflexion of life, which later became
a regular feature of tragedy. Eteocles muses on the fate which
involves an innocent man in the company of the wicked so that
he shares unjustly their deserved fate. The passage (Theb.
597-608) is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a
new effort of the poet to draw character, which may have some-
thing to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before
(468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy.

There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia, which
show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when we
think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind.

Prometheus. — The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays:
Prometheus the Fire-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus
Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the
Fire-bringer is probably the first, though recently it has been held
by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy. That Prometheus
sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from heaven; that he was
punished by fearful tortures for ages; that he finally was recon-
ciled to Zeus and set free, — all this was the ancient tale indisput-
ably. Those who hold the Fire-bringer (Hvp<t>6pos) to be the final
play, conjecture that it dealt with the establishment of the
worship of Prometheus under that title, which is known to have
existed at Athens. But the other order is on all grounds more
probable; it keeps the natural sequence — crime, punishment,
reconciliation, which is also the sequence in the Oresteia. And
if the reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme
of action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible.1

However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of
unsurpassed force and impressiveness. Nevertheless, from the
point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first
sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest of a
tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except lo, who is a dis-
tracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between the open-
ing where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, and the
close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero and the
chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto impossible. This
is just the opportunity for the poet's bold inventiveness and fine
imagination. The tortured sufferer is visited by the Oceanic
Nymphs, who float in, borne by an (imaginary) winged car, to
console; Oceanus (riding a griffin, doubtless also imaginary)
follows, kind but timid, to advise submission; then appears lo,
victim of Zeus' love and Hera's jealousy, to whom Prometheus
prophesies her future wanderings and his own fate; lastly
Hermes, insolent messenger of the gods, who tries in vain to
extort Prometheus' secret knowledge of the future. Oceanus,
the well-meaning palavering old mentor, and Hermes, the
blustering and futile jack-in-office, gods though they be, are
vigorous, audacious and very human character-sketches; the
soft entrance of the consoling nymphs is unspeakably beautiful;
and the prophecy of lo's wanderings is a striking example of
that new keen interest in the world outside which was felt by the
Greeks of the 5th century, as it was felt by the Elizabethan
English in a very similar epoch of national spirit and enterprise
two thousand years later. Thus, though dramatic action is by
the nature of the case impossible for the hero, the visitors provide
real drama.

Another important point in the development of tragedy is
what we may call the " balanced issue." The question in
Suppliants is the protection of the threatened fugitives; in
Persae the humiliation of overweening pride. So far the sym-
pathy of the audience is not doubtful or divided. In the Septem
there is an approach to conflict of feeling; the banished brother
has a personal grievance, though guilty of the impious crime of
attacking his own country. The sympathy must be for the de-
fender Eteocles; but it is at least somewhat qualified by his
injustice to his brother. In Prometheus the issue is more nearly

1 The Eumenides is quoted as a parallel, becau;je there the estab-
lishment of this worship at Athens concludes t'le whole trilogy;
but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is mich besides — the
pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, t le acquittal, the
conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while here thr story would be
finished before the last play began.

AESCHYLUS

275

balanced. The hero is both a victim and a rebel. He is punished
for his benefits to man; but though Zeus is tyrannous and un-
grateful, the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling.
As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated by
the attitude of the chorus. They enter overflowing with pity.
They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's violence
and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last crisis, the mean
advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and save themselves;
and in the final crash they share his fate.

Oresteia. — The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the
Oresteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete
trilogy preserved to us. It is a three-act drama of family fate,
like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the revenge,
the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy. Again, as in
Prometheus, the plot, at first sight, is such that the conditions of
drama seem to exclude much development in character-drawing.
The gods are everywhere at the root of the action. The inspired
prophet, Calchas, has demanded the sacrifice of the king's
daughter Iphigenia, to appease the offended Artemis. The in-
spired Cassandra, brought in as a spear-won slave from conquered
Troy, reveals the murderous past of the Pelopid house, and the
imminent slaughter of the king by his wife. Apollo orders the
son, Orestes, to avenge his father by killing the murderess, and
protects him when after the deed he takes sanctuary at Delphi.
The Erinnyes (" Furies ") pursue him over land and sea; and at
last Athena gives him shelter at Athens, summons an Athenian
council to judge his guilt, and when the court is equally divided
gives her casting vote for mercy. The last act ends with the
reconciliation of Athena and the Furies; and the latter receive
a shrine and worship at Athens, and promise favour and pros-
perity to the great city. The scope for human drama seems
deliberately restricted, if not closed, by such a story so handled.
Nevertheless, as a fact, the growth of characterization is, in
spite of all, not only visible but remarkable. Clytemnestra is
one of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek
drama. Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken pur-
pose, her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice,
Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and
her unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable
fate, when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all portrayed
with matchless force — her very craft being scornfully assumed,
as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped when
the purpose is served. And there is one other noticeable point.
In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has attempted some
touches of character in two of the humbler parts, the Watchman
in Agamemnon, and the Nurse in the Choephoroe. The Watch-
man opens the play, and the vivid and almost humorous senten-
tiousness of his language, his dark hints, his pregnant metaphors
drawn from common speech, at once give a striking touch of
realism, and form a pointed contrast to the terrible drama that
impends. A very similar effect is produced at the crisis of the
Choephoroe by the speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message
to Aegisthus pours out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported
death of Orestes and her fond memories of his babyhood — with
the most homely details; and the most striking realistic touch
is perhaps the broken structure and almost inconsequent utter-
ance of the old faithful slave's speech. These two are veritable
figures drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear
only once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innova-
tion is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus.
It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas
of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry.
The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was
prominent from the first, owing to its evolution from
the choral celebration of the god Dionysus. But the
new spirit imported by the genius of Aeschylus into the early
drama was religious in a profounder meaning of the term. The
sadness of human lot, the power and mysterious dealings of the
gods, their terrible and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (aya and
<j>dovos), their certain vengeance upon sinners, all the more fearful
if delayed, — such are the poet's constant themes, delivered
with strange solemnity and impressiveness in the lyric songs,

teristics.

especially in the Oresteia. And at times, particularly in the
Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, he almost
approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. " One God above
all, who directs all, who is the cause of all" (Ag. 163, 1485);
the watchfulness of this Power over human action (363-367),
especially over the punishment of their sins; and the mysterious
law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 758-760): — these
are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the Agamemnon with
peculiar force, in a strain at once lofty and sombre. One specially
noteworthy point in that play is his explicit repudiation of the
common Hellenic view that prosperity brings ruin. In other
places he seems to share the feeling; but here (Ag. 730) he goes
deeper, and declares that it is not o\/3os but always wickedness
that brings about men's fall. All through there is a recurring
note of fear in his view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid
images — the " death that lurks behind the wall " (Ag. 1004),
the " hidden reef which wrecks the bark, unable to weather
the headland " (Eum. 561-565). In one remarkable passage of
the Eumenides (517-525) this fear is extolled as a moral power
which ought to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them
from impious or violent acts, or from the pride that impels them
to such sins.

Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, both
in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account can be
attempted ; the briefest word must here suffice. He is everywhere
distinguished by grandeur and power of conception, presentation
and expression, and most of all in the latest works, the Prome-
theus and the Trilogy. He is pre-eminent in depicting the slow
approach of fear, as in the Persae; the imminent horror of
impending fate, as in the broken cries and visions of Cassandra
in the Agamemnon (1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to
the nether powers in the Choephoroe (315-478), and the gradual
rousing of the slumbering Furies in the Eumenides (117-139).
The fatal end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the effect is
due to its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense
which no poet has more powerfully rendered. Again, he is a
master of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic:
as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to
the tortured Prometheus (115-135); or the unmatched lyrics
which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) of the death of Iphi-
genia; or the vision of his lost love that the night brings to
Menelaus (410-426). And not least noticeable is the extra-
ordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his diction. One
example of his lyrics may be given which will illustrate more
than one of these points. It is taken from the long lament in the
Septem, sung by the chorus and the two sisters, while following
the funeral procession of the two princes. These laments may at
times be wearisome to the modern reader, who does not see, and
imperfectly imagines, the stately and pathetic spectacle; but
to the ancient feeling they were as solemn and impressive as
they were ceremonially indispensable. The solemnity is here
heightened by the following lines sung by one of the chorus of
Theban women (Sept. 854-860): —

Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters,

Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars,

The stroke that passes ever across Acheron,

Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark, —

The bark Apollo comes not near,

The bark that is hidden from the sunlight —

To the shore of darkness that welcomes all !
AUTHORITIES. — The chief authority for the text is a single MS. at
Florence, of the early nth century, known as the Medicean or M.,
written by a professional scribe and revised by a contemporary
scholar, who corrected the copyist's mistakes, added the scholia, the
arguments and the dramatis personae of three plays (Theb., Agam.,
Eum.), and at the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his
Dramas. The MS. has also been further corrected by later hands. In
1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction publishd the MS. in
photographic facsimile, with an instructive preface by Signer
Rostagno. Besides M. there are some eight later MSS. (i3th to I5th
century), and numerous copies of the three select plays (Sept., Pers.,
Prom.) which were most read in the later Byzantine period, when
Greek literature was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts.
These later MSS. are of little value or authority.

The editions, from the beginning of the I5th century to the present
time, are very numerous, and the text has been further continuously

276

AESCULAPIUS— AESOP

improved by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars. The three
first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and Robortello, 1552
give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from which MS
some leaves were lost; in 1557 the full text was restored by Vettor
(Victorius) from later MSS. After these four, the chief editions o
the seven plays were those of Schiitz, Person, Butler, Wellauer, Din
dorf, Bothe, Ahrens, Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkel, Kirch
hoff and Wecklein. Besides these, over a hundred scholars have
thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, by editions
of separate plays, by emendations, by special studies of the poet's
work, or in other ways. Among recent writers who have made such
contributions may be mentioned Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Enger
Conington, Blaydes, Cobet, Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Headlam
Davies, Tucker, Verrall and Haigh. The Fragments have been
edited by Nauck and also by Wecklein. The Aeschylean staging is
discussed in Albert Muller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalter-
thiimer ; in " Die Biihne des Aeschylos," by Wilamowitz (Hermes, xxi.)
in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. " Theatrum " (R. C. Jebb); in
Dorpfeld and Reisch (Das griechische Theater), Haigh's Attic Theatre
and Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek Antiquities. English
Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Milman and R. Browning
Oresteia, Suppliants, Persae, Seven against Thebes, Prometheus Vinc-
tus, by E. D. A. Morshead; Prometheus, E. B. Browning; the
whole seven plays, Lewis Campbell. (A. Si.)

AESCULAPIUS (Gr. ' A.aK\rnrios) , the legendary Greek god
of medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. Tricca
in Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis disputed the honour of his
birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus. He
was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the art of
healing and hunting. His skill in curing disease and restoring
the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, being afraid that
he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunder-
bolt (Apollodorus iii. 10; Pindar, Phthia, 3; Diod. Sic. iv. 71).
Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon
and Podalirius, are the physicians in the Greek camp before Troy
(Iliad, ii. 731). Temples were erected to Aesculapius in many
parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains.
The practice of sleeping (incubatio) in these sanctuaries was very
common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or pre-
scribed remedies to the sick in dreams. All who were healed
offered sacrifice — especially a cock — and hung up votive tablets,
on which were recorded their names, their diseases and the
manner in which they had been cured. Many of these votive
tablets have been discovered in the course of excavations at
Epidaurus. Here was the god's most famous shrine, and games
were celebrated in his honour every five years, accompanied by
solemn processions. Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description
of one of his temples, and of the offerings made to him. His
worship was introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books
(293 B.C.), to avert a pestilence. The god was fetched from
Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him on
the island in the Tiber (Livy x. 47; Ovid, Melam. xv. 622).
Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient artists. He is
commonly represented standing, dressed in a long cloak, with
bare breast; his usual attribute is a club-like staff with a serpent
(the symbol of renovation) coiled round it. He is often accom-
panied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his
daughter Hygieia, the goddess of health. Votive reliefs repre-
senting such groups have been found near the temple of Aescu-
lapius at Athens. The British Museum possesses a beautiful
head of Aesculapius (or possibly Zeus) from Mclos, and the
Louvre a magnificent statue.

AUTHORITIES. — L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Jane E.
Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903) ; R. Caton,
Temples and Ritual of A. at Epidaurus and Athens (1900) ; articles in
Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclopddie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho-
logie; T. Panofka, Asklepios und die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice
Walton, " The Cult of Asklepios," in Cornell Studies in Classical
Philology, iii. (New York, 1894); W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive
Offerings (1902).

AESERNIA (mod. Isernia), a Samnite town on the road from
Beneventum to Corfinium, 58 m. to the north-east of the former,
at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via Latina.
These routes are all followed by modern railways — the lines to
Campobasso, Sulmona and Caianello. A Roman colony was
established there in 263 B.C. It became the headquarters of the
Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only recovered
by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.C. Remains of its fortifica-

tions are still preserved — massive cyclopean walls, which serve
as foundation to the walls of the modern town and of a Roman
bridge, and the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, cut in
the rock, and dating from Roman times.

AESOP (Gr. AIO-COTTOS), famous for his Fables, is supposed to
have lived from about 620 to 560 B.C. The place of his birth is
uncertain— Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samos, Athens and Sardis
all claiming the honour. We possess little trustworthy informa-
tion concerning his life, except that he was the slave of ladmon
of Samos and met with a violent death at the hands of the in-
habitants of Delphi. A pestilence that ensued being attributed
to this crime, the Delphians declared their willingness to make
compensation, which, in default of a nearer connexion, was
claimed and received by ladmon, the grandson of his old master.
Herodotus, who is our authority for this (ii. 134), does not state
the cause of his death; various reasons are assigned by later
writers — his insulting sarcasms, the embezzlement of money
entrusted to him by Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft
of a silver cup.

Aesop must have received his freedom from ladmon, or he
could not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian
demagogue (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to the story,
he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where he met
Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages of Greece
with Periander at Corinth. During the reign of Peisistratus he
is said to have visited Athens, on which occasion he related the
fable of The Frogs asking for a King, to dissuade the citizens
from attempting to exchange Peisistratus for another ruler.
The popular stories current regarding him are derived from a
life, or rather romance, prefixed to a book of fables, purporting
to be his, collected by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the I4th
century. In this he is described as a monster of ugliness and
deformity, as he is also represented in a well-known marble
figure in the Villa Albani at Rome. That this life, however,
was in existence a century before Planudes, appears from a
13th-century MS. of it found at Florence. In Plutarch's Sym-
posium of the Seven Sages, at which Aesop is a guest, there are
many jests on his original servile condition, but nothing deroga-
tory is said about his personal appearance. We are further
told that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue by
the famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong argument
against the fiction of his deformity. Lastly, the obscurity in
which the history of Aesop is involved has induced some scholars
to deny his existence altogether.

It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to writing;
Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as having
.earnt the " absurdities " of Aesop from conversation at banquets,
and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by turning some of
Aesop's fables " which he knew " into verse (Plato, Phaedo,
61 b). Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283 B.C.) made a collection
n ten books, probably in prose (Aoycav Ai<7co7retcoc o-uvaywyai)
:or the use of orators, which has been lost. Next appeared an
edition in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's
name is unknown. Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and
tutor to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into
choliambics in the earlier part of the 3rd century A.D. The
most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a f reedman of
Augustus. Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th century)
translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The collections
which we possess under the name of Aesop's Fables are late
renderings of Babrius's version or Tlpoyvfivaffnara, rhetorical
exercises of varying age and merit. Syntipas translated Babrius
nto Syriac, and Andreopulos put the Syriac back again into
jreek. Ignatius Diaconus, in the 9th century, made a version of
53 fables in choliambic tetrameters. Stories from Oriental sources
were added, and from these collections Maximus Planudes
made and edited the collection which has come down to us under
he name of Aesop, and from which the popular fables of modern
Europe have been derived.

For further information see the article FABLE; Bentley, Dissert-
ition on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies inedites du moyen
tge (1854) ; J- Jacobs, The Fables of Aesop (1889) : i. The history of

AESOPUS— AESTHETICS

277

the Aesopic fable; ii. The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by
William Caxton, 1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Les
Fabulistes Latins (1893-1899).

Before any Greek text appeared, a Latin translation of too
Fabulae Aesopicae by an Italian scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius)
was published at Rome, 1476. About 1480 the collection of
Planudes was brought out at Milan by Buono Accorso (Accursius),
together with Ranuzio's translation. This edition, which contained
144 fables, was frequently reprinted and additions made from time
to time from various MSS. — the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine,
Vatican ..and Augsburg — by Stephanus (1547), Nevelet (1610),
Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (1741), Furia (1810), Coray (1810),
Schneider (1812) and others. A critical edition of all the previously
known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the collections of
Furia, Coray and Schneider, was published in the Teubner series of
Greek and Latin texts. A Fabularum Aesopicarum sylloge (233 in
number) from a Paris MS., with critical notes by Sternbach, appeared
in a Cracow University publication, Rozprawy akademii umiejet-
nosci (1894).

AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander
the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was
discovered by Mai in 1816.

AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian,
flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth
and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was
a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens. Cicero was on
friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally distin-
guished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruc-
tion. Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus,
that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should
revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in
the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed
one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last
appearance in 55 B.C. — when Cicero tells us that he was advanced
in years — on the occasion of the splendid games given by Pompey
at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat ex-
travagant living, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son,
who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace
(Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of
Caecilia Metella and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have
the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a
draught.

Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint., Instil.
xi. 3, in ; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14.

AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously defined as the

philosophy or science of the beautiful, of taste or of the fine arts.

The name is something of an accident. In its original

Pre"?'j?', Greek form (aiotfTjrais) it means what has to do with

ary defini-
tion, sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and this

is still its meaning in Kant's philosophy (" Transcen-
dental Aesthetic"). Its limitation to that function of sensuous
perception which we know as the contemplative enjoyment of
beauty is due to A. G. Baumgarten. Although the subject does
not readily lend itself to precise definition at the outset, we may
indicate its scope and aim, as understood by recent writers, by
saying that it deals successively with one great department of
human experience, viz. the pleasurable activities of pure con-
templation. By pure contemplation is here understood that
manner of regarding objects of sense-perception, and more
particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by the
pleasure of the act itself. The term " object " means whatever
can be perceived through one of the senses, e.g. a flower, a land-
scape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of tones. The contemplation
may be immediate when (as mostly happens) the object is present
to sense; or it may be mediate, when as in reading poetry we
dwell on images of objects of sense. Whenever we become
interested in an object merely as presented for our contemplation
our whole state of mind may be described as an aesthetic atti-
tude, and our experience as an aesthetic experience. Other
expressions such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and
appreciation of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will
serve less precisely to mark off this department of experience.

Aesthetic experience is differentiated from other kinds of
experience by a number of characteristics. We commonly speak
of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of feeling.
The appreciation of beauty is pervaded and sustained by pleas-

urable feeling. In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities of feel-
ing attain their fullest and most perfect development. Yet, as
its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation
might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by Oittena-
a certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling, aesthetic
Even when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is export-
comparatively restrained. A rare exhibition of beauty ence-
may thrill the soul for a moment, yet in general the "rterfsJfcs
enjoyment of it is far removed from the excitement as feeling.
of passion. On the other hand, aesthetic pleasure
is pure enjoyment. Even when a disagreeable element is
present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering of
a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of enjoy-
ment. It is, moreover, free from the painful elements of
craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, which
are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as
the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs. To this
purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement,
which implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily
needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving
amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. As
the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic Marked
experience is clearly marked off from practical life, with off from
its urgent desires and the rest. In aesthetic contempla- practical
tion desire and will as a whole are almost dormant, activity,
This detachment from the daily life of practical needs and aims
is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic enjoyment
must be disinterested ("ohne Interesse"), that when we regard
an object aesthetically we are not in the least concerned with
its practical significance and value: one cannot, for example,
at the same moment aesthetically enjoy looking at a a/so ^a,
painting and desire to be its possessor. In like manner, Intel-
even if less apparently, aesthetic contemplation is factual
marked off from the arduous mental work which enters actlvUy-
into the pursuit of knowledge. In contemplating an aesthetic
object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas all
the more serious intellectual work of science involves the diffi-
culties of the abstract. The contemplation is, moreover, free from
those restraints which are imposed on our mental activity by
the desire to obtain knowledge.

While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience
appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of the
soul, it is connected just as clearly, through the act unifonn-
of sense-perception, with the world of objects which is ity of
our common possession. Being thus dependent on a con- aesthetic
templation of things in this common world it raises the «/>«*•
question whether, like the perception of these objects,
it is a uniform experience, the same for others as for myself. We
touch here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience which
needs to be noted at this stage, its uniformity or subjection to
law. It is a common idea that men's judgments about matters
of taste disagree to so large an extent that each individual is
left very much to his subjective impressions. With regard to
many of the subtler matters of aesthetic appreciation, at any
rate, there is undoubtedly on a first view the appearance of a
want of agreement. Contrasted with logical judgments
or even with ethical ones, aesthetic judgments may no ae/<Aetfc
doubt look uncertain and " subjective." The proposi- judgment.
tion " this tree is a birch " seems to lend itself much
better to critical discussion and to general acceptance or rejection
than the proposition " this tree is beautiful." This circumstance,
as Kant shrewdly suggests, helps to explain why we have come
to employ the word " taste " in dealing with aesthetic matters;
for the pronouncements of the sense of taste are recognized
as among the most uncertain and " subjective " of our sense-
impressions. Yet viewed as a species of pleasurable feelings,
aesthetic experiences will be found to exhibit a large amount of
uniformity, of objective agreement as between different experi-
ences of the same person and experiences of different persons.
This general agreement appears to be clearly implied in the
ordinary form of our aesthetic judgments. To say " this rose is
beautiful " means more than to say " the sight of this rose affects

278

AESTHETICS

Logical
judgment
and Judg*
meat of
value.

me agreeably." It means that the rose has a general power of
so affecting me (at different times) and others as well.
The judgment is not the same as a logical one. It
does not say or imply that as a matter of fact it always
does please — even if we add the limitation, those who
possess the sensibilities and the taste presupposed;
for, as we know, our varying mood and state of receptivity make
a profound difference in the fulness of the aesthetic enjoyment.
It is a " judgment of value " which claims for the rose aesthetic
rank as an object properly qualified to please contemplative
subjects. This value, it is plain, is relative to conscious subjects;
yet since it is relative to all competent ones, it may be regarded
as " objective " — that is to say, as belonging to the object.1

This slight preliminary inspection of the subject will prepare
one for the circumstance that the scientific treatment of it has
Late de- begun late, and is even now far from being complete.
veiopment This slowness of development is in part explained
of the by the detachment of aesthetic experience from the
urgent needs of life. In a comparatively early stage
of human progress some thought had to be bestowed on such
pressing problems as to how to cope with the forces of nature
and to turn them to useful account; how to secure in human
communities obedience to custom and law. But the problem of
throwing light on our aesthetic pleasures had no such urgency.2
To this it must be added that aesthetic experience (in all but its
simpler and cruder forms) has been, and still is confined to a
small number of persons; so that the subject does not appeal
to a wide popular interest; while, on the other hand, the sub-
jects of this experience not infrequently have a strong senti-
mental dislike to the idea of introducing into the region of refined
feeling the cold light of scientific investig ition. Lastly, there are
special difficulties inherent in the subject. One serious obstacle
to a scientific theory of aesthetic experience is the illusive
character of many of its finer elements — for example, the subtle
differences of feeling-tone produced by the several colours as
well as by their several tones and shades, by the several musical
intervals, and so forth. Finally, there is the circumstance just
touched on that much of this region of experience, instead of
at once disclosing uniformity, seems to be rather the abode of
caprice and uncertainty. The variations in taste at different
levels of culture, among different races and nations and among
the individual members of the same community are numerous
and striking, and might at first seem to bar the way to a scien-
tific treatment of the subject. These considerations suggest
that an adequate theory of aesthetic experience could only be
attempted after the requisite scientific skill had been developed
in other and more pressing departments of inquiry.

If we glance at the modes of treating the subject up to a quite

recent date we find but little of serious effort to apply to it a

strictly scientific method of investigation. The whole

Inadequate ,

theories of extent of concrete experience has not been adequately
subject. recognized, still less adequately examined. For the
greater part thinkers have been in haste to reach some
simple formula of beauty which might seem to cover the more
obvious facts. This has commonly been derived deductively
from some more comprehensive idea of experience or human
life as a whole. Thus in German treatises on aesthetics which
have been largely thought out under the influence of philosophic
idealism the beautiful is subsumed under the idea, of which it is
regarded as one special manifestation, and its place in human
experience has been determined by defining its logical relations
to the other great co-ordinate concepts, the good and the true.
These attempts to reach a general conception of beauty have
often led to one-sidedness of view. And this one-sidedness has
sometimes characterized the theories of those who, like Alison,
have made a wider survey of aesthetic facts.

Aesthetics, like Ethics, is a Normative Science, that is to say,

1 See below for Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment, as having
subjective universal validity. On the meaning of judgments of
value see J. Cohn, Allgem. Asthetik, Einleitung, pp. 7 ff., and Teil i.,
Kap. 2 and 3.

2 Cf. Ladd, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 331.

concerned with determining the nature of a species of the desir-
able or the good (in the large sense). It seeks one or Aesthetic*
more regulative principles which may help us to asnor-
distinguish a real from an apparent aesthetic value, "">tive
and to set the higher and more perfect illustrations of *
beauty above the lower and less perfect. As a science it will
seek to realize its normative function by the aid of a patient,
methodical investigation of facts, and by processes of observa-
tion, analysis and induction similar to those carried out in the
natural sciences. In speaking of aesthetics as a nor- Aesthetics
ma live science we do not mean that it is a practical not a
one in the sense that it supplies practical rules which practical
may serve as definite guidance for the artist and the sceace-
lover of beauty, in their particular problems of selecting and
arranging elements of aesthetic value. It is no more a practical
science than logic. The supposition that it is so is probably
favoured by the idea that aesthetic theory has art for its special
subject. But this is to confuse a general aesthetic theory —
what the Germans call " General Aesthetics " — with a theory of
art (Kunstwissenschaft). The former, with which we are here
concerned, has to examine aesthetic experience as a whole;
which, as we shall presently see, includes more than the enjoy-
ment and appreciation of art.

We may now indicate with more fulness the main problems
of our science, seeking to give them as precise a form as possible.
At the outset we are confronted with an old and
almost baffling question: " Is beauty a single quality 0ftDg
inherent in objects of perception like form or colour?" science,
Common language certainly suggests that it is.
Aesthetics, too, began its inquiry at the same point of view, and
its history shows how much pains men have taken in is beauty
trying to determine the nature of this attribute, as well a single
as that of the faculty of the soul by which it is per- <ii"iity in
ceived. Yet a little examination of the facts suffices to oblectaf
show that the theory is beset with serious difficulties. Whatever
beauty may be it is certainly not a quality of an object in the
same way in which the colour or the form of it is a Beauty
quality. These are physical qualities, known to us by not a'
specific modifications of our sensations. The beauty physical
of a rose or of a peach is clearly not a physical quality. iuallty-
Nor do we in attributing beauty to some particular quality in
an object, say colour, conceive of it as a phase of this quality,
like depth or brilliance of colour, which, again, is known by a
special modification of the sensations of colour. Hence we
must say that beauty, though undoubtedly referred to a physical
object, is extraneous to the group of qualities which makes it a
physical object.

Beauty is frequently attributed to a concrete object as
a whole — to a flower or shell, for example, as a visible whole.
Our everyday aesthetic judgments are wont to leave
the attributes thus vaguely referred to the concrete attributed
object. Yet it is equally certain that we not infre- todit*
quently speak of the beauty of some definable aspect fereat
or quality of an object, as when we pronounce the Jaobjects.
contour of a mountain or of a vase to be beautiful.
And it may be asked whether, in thus localizing beauty, so to
speak, in one of the constituent qualities of an object, we always
place it in the same quality. A mere glance at the facts will
suffice to convince us that we do not. We call the facade of a
Greek temple beautiful with special reference to its admirable
form; whereas in predicating beauty of the ruin of a Norman
castle we refer rather to what the ruin means — to the effect of
an imagination of its past proud strength and slow vanquishment
by the unrelenting strokes of time. This fact that beauty ap-
pertains now more to one quality, now more to another, helps
us to understand why certain theorists, known as formalists,
regard all beauty as formal or residing in form, whereas Formalists
others, the idealists or expressionalists, view it as and ex-
residing in ideal content or expression. These theories, pression-
however, like other attempts to find an adequate *
single principle of beauty, are unsatisfactory. Form and ideal
content are each a great source of aesthetic enjoyment, and

AESTHETICS

279

either can be found in a degree of supremacy which practically
renders the co-operation of the other unimportant. The two
buildings cited above, two human faces, two musical composi-
tions, may exhibit in an impressive and engrossing way the
beauty of form and of expression respectively. Nor is this all.
Three Beauty refuses to be confined even to these two.
ultimate There are the various beauties of colour, for example,
modes of as exhibited in such familiar phenomena of nature as
sea and sky, autumn moors and woods. A slight
analysis of the constituents of objects to which we attribute
beauty shows that there are at least three distinct modes of
this attribute, namely (i) sensuous beauty, (2) beauty of form
and (3) beauty of meaning or expression, nor do these appear to
be reducible to any higher or more comprehensive principle.
It requires a certain boldness to attempt to effect a rapproche-
ment between the formal and the expressional factor.1 An
apparent unification of the three seems at present only possible
by substituting for beauty another concept at least equally
vague, such as perfection ? which seems to imply the idea of
purposiveness, and to apply clearly only to certain domains of
beauty, e.g. organic form.

We may now take another step and say that beauty appears
to be a quality in objects which is not sharply differentiated
Beauty from other and allied qualities. If we look at the
and allied usages of speech we shall find that beauty has its
concep- kindred conceptions, such as gracefulness, prettiness
and others. Writers on aesthetics have spent much
time on these " Modifications of the Beautiful." The point
emphasized here is the difficulty of drawing the line between
them. Even an expert may hesitate long before saying
whether a human face, a flower or a cameo should be called
beautiful or pretty. Must we postulate as many allied quali-
ties as there are names for these pleasing aspects of objects?
Or must we do violence to usage and so stretch the word
" Beauty " as to make it cover all qualities or aspects of
objects which have aesthetic value, including those " modifica-
ions of the beautiful " which we know as the sublime, the
comic and the rest? But the wider we try in this way to
make the denotation of the term the vaguer grows the
connotation. We are thus left equally incapable of saying
what the quality is, and in which aspect or attribute of the object
it inheres.3

It seems to follow that in constructing a scientific theory we
do well to dispense with the assumption of an objective quality
of beauty. Aesthetics will return to Kant and con-
fine itself to the examination of objects called beauti-
ful in their relation to, and in their manner of affecting
our minds.4 The aesthetic value of such an object
will be viewed as consisting in the possession of certain
assignable characteristics by means of which it is fitted
to affect us in a certain desirable way, to draw us into
the enjoyable mood of aesthetic contemplation. These charac-
teristics may conveniently be called aesthetic qualities.5 Objects
which are found to possess one or more of these
qualities in the required degree of fulness claim a
certain aesthetic value, even though they fall short
of being " beautiful," in the more exacting use of this word.
They are in the direction — " im Sinne," as Fechner says — of
beauty, conceived as something fuller and richer, answering
to a higher standard of aesthetic enjoyment and a severer
demand on our part. The word " beauty " may still be used
occasionally, where no ambiguity arises, as a convenient

1 For example, that hinted at by Bosanquet in his definition of
the beautiful, History of Aesthetic, p. 5.

1 Beauty is defined as Perfection by P. Souriau, La Beaute
rationnelle, 2"°" partie.

3 K. Groos argues well against this violent stretching of the word
beautiful, Einleitung in die Asthetik, pp. 46 seq.

4 Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective, was prob-
ably influenced by Hume, who wrote: " Beauty is no quality in things
themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates
them " (Essays, xxii.).

6 On the nature of these qualities see S. Witasek, Grundziige der
allgem. Asthetik, p. n.

Assump-
tion of
objective
quality of
beauty
dispensed
with.

expression for aesthetic value in all its degrees. Yet it is
better to keep the term applicable to the objects commonly
denoted by it by making it represent the fuller aesthetic satis-
factions which flow from a rare and commanding exhibition of
one or more of these qualities, from what may be described as
an appreciable excellence of aesthetic quality.

By thus dispensing with the concept of beauty as some occult
undefinable quality, we get rid of much of the contradiction
which appears to inhere in our aesthetic experience. For ex-
ample, a bit of brilliant colour in a bonnet which pleases the
wearer but offends her superior in aesthetic matters takes its
place as something which per se has a certain degree of aesthetic
value even though the particular relations into which it has
now thrust itself, palpable to the trained eye, may practically
rob it of its value. In thus substituting the relative idea of
aesthetic value for the absolute idea of beauty we may no doubt
seem to be destroying the reality of the object of aesthetic
perception. This point may more conveniently be taken
up later when we consider the whole question of aesthetic
illusion.

This new way of envisaging aesthetic objects requires us to
make the study of their effect a prominent part of our investiga-
tion. In all the valuable recent work on the subject,
attention has been largely concentrated on this effect. ^^'™c°'
More particularly we have to investigate and illumine effect.
scientifically the pleasurable side of the experience. In
doing this we shall make use of all the light we can obtain from a
study of known laws of pleasure. Thus we shall avail ourselves
not only of the theory of the pleasure-tones of sensation Aesthetics
but of that of the conditions of an agreeable exercise of and
the attention upon objects, more particularly of the lanrsof
characteristics of objects which adequately stimulate p e'
the attention without confusing or burdening it. Yet this does
not require that we should treat the aesthetic problem as a part
of the more general science of pleasure, as has been p^/en,,,/
attempted by some, e.g. Grant Allen (Physiological aesthetic
Aesthetics) and Rutgers Marshall (Pain, Pleasure and enjoyment
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles). To do so would a sPeclal
be to run the risk of considering only the more general
aspects and conditions of aesthetic enjoyment, whereas what we
need is a theory of it as a specific kind of pleasurable experience.
What is required at the present stage of development of the
science is a deeper investigation of the aesthetic attitude of mind
as a whole, of what we may call the aesthetic psychosis. We
need to probe the act of contemplation itself, the mode of activity
of attention involved in this calm, half-dreamlike gazing T/je ulm
'on the mere look of things unconcerned with their tude of
ordinary and weightier imports. We need further to aesthetic
determine the effect of this contemplative attitude
upon the several mental processes involved, the act of
perception itself, with its grasp of manifold relations, the flow
of ideas, the partial resurgence and transformation of emotion.
In examining^these effects we must keep in view the double
side of the contemplative attitude, the wide range of free
movement which perception and imagination claim and enjoy,
and the willing subjection of the contemplative mind to the
spell of the object. A deeper inspection of the con-
templative mood may be expected to render clearer l.ate!lec'.
* . . tualand

the difference between the mental activity employed aesthetic

in aesthetic perception and imagination and intellectual activity
activity proper; between, say-, the differencing of allied ^,^her
tints involved in the finer aesthetic enjoyment of tiated.
colour and the sharper, clearer discrimination of tints
required in scientific observation, and between such a grasp of
relations as is required for a just appreciation of beautiful
form and that severe analysis and measurement of formal
elements and their relations which is insisted upon by science.
As a result of a finer distinction here we may probably be in
a better position to determine the point — touched on more than
once in recent works on aesthetics — how far intellectual pleasure
proper, e.g. that of recognizing and classifying objects, enters
as a subordinate element into aesthetic enjoyment.

280

AESTHETICS

One point in the characterization of aesthetic experience has
been reserved, namely, the question whether it is essentially a
is aes- form of social enjoyment. No one doubts that a man
thetic often enjoys beauty, e.g. that of a landscape, when
enjoyment alone; yet at such a moment he not only recognizes
essei"jl"ny that his pleasure is a possible one for others, but is

probably aware of a sub-conscious wish that others
were present to share his enjoyment. Kant went so far as
to say that on a desert island a man would adorn neither
his hut nor his person. However this be, it seems certain that
as a rule we tend to indulge our aesthetic tastes in company
with others. This habit of making aesthetic enjoyment a social
experience would in itself tend to develop the sympathies and
the sympathetic intelligence and thus to promote exchanges of
aesthetic experience. The content, too, of our aesthetic ex-
periences would be favourable to such conjoint acts of aesthetic
contemplation, and to the mutual sharing of aesthetic experi-
ences; for, as disinterested and universal modes of enjoyment
detached from personal interests, they are clearly free from
the egoistic exclusiveness which characterizes our private enjoy-
ments which at best can only be participated in by one or two
closely attached friends. Our aesthetic enjoyments are thus
eminently fitted to be social ones; and as such they become
greatly amplified by sympathetic resonance.

We are now in a position to consider a point much discussed
of late, namely, the special connexion of aesthetic enjoyment

with the two senses, sight and hearing. Two questions
The arise here: (i) Do the other and " lower " senses take

senses. anv Par^ m aesthetic experience? (2) What are the

characteristics which give the predominance to the
two " higher " ones ? With regard to the first it is coming to be
recognized that aesthetic pleasure is not strictly confined to the
two senses in question. Common language suggests that we
find in certain odours and even in certain flavours a value
analogous to that implied in calling an object beautiful. Hegel

excluded the other senses — even touch — on the ground
Aesthetic tllat aesthetics had to do only with art, in which

claims of . .,.1,1

touch. there was no place for perceptions of touch. A closer
examination has shown that this important sense
plays a considerable part in art-effects. And even if this were
not so, Hegel's exclusion of touch from the rank of aesthetic
senses would be a striking illustration of the narrowing effect on
scientific theory of the identification of aesthetic objects with
productions of art. To say that the experience of exploring
with the fingers a velvety petal or the smooth surface of a sea-
rounded pebble has no aesthetic element savours of a perverse
arbitrariness. Touch is no doubt wanting in a prerogative of
hearing and sight which we shall presently see to be important,
namely, that being acted on by objects at a distance they admit
of a simultaneous perception by a number of persons — as indeed
even the sense of smell does in a measure. This is-- probably
the chief reason why, according to certain testimony," the blind
receive but little aesthetic enjoyment from tacti^l experience.1
Yet this drawback is compensated to some extent by the fact
that agreeable tactual experience may be taken up as suggested
meaning into our visual perceptions.

The two privileged senses, sight and hearing, owe their superi-
ority to a number of considerations. They are the farthest
Preroga- removed from the necessary life functions, with the
tivea of pressing needs and disturbing cravings which belong to
sight and these. Even touch, though important as a source of

nesrinv. iiii**.<>. •

knowledge, has for its primary function to examine
the things which approach our organisms in their relation
to this as injurious or harmless. The two higher senses
present to us material objects in their least aggressive and
menacing manner: visible forms and colours, tones and their
combinations, appear when compared with objects felt to be in
contact with our body, to be rather semblances or distant signs
of material realities than these realities themselves; and this
circumstance fits these senses to be in a special way the organs
of aesthetic perception with its calm, dreamlike detachment
1 See J. Cohn, Allgem. Aslhetik, p. 95.

and its enjoyable freedom of movement. They are, moreover,
the two senses by the use of which a number of persons may
join most perfectly in a common act of aesthetic contemplation.
This distinction strengthens their claims to be in a special
manner the aesthetic senses, and this for a double reason, (i)
It makes them sense-avenues by which each of us obtains the
most immediate and most impressive conviction that aesthetic
experience is a common possession of the many, and is largely
similar in the case of different individuals. (2) It marks them
off as the senses by the exercise of which perceptual enjoyment
may most readily and certainly be increased through the resonant
effects of sympathy. The experiences of the theatre and of the
concert-hall sufficiently illustrate these distinguishing functions
of the two senses. Other distinguishing prerogatives of sight
and hearing flow from the characteristics of their sensations
and perceptions, a point to be touched on later.2

Our determination of the characteristics of the aesthetic
attitude has now been carried far enough to enable us to consider
another point much discussed in recent aesthetic
literature, viz. the relation of this attitude to that of
Play. The affinities of the two are striking and are and play.
disclosed in everyday language, as when we speak of (a) Point*
the " play " of imagination or of " playing " on a o/atanity
musical instrument. Both play and aesthetic con- them.
templation are activities which are controlled by no
extraneous end, which run on freely directed only by the
intrinsic delight of the activity. Hence they both contrast
with the serious work imposed on us and controlled by what we
mark off as the necessities of life, such as providing for bodily
wants, or rearing a family. They each add a sort of luxurious
fringe to life. In aesthetic enjoyment our senses, our intelligence
and our emotions are alike released from the constraint of these
necessary ends, and may be said to refresh themselves in a kind
of play. Finally, they are both characterized by a strong infusion
of make-believe, a disposition to substitute productions of the
imagination for everyday realities. In this respect, again, they
form a contrast to that serious concern with fact and practical
truth which the necessary aims of life impose on us. Little
wonder, then, that Plato recognized in the contrast between the
representative and the useful arts an analogy between play and
earnest,3 and that since the time of Schiller so much use has been
made of the analogy in aesthetic works. Yet though
similar, the two kinds of activity are distinguishable in
important respects. For one thing, aesthetic contem- eace.
plation pure and simple is a comparatively tranquil
and .passive attitude, whereas play means doing something and
commonly involves some amount of strenuous exertion, either
of body or of mind. A closer analogy might be drawn between
play and artistic production. Yet even when the parallel is thus
narrowed, pretty obvious differences disclose themselves. It
is only in their more primitive phases that the two attitudes
exhibit a close similarity. As they develop, striking divergences
begin to appear. The play mood, instead of approaching the
calm contemplative mood of the lover of beauty, involves
feelings and impulses which lie at the roots of our practical
interests, viz. ambition, rivalry and struggle. It has, moreover,
in all its stages a palpable utility — even though this is not
realized by the player — serving for the exercise and development
of body, intelligence and character. Beauty and art rise high
above play in purity of the disinterested attitude, in placid
detachment from the serviceable and the necessary, and, still
more, in range and variety of refined interest, comprehended
in " the love of beauty." Finally, aesthetic activities are
directed by ideal conceptions and standards to which hardly

2 Originally, as pointed out by Home and others, sight was re-
garded as the sense by which we received impressions of beauty.
Yet the recognition of the claims of hearing date back to Plato.
(See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth. pp. 51-52). For recent discussions
of the claims of sight and hearing see article by J. Volkelt, " Der
Aesth. Werth der niederen Sinne," in Zeitschrift fur Psych, u. Phys.
der Sinnesorgane, vol. xxix. pp. 402 ff. ; see also below, Biblio-
graphy.

'Laws, 889 (see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54).

AESTHETICS

281

anything corresponds in play save where games of skill take on
something of the dignity of a fine art.1

So far as to the preliminary delimiting work in aesthetic
science. Only a bare indication can be made as to the methods
Methods of research by which its advance can be furthered,
otre- and as to the several directions of inquiry which it
search in w;jj nave to fouow. With regard to the former the
aesthetics. metno(j of investigation will consist in a careful
inquiry into two orders of fact: (i) Objects which common
testimony or the history of art show to be widely recognized
objects of aesthetic value ; (2) records of the aesthetic experience
of individuals, whether artists or amateurs.

Since aesthetic experience is brought about and its modes
determined by objects possessing certain qualities, it seems evi-
Bxamlaa- dent that scientific aesthetics must make an examin-
tton ot ation and comparison of these a fundamental part
aesthetic of jts problem. These objects will, as already hinted,
objects. jnciude both natural ones in the inorganic and organic
worlds, and- works of art which can be shown to be objects
of general or widely recognized aesthetic value. Without
Nature as attempting here to discuss adequately the relation of
supplying natural beauty to that of art we may note one or two
aesthetic points. Some contemplation and appreciation of the
beautiful aspects of nature is not only prior in time
to art, but is a condition of its genesis. The enjoyment of
the pleasing aspects of land and sea, of mountain and dale,
of the innumerable organic forms, has steadily grown with the
development of culture; and this growth, though undoubtedly
aided by that of the feeling for art — especially painting and
poetry — is to a large extent independent of it.2 Some of the
finest insight into the secrets of beauty has been gained by those
who had only a limited acquaintance with art. What is still
more important in the present connexion is that the aesthetic
experience gained by the direct contemplation of nature includes
varieties which art cannot reproduce. It is enough to recall
what Helmholtz and others have told us about the limitations
of the powers of pictorial art to represent the more brilliant
degrees of light; the admissions of painters themselves as to
the limits of their art when it seeks to render the finer grada-
tions of light and colour in such common objects as a tree-trunk or
a bit of old wall. Nature, moreover, in spreading out her spaces
of earth, sea and sky, and in exhibiting the action of her forces,
does so on a scale which seems to make sublimity her prerogative
in which art vainly endeavours to participate.

On the other hand, it is coming to be seen that the construction
of a theory of aesthetic values must be assisted by a much more
Use of precise examination than aestheticists are commonly
worts of content to make, of works of art. The importance

*th *ri '/"* of includin6 these is that thev are well-defined objec-
tive expressions of what the aesthetic consciousness
approves and prefers. In inquiring, for example, into the
pleasing relations of colour we might have to wait long for
a theory if we were dependent on what even so gifted a writer
as Ruskin can tell us about nature's juxtapositions: whereas
if it can be shown that throughout the history of chromatic art
or during its better period there has been a tendency to prefer
certain combinations, this fact becomes a piece of convincing
evidence as to their aesthetic value. Even here,
ties in however, there are sources of uncertainty. It is not
using true to say that a work of art is a pure outcome of
worts of the aesthetic feeling of the artist, even if we take
^s m a comprehensive sense. It is subject to the
influence of all the temporary feelings and tendencies
of the time which produced it. The aesthetic motive which is

1 Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play (see
Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). Among modern writers the idea is
specially connected with the names of Schiller and Herbert Spencer.
In recent works the subject is touched on by S. Wittasek, Grundzuge
der allgem. Asthetik, pp. 223 ff. ; Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 ff., and by
Rutgers Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography.

1 Hence to say, as Bosanquet says (op. cit. pp. 3-4), that art is to
nature as the scientific conception of the world to that of the ordinary
observer, seems wide of the mark.

mater/a/.

supposed to originate it is apt to be complicated and disguised
by other motives, e.g. utility in architecture,3 an impulse to in-
struct if not to reform in modern fiction. Again, if it is said that
a certain degree of permanence assures us of the Effects of
aesthetic value of a feature of art, we are met by the custom
difficulty that custom plays an important part in art,
the result of convention fixed by tradition often
simulating the aspect of a deep-seated aesthetic prefer-
ence. In this connexion it is to be remarked that even
so permanent an element as symmetry may owe its quasi-
aesthetic value to custom, by which is understood its wide and
impressive display in the organic and even the inorganic world.4
Yet the influence of custom taken in this larger sense need not
greatly disturb us. In aesthetics, as in ethics, the question of
validity has to be kept distinct from that of origin. If symmetry
(in general) is appreciated as aesthetically pleasing, the question
of its genesis becomes immaterial. Another difficulty, not
peculiar to aesthetic investigation, is that of reconstructing the
modes of aesthetic consciousness represented by forms of art
which differ widely from those of our own age and type of
culture.

In utilizing art material for aesthetic theory the theorist will
need to note the work recently done by English and German
writers on primitive art. And this not merely because Value ot
of the value of the early forms of art for a theory of primitive
the evolution of the aesthetic consciousness ; but ^Jt^retlcs-
because the embryonic stages of art are likely to have
a peculiar interest as illustrating in a comparatively isolated
form some of the simpler modes of aesthetic appreciation,
e.g. in the grouping of colours, in the mode of covering a surface
with linear ornament. Yet it is not necessary to give primitive
art a considerable place in a general aesthetics. As a normative
science, it is to be remembered, this is much more immediately
concerned with the higher stages of aesthetic culture. In seeking
to establish norms or regulative principles, we must, it is evident,
make a special study of objects of art which belong to our own
level of culture. For these reasons it would appear necessary
to include in a general aesthetic theory some reference to the
evolution of art and of the aesthetic consciousness. A further
reason for including it is that the evolution of art supplies a most
valuable auxiliary criterion of degree or height of Bygiution
aesthetic value. Provided that we distinguish what ascriter.
is a real process of evolution from one of mere change lo" °f
of fashion in taste, and that we confine ourselves to £*^.A£ c
the larger features of the process, we may make the
principle of evolution a serviceable one by regarding those
forms and features of art as higher in respect of aesthetic value
which grow distinct and relatively fixed in the later and better
stages of the evolution of art.8 This part of aesthetic investiga-
tion should be made as exact as possible. Thus in Exaci
dealing with the triads of colour said to be most fre- measure-
quently employed in the best period of Italian painting meat of
the observer should note and record as far as this is "^""^ of
possible not only the precise tints, but also the precise art.work.
degrees of their several luminosities. With regard to
elements of form in art, the judicious use of photography and
careful measurement would probably help us to understand the
practices of art in its better periods. This examination of art
material by the aesthetic theorist should be supplemented by a
study of what artists have written about their methods, of the
rules laid down for students of art, and lastly of the ge_neraliza-
tions reached by the more scientific kind of writer upon art.6

A proper methodical inquiry into aesthetic objects aided by a

3 K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical motive to
features of architecture commonly supposed to have aesthetic value,
e.g. a regular series of similar forms (Das Wesen der Kunst, Bd. i.
pp. 277 ff.).

4 K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably has a technical
origin (op. cit. pp. 283-284).

6 The question of the place of the historical development of art
in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J. Volkelt, System der
Asthetik, Bd. i. 5e' Kap.

6 See, for example, a little work, The Genesis of Art-form, by G. L.
Raymond.

282

AESTHETICS

tions.

'arenlletc

ment.

knowledge of the practices of art would lead to inductions of
the type " objects in so far as they possess such and
such characteristics are aesthetically valuable."1 This
preliminary work of aesthetic science in collecting and
analysing facts may be extended in two directions: by
an examination (a) of the earlier and simpler forms of aesthetic
experience, and (b) of the fuller and more complex experiences
Germs of °^ ^nose specially trained in the perception and enjoy-
aesthetic ment of beauty, (a) The former would be illustrated
preference by a more methodical investigation into the rudiment-
ar^ aestnetic likings of children, and of the surviv-
ing lower races. Such inquiries may be expected to
add to our knowledge of the simpler and more universal
forms of aesthetic enjoyment. Some attention has been paid
by Darwin and others to germs of taste in birds and other animals.
Yet this line of inquiry, though of some value for a theory of the
evolution of taste, seems to throw but little light on aesthetic
preferences as found in man.2 An important feature in this new
investigation into simpler modes of aesthetic preference
is that it proceeds by way of experiment, that is to say,
a methodical testing of the aesthetic preferences of a
number of individuals. Fechner introduced the method
of experiment into aesthetics in his researches on the preferability
(according to Zeising) of the proportion known as the " golden
section."3 Since his time other experimental inquiries have
been made, both as to what forms (e.g. what variety of rectangle)
and what combinations of colours are most pleasing. The results
of these experiments are distinctly promising, though they have
Expert- not yet been carried far enough to be made the basis of
ence and perfectly trustworthy generalizations.4 (b) A valuable
judgments portiOn of the data for a science of aesthetics lies in the
*° recorded experiences of artists, art critics and others
who have specially developed their tastes. This source of
information has certainly never been made use of in a com-
plete and methodical manner by theorists, a quotation now and
again from writers like Goethe and Ruskin having been deemed
sufficient. Yet it is safe to say that an adequate understanding
of the finer effects of beauty, both in nature and in art, presup-
poses the assimilation of what is best in these records. And
this not only because they commonly supply us with new and
valuable varieties of experience of the more refined kind, but
because the aesthetic judgments on nature and art of men in
whom the feeling of beauty has been specially cultivated have a
greater value than those of others.6 It may be added that these
records are wont to contain reflexions which, though wanting
in scientific precision, can be utilized by science.

We now come to the work of scientific construction proper.
The finer analysis of the objects which please aesthetically as
Psycho- well as of the agreeable type of consciousness to which
logical they minister belongs to the psychologist, and it is
analysis of noteworthy that the best recent contributions to the
science have been made by men who were either
known as psychologists or at least had trained themselves in
psychological analysis. A word or two must suffice to indicate
the more important directions of the theoretic interpretation.
We may in illustrating this set out from the convenient triple
division of the factors in aesthetic experience: (A) the sensuous,
(B) the perceptual or formal, (C) the imaginative, including all
that is suggested by the aesthetic presentation, its meaning and
expressiveness.

1 Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a concrete
object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of this universal form
(see below). On the importance of these inductions see K. H. von
Stein, Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik (Einleitung).

* Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ of aesthetic
taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch. v. The aesthetic importance
of the observations made on animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du
Beau, pp. 233 ff.

3 See below, and Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 382 ff.

4 The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are indicated by W.
Wundt in his Physiol. Psychologic (5" Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 142 ff.
and 147 ff.

' On the value of judgments of experts see K. Groos, Der dsth.
Genuss, p. 149.

(A) In dealing with the sensuous factor the psychologist
is materially aided by the physiologist. It is sufficient to point
to the contribution made to the analysis of musical Thg
sensations by the classical researches of Helmholtz sensuous
(see below). Yet the application of a knowledge of factor.
physiological conditions seems as yet to be of little Payslo-
service when we come to the finer aspects of this aesthetics.
sensuous experience, to the subtle effects of colour-
combination, for example, and to the nuances of feeling-tone
attaching to different tints. In the finer analysis of the sensuous
material of aesthetic enjoyment it is the psychologist who counts.5
Among the valuable contributions recently made in this
domain one may instance the careful determination of

the aesthetically important characteristics of the sensa- problems.
tions of sight and hearing, such as the finely graduated
variety of their qualities (colour and tone), their capability
of entering into combinations in which they preserve their
individuality, including the important combinations of time
and space form. With these are to be included the distinguish-
ing characteristics of the concomitant feeling-tones, e.g. their
comparative calmness and their clear separation from the
sensations which they accompany. These characteristics help
us to understand the greater refinement of these senses and also
the more prolonged as well as varying enjoyment which they
contribute, as well as the extension of this enjoyment by imagina-
tive reproduction.7 Next to this determination of important
aesthetic characteristics of the two senses may be named a finer
probing of the nuances of pleasurable tone exhibited by the
several colours and tones. A point still needing special investiga-
tion is extent of the sensuous factor in aesthetic enjoyment.
There has been a tendency in aesthetic theory to over-intellectual-
ize aesthetic experience and to find the value even of the sensuous
factor in some intellectual principle, as when it is said (by Plato
and Hegel among others) that a smooth or level tone and a
uniform mass of colour owe their value to the principle of unity.
But such prolongation (within obvious limits) in time or space is
a condition of the full enjoyment of the distinctive quality of an
individual tone or colour, and as such has a sensuous value.
Aesthetics has to prove the sensuous value, the pleasure which
is due not only to the feeling-tones of the several sensations
but to those of their various combinations. Spite of a tendency
of late to disparage the co-operation of the " motor sensations "
connected with movements of the eye in the aesthetic apprecia-
tion of linear form, e.g. curves, evidence suggests that certain
curves, like fine gradations of colour, may owe a considerable
part of their value to a mode of varying the sensuous experience
which is in a peculiar manner agreeable. On the other hand, this
theoretic investigation of sense-material will need to determine
with care the added value due to the action of experience in
giving something of meaning to particular colours and tones
and their combinations, e.g. warmth of colour, height of tone.

(B) Under the scientific treatment of the perceptual or formal
factor in aesthetic experience we have many special problems,
of which only a few can be touched on here. Taking

this factor to include all combinations of elements in perceptual
which there is a more or less distinct perception of factor.
pleasing relations, we meet here with such work as that
of C. Stumpf (Ton-psychologie) in determining the way in which
tones combine and tend to fuse. Later experiments have added
to our knowledge of the obscure subject of colour harmony,
enabling us to distinguish pleasing contrasts of colour from the
more restful combinations of nearly allied tints. Our knowledge
of pleasing form in the narrower sense, that is to say, space and
time form, has been advanced by a number of recent inquiries.
The value of symmetry, the meaning of proportion and the
aesthetic value to be set on certain proportions, the forms of
rhythm— these are some of the points dealt with in more general

6 Examples of a forcing of the physiological method in aesthetics
may be found in the Physiological Aesthetics of Grant Allen, and the
Aufgabe der Kunstphysiologie, by Georg Hirsch.

7 These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensations of hearing and
sight have been well brought out in the article by J. Volkelt, already
referred to.

AESTHETICS

283

and in special works.1 In the case of forms, still more than in
that of sensuous elements, it is needful to determine the extent
to which the value of the formal aspect is modified by experience
and the acquisition of meaning. This is pretty certainly the
source of the aesthetic value claimed for certain proportions,
whether in the human figure or other organic forms or in the
freer constructions of form in art.2 Another problem is to deter-
mine the influence of the feeling-tones of the combining elements
on the pleasing character of the whole. It is probable that a
particular combination of colours owes something of its pleasure-
value to a harmony of the feeling-tones of the elements. This
is pretty certainly the case where the feeling-tones of the elements
are closely akin, as in the case of a number of low tones of colours,
or of architectural or other forms where one formal element —
say, a vertical line, a rectangle of a certain proportion or a
particular variety of arch — repeats itself and becomes a dominat-
ing feature of the whole.

(C) The imaginative factor — which corresponds with what
Fechner calls the " indirect " — includes all that imaginative
activity adds to our enjoyment when we contemplate
an aesthetic object. It may consist first of all in re-
facinr. calling concrete experiences firmly associated with the
object, as when the sight of wild-flowers in a London
street calls up an image of fields and lanes. In order that these
images may add to the aesthetic value of the object they must
correspond to our common associations, as distinguished from
accidental individual ones. A large increase of aesthetic enjoy-
ment comes to us through such suggested images. Although in
general it is images of concrete objects which are called up, ideas
of a more abstract character may take part though they tend
in this case to assume a concrete aspect. This is illustrated in
the appreciation of " typical beauty " in which a concrete form
represents in an exceptional way the common form of a species,
and in that of symbolic representation. An important part of
this work of association is to render objects expressive of mental
states, as when we read off the particular shade of feeling ex-
pressed by a natural scene.3

In the poetic contemplation of nature, her forces, her gladness
and other moods, this imaginative activity, though still deriving
its material from association, takes a freer form,
n- leading to an investment of natural objects with a
new and more fanciful meaning, as when we
" apperceive " a willow drooping over a pond or
the front of an old cottage under a quasi-human form,
endowing it with something akin to our own feelings and
memories. What, it may be asked, is the whole range of this
freer play of a life-giving fancy in our aesthetic enjoyment?
Some recent theorists have attempted to answer this question
by saying that it constitutes a vital element in all aesthetic con-
templation. Th. Lipps and others who follow him seek to show
that this vitalizing activity of the fancy, which produces a new
and illusory object, is the essential ingredient in the aesthetic
enjoyment of the forms of material objects. According to this
theory, when in the aesthetic mood I enjoy the form of a tree, of
a church steeple or of the front of a Greek temple, I am not only
ascribing life and feeling to it, but am projecting myself in fancy
into the object thus constructed, feeling for the moment that I
am the tree or the steeple. The process of vivification is carried
out as follows. Lines represent certain movements, and in the
aesthetic mood we translate all lines and so all forms back into
the corresponding movements, which may be merely imagined (as

1 On the later investigations into musical consonance and har-
mony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial forms,
see Wundt, op. tit. Bd. ii. pp. 419 ff., and iii. 135 ff., 140 ff., 147 ff.
and 154 ff. Time-form in music is specially discussed by E. Gurney,
The Power of Sound, v.

2 K. Lange, who recognizes the influence of nature and custom,
here denies that proportion is an aesthetic principle (Das Wesen der
Kunst, lles Kap.).

3 Alison and other English Associationists have emphasized the
aesthetic importance of the principle of association. Among more
recent advocates of it is G. T. Fechner, Vorschule der Asthetik, and
O. Kiilpe, "tiber den associativ. Factor des asthet. Eindrucks,"
Vierteljahrsschrift fur wissensch. Philosophic, xxiii. pp. 145 ff.

Lipps himself thinks) or may be realized in part by sensuous
elements, viz. motor sensations; which again may be regarded
either as concomitants of eye movements, or as arising from an
organically connected impulse to move the hand along the lines
followed by the eye.4 Thus the columns of a temple represent
upward movement, and are apperceived as striving upwards so as
to resist the downward pressure of the entablature. Since move-
ments are the great means of expression in man, this imagina-
tive reading of movement into motionless and even massive and
stable forms enables us to endow them with quasi-human feelings.
In looking, for example, at the weighty masses of a building we
enter sympathetically into the successful strivings of the sup-
porting structures to resist the downward thrust of gravity in
the supported masses. The theory here briefly indicated5 is
interesting as illustrating an attempt from the psychological
side to find a scientific support for philosophic idealism or ex-
pressionalism. It is already beginning to be recognized in
Germany as an exaggeration. It may be enough to say that as
applied to forms generally, including those of sculpture and
architecture, the theory is opposed by our ordinary way of speak-
ing, which implies quite another point of view in the aesthetic
contemplation of form, namely, that of a spectator external to
the object contemplated. When our eye glides over the beauties
of a statue, our imaginative activity so far from transporting us
within the object carries us as tactual feelers outside the surface.
Similarly, when we delight in the divided spaces of a Gothic roof,
so far from being imaginatively engaged in taking part in the
efforts and strains of pillar, arch and the rest, we move in fancy
along the pathways defined by the designer, tactually feeling
and appreciating each dimension, each detail of form. The
attempt to force a theory fitted for poetry on sculpture and archi-
tecture would rob these of their distinctive aesthetic values;
in the one case, of the plastic beauty of finely moulded marble
surfaces as realized by imaginative excursions of the hand; and
in the other case, of the perfect stillness and stability which give
to great structures their solemn and quieting aspect.6

The theory of a vitalizing play of imagination (Einfuhlung)
running through all modes of aesthetic contemplation is an
exaggeration of the element of illusion which certainly
characterizes this contemplation. As suggested above,
by blotting out for the moment the perception of all
save that which pleases it substitutes a new for the more solid
reality of our practical mood. Moreover, as a state of perceptual
absorption in which one loses consciousness of the ordinary
self and its world, it has a certain resemblance to the state of
ecstasy and of the hypnotic trance.7 It is favourable to the
play-like indulgence in a fanciful transformation of what is
seen or heard, which may be described as a " willing self-decep-
tion," more or less complete. Yet as we have seen, something
of the real everyday world survives even in our freer aesthetic
contemplation of form. Hence there is much to be said for the
idea that we have in aesthetic illusion to do with a kind of
double consciousness, a tendency to an illusory acceptance of
the product of our fancy as the reality, restrained by a sub-
conscious recognition of the everyday tangible reality behind.8

It is evident that both in the more confined and in the freer
form the element of imaginative activity in aesthetic experience
will vary greatly among individuals and among peoples. Differ-
ences in past experience leading to diverse habits of association,

4 This idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating form
is supported by K. Groos, Der dsth. Cenuss, pp. 49 ff.

6 It is commonly spoken of as " feeling oneself into " (Ein-
fiihleri), or as " sympathetic feeling " (Mitempfinden).

9 Lipps' theory is developed in a number of works, the chief of
which is Asthetik: Psychologic des Schonen und der Kunst, see esp. ler
Theil, i" to 3" Abschnitt; cf. Paul Stern, Einfuhlung und Associa-
tion, in which is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and
A. Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst. The play of imagina-
tion in the contemplation o^form is discussed also by P. Souriau,
L'Esthetique du mouvement, 3™"° part., and La Suggestion dans I' art,
pp. 300 n. Cf. works of Karl Groos and K. Lange named below
(Bibliography). •

1 See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans I'art (i^re partie).

8 Cf. K. Lange, op. cit. Bd. i. p. 208.

AESTHETICS

as well as in those natural dispositions which prompt one person
to prefer motor images, another visual, another audile, will
Variations modify the process in this enjoyable enlargement and
ofimagin- transformation of what is presented to sense. It is
*"v" for aesthetics at once to recognize these variations

y' of imaginative activity and to determine the more
common and universal directions which it follows.

The recent inquiry into our way of contemplating form is,
in spite of exaggeration, valuable as showing that our distinc-
Formand ^ons °f f°rm an<^ expression are not absolute. Just
expression as there is the rudiment of ideal significance in colour,
not so form, even in its more abstract and elementary

absolutely aSpectS) is not wholly expressionless, but may be

endowed with something of life by the imagination.
The recognition of this truth does not, however, affect the validity
of our treating form and expression as two broadly distinguish-
able factors of aesthetic pleasure. A line may be pleasing to
sense-perception, and in addition illustrate expressional value
by suggested ease of movement or pose. Similarly, a concrete
form, e.g. that of a sculptured human figure in repose, or of a
graceful birch or fern, owes its aesthetic value to a happy com-
bination of pleasing lines and of interesting ideas.

In close connexion with the determination of the imaginative
factor in aesthetic contemplation, the psychologist is called on

to define the special characteristics of aesthetic emo-
emotioa. tion. That our attitude when we watch a beautiful

object, say the curl of a breaker as it falls, or some
choice piece of sculpture, is an emotional one is certain, and
ingenious attempts have been made by Home (Lord Kames)
and others to equip the emotion with a full accompaniment
of corporeal activity, such as heightened respiratory activity.1
Yet aesthetic emotion is to be contrasted with the more violent
and passionate state of love and other emotions, and this differ-
ence calls for further investigation. A closer inquiry into the
features of that calm yet intense emotion which a rapt state of
aesthetic contemplation induces is a necessary preliminary to a
scientific demarcation of the sphere of beauty in the narrow or
more exclusive sense, from that of the sublime, the tragic and
the comic. Each of these departments of aesthetic experience
has well-marked emotional characteristics; and the definition
of these " modifications of the beautiful " has in the main been
reached through an analysis of the emotional states involved.
This chapter in the psychological treatment of aesthetic experi-
ence has to consider two points which have occupied a prominent
place in aesthetic theory. The first is the nature of " revived "
or " ideal " emotion, such as is illustrated in the feeling excited
sympathetically when we witness or hear of another's sorrow or
joy. The second point is the nature of those mixed emotional
states which are illustrated in our aesthetic enjoyment of the
sublime and the other " modifications," in all of which we can
recognize a kind of double emotional consciousness in which
painful elements accompany and modify pleasurable ones, in
such a manner that in the end the latter appear to be rather
strengthened than weakened.2

The psychological treatment of aesthetic data here sketched
out cannot stop at an analysis of the aesthetic state or attitude
Limits f *nto a numDer °f recognizable elements each of which
analysis in contributes its own quantum of pleasurableness. Our
aesthetics, enjoyment in contemplating, say, a green alp set

above dark crags, is an indivisible whole. And it is a
consciousness of this fact which makes men disposed to resent
the dissection of their aesthetic enjoyment into a number of
constituent pleasures. Nor is this all. Every aesthetic object

1 See a curious passage in Home's Elements of Criticism, chap, iv.,
in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects are
said to express themselves externally by a special inflating inspira-
tion, and by stretching upward and standing " a-tiptoe respec-
tively; also an article on !' Recent Aesthetics " by Vernon Lee in
the Quarterly Review, 1904, part i. pp. 420-443.

_* See Hume, Essays, "Essay of Tragedy," and the important
discussions on the meaning of Aristotle's doctrine of the emotions of
tragedy and of emotional purification or " alleviating discharge"
(xABafiaa) touched on by Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 64 ff. and 234 ft.

is something unique, differing in individual characteristics from
all others; and as the object, so the mood of the contem-
plator. One may almost say that there are as many modes of
musical delight as there are worthy compositions. It would seem
either that this feeling of a unique indivisible whole must be
dismissed as an illusion, or that we have to admit an unexplained
residue in our aesthetic experience, which may some day be
explained by help of a larger and more exact conception of
aesthetic harmony, of the laws of interaction and of fusion of
psychical elements.3

We may now glance at the ideal purpose of this scientific
analysis and interpretation, namely, the construction of norms
or regulative principles corresponding to the severally Construe-
essential elements of aesthetic value ascertained. The tion of
later psychological treatment of the subject has led *<>stnetic
up to the formulation of certain ideal requirements '
in beautiful objects. The work of Fechner in this direction
(Vorschule der Asthetik) was a noteworthy contribution
to this kind of construction, at once scientific and directed
to the construction of ideal demands, and is still a model for
workers in the same field. He has taught us how the attempt
to formulate one all-comprehensive principle — e.g. unity in
variety, has led to a barren abstractedness, and that we need in
its place a number of more concrete principles. In formulating
these principles care must be taken to determine their respective
scopes and their mutual relations — to decide, forexample,whether
expression, to which our modern feeling undoubtedly ascribes
a high value, is a universal demand in the same sense as unity
or harmony of parts is admitted to be. A system of norms
must further supply some comprehensive criterion by help of
which degrees of aesthetic value may be determined, as determined
by the degrees of completeness of the several pleasurable activities,
— sensuous, perceptual and imaginative, — and justify the form
of judgment " this object is more beautiful (or of a higher kind
of beauty) than that." Such regulative principles and standards
of comparison will, it is clear, fail us just at the point where
analysis stops. Edmund Gurney urges that an aesthetic prin-
ciple such as unity in variety is complied with equally well by
musical compositions which are commonplace and leave us cold
and by those which evoke the full thrill of aesthetic delight, and
he concludes that the special beauty of form in the latter in-
stance is appreciated by a kind of intuition which cannot be
analysed (see The Power of Sound, ix.). The argument is hard
to combat. It would seem that after all our efforts to define
aesthetic qualities and enumerate corresponding ideal require-
ments we are left with an unexplained remainder. This can
only be tentatively defined as the concrete object itself in its
wholeness, which is not only a perfectly harmonized combina-
tion of sensuous, formal and expressional values, but impresses
us as something which has a fresh individuality and the distinc-
tion of aesthetic excellence.

Aesthetics is wont to treat of a certain kind of experience as
if it were a closed compartment. Yet there is in reality no such
perfect seclusion. Our enjoyment of beauty, though connexion
to be distinguished from our intellectual and our between
practical interests, touches and interacts with these, aesthetic
With regard to intellectual interests it is clear that ""deH^er
much of the mental activity which enters into our em*: (a)
aesthetic enjoyment is intellectual — e.g. in the per- with in-
ception of the relations of form, even though it stops tetlectaal
short of the abstract analysis of scientific observation.
Again, in appreciating beauty of type which involves according
to Taine a recognition of the most important characters of the
species, we are, it is evident, close to the scientific point of view.
Similarly, when scientific knowledge enables us in the mood of
aesthetic contemplation to retrace imaginatively the mode of
formation of a cloud or a mountain form, or the mode in
which a climbing plant finds its way upwards. It is for
aesthetics to recognize the fact, and to discriminate a

3 That beauty implies a peculiar blending of formal and spiritual
(geistige) factors is recognized by H. Riegel, Die bildende Kiinste,
pp. 1 6 ff.

AESTHETICS

285

legitimate aesthetic function of scientific ideas when they en-
large the scope of a pleasurable play of the imagination, and
are freed from the control of a serious purpose of explaining
what is seen.

A similar remark applies to the contacts of our aesthetic with
our practical interests. While as dominant factors the latter

are excluded from aesthetic activity they may in-

fluence our feeling for beauty in an indirect and sub-
laterests. ordinate way. This is recognized by those (e.g. Home)

who insist on a particular kind of aesthetic value
under the name of relative beauty, or the pleasing aspect of
fitness for a purpose. If a drinking-vessel please in part because
of its perfect adaptation to its purpose, the aesthetic value
ascribed to it seems to derive something from a feeling of respect
for utility itself. In another way beauty reasserts in modern
aesthetics that kinship with utility on which it insisted in the

days of Socrates. The idea that typical beauty co-

mcides with what is vigorous and conducive to the
of beauty, conservation of the species is as old as Hobbes.1

Darwin and his followers have developed the bio-
logical conception that sexual selection tends to develop
aesthetic preferences along lines which correspond to what
subserves the maintenance of the species or tribe. Recent
writers have shown how the rude germs of aesthetic activity in
primitive types of community would subserve necessary tribal
ends — e.g. musical rhythm by exercising members of the tribe
in concerted war-like action.2 Yet these interesting specula-
tions have to do rather with the earlier stages of the evolution
of the aesthetic faculty than with its functions in the higher
stages. An idea of a social utility in aesthetic experience which
does demand the attention of the theorist is that the culture of

beauty and art has a socializing influence, helping to
and ethics. S've to our emotional experience new forms of expres-

lion whereby our sympathies are deepened and en-
larged.3 The further elucidation of this element of humanizing
influence in aesthetic enjoyment may be expected to throw new
light on the question, much discussed throughout the history
of aesthetics, of the relation of the science to ethics, by showing
that they have a common root in our sympathetic nature and
interest in humanity.

In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need
to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special prob-
Acsthtxic lems °f Fine Art- I*- is evident that the definition of
theory and the aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in
problems its several forms, involving as it does special technical
ofart~ knowledge, may,with advantage be treated apart from
a general theory. (See FINE ARTS.) At the same time the
study of art raises larger problems which require to be dealt
with to some extent by this theory. We may instance the group
of problems which have to do with the relation of art to
" beauty " in its narrower sense, such as the function of the
painful and of the ugly in art, the meaning of artistic imitation
and truth to nature, of idealization, and the nature of artistic
illusion; also the question of the didactic and of the moral
function of art. Even more special problems of art, such as
the effect of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can
only be adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic
theory.

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological
theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of art-lore,
inquiring into the4 nature of the artistic impulse and tempera-
ment, and into the processes of imaginative creation. These
inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion
with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art to the

1 See passage in Human Nature (first part of Tripos), ch. viii. § 5
(Molesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38).

1 See among others, R. Wallascheck, Primitive Music, pp. 270 ff.,
and Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, pp. 9 ff. ; cf. W. Jerusalem, Einleitung
in die Philosophie, pp. 116, 117.

* The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment is touched
on by Kant, Critique of Judgment (Bernard's trans.), p. 174; and is
more fully workea out by Guyau, L'Art au point de vue sociologique,
ch. ii. and iii. ; cf. Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, pp. 81-82.

social environment. Their importance for aesthetics lies in the
circumstance that they are fitted to throw light upon the aes-
thetic consciousness as it is developed in those who are not only
in a special sense cultivators of it, but represent in a peculiar
manner the ideas and the aims of art.1

HISTORY OF THEORIES

In the following summary of the most important contributions
to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will be recognized as
contribute to a general conception of aesthetic objects or experi-
ence. These include the more systematic treatment of the sub-
ject in philosophic works as well as the more thoughtful kind of
discussion of principles to be met with in writings on art by
critics and others.

I. Greek Speculations. — Ancient Greece supplies us with the first
important contributions to aesthetic theory, though these are
scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what one might have expected
from a people which had so high an appreciation of beauty and so
strong a bent for philosophic speculation. The first Greek thinker
of whose views on the subject we really know something is Socrates.
We learn from Xenophpn's account of him that he regarded the
beautiful as coincident with the good, and both of them are resolvable
into the useful. Every beautiful object is so called because it serves
some rational end, whether the security or the gratification of man.
Socrates appears to have attached little importance to the immediate
gratification which a beautiful object affords to perception and
contemplation, but to have emphasized rather its power of further-
ing the more necessary ends of life. The really valuable point in
his doctrine is the relativity of beauty. Unlike Plato, he recognized
no self-beauty (aiiro TO xaXoi/X existing absolutely and out of all
relation to a percipient mind.

Of the views of Plato on the subject, it is hardly less difficult to
gain a clear conception from the Dialogues, than it is in the case
of ethical good. In some of these, various definitions of
the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic
Socrates. At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned
decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took its
place in his scheme of ideas or self -existing forms. This true beauty
is nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, for these
are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love (Eros) pro-
duces aspiration towards this pure idea. Elsewhere the soul's in-
tuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its pre-
natal existence. As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty
reveals itself, Plato is not very decided. His theory of an absolute
beauty does not easily adjust itself to the notion of its contributing
merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean
in some dialogues. He tends to identify the self-beautiful with the
conceptions of the true and the good, and thus there arose the
Platonic formula Ka\oK&yaBia. So far as his writings embody the
notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion,
harmony or unity among their parts. He emphasizes unity in its
simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of colour. He
recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and seems to think that
the highest beauty of proportion is to be found in the union of a
beautiful mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion
of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation (/*iji«)<m) which takes us
another step farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition
into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly,
in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable
censorship of poets, &c., so as to make art as far as possible an
instrument of moral and political training.

Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the aesthetic
phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis certain principles
of beauty and art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric .
he gives us, along with a theory of these arts, certain
general principles of beauty; and scattered among his other
writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same subject.
He seeks (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the good and
the beautiful by saying that the former is always In action (iv jrp<x£«)
whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well (iv AKIWJTOIS).
At the same time he had as a Greek to allow that though essentially
different things the good might under certain conditions be called
beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and
in a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and necessary.
He helped to determine another characteristic of the beautiful, the
absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows. The universal
elements of beauty, again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be

1 On the nature of the primitive art-culture, see Rutgers Marshall,
Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii.; M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter-
pretations, pp. 151 ff : Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii. On artistic
genius and its creative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of Art,
Part ii. ; P. Souriau, L' Imagination de I 'artiste; G. Seailles, Essai
sur la genie dans I'art; E. Grpsse, Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien,
iii.; Arreat, Psychologie du peintre; L. Dauriac, Essai sur I' esprit
musical.

286

AESTHETICS

order (T&(IS), symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (r6
tipurnivov). InthePoericsheaddsanotheressential, namely, acertain
magnitude; it being desirable for a synoptic view of the whole that
the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception
requires that it should not be too small. Aristotle's views on art
are an immense advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recog-
nized (in the Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate
pleasure, as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical
arts. He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, hold-
ing that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied knowledge
and discovery, that its objects not only comprised particular things
which happen to most, but contemplated what is probable and
what necessarily exists. The celebrated passage in the Poetics,
where he declares poetry to be more philosophical and serious a
matter (airovbaibrfpov) than philosophy, brings out the advance of
Aristotle on his predecessor. He gives us no complete classification
of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his
celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to
be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art.

Of the later Greek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus
deserves to be mentioned. According to him, objective reason
(vovs) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence
Plotinus, whjcn reduces dead matter to form. Matter when thus
formed becomes a notion (\6-yos), and its form is beauty.
Objects are ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and
therefore formless. The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is
called the more than beautiful. There are three degrees or stages
of manifested beauty : that of human reason, which is the highest ;
of the human soul, which is less perfect through its connexion with
a material body; and of real objects, which is the lowest mani-
festation of all. As to the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in
opposition to Aristotle, that a single thing not divisible into parts
might be beautiful through its unity and simplicity. He gives a
high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness is
overpowered by light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty
he said that when the artist has notions as models for his creations,
these may become more beautiful than natural objects. This is
clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine towards our modern
conception of artistic idealization.

2. German Writers. — We may pass by the few thoughts on the

subject to be found among medieval writers and turn to modern

German theories, beginning with those of German writers as

the most numerous and most elaborately set forth. The

, s '_ first of the Germans who attempted to develop an aes-

. y.. ' thetic theory as a part of a system of philosophy was

Baumgarten (Aesthetica). Adopting the Leibnitz-Wolffian

' theory of knowledge, he sought to complete it by setting

over against the clear scientific or " logical " knowledge

gartca. Qf tne un(jerstanding, the confused knowledge of the

senses, to which (as we have seen) he gave the name " aesthetic."

Beauty with him thus corresponds with perfect sense-knowledge.

Baumgarten is clearly an inteliectualist in aesthetics, reducing taste

to an intellectual act and ignoring the element of feeling. The

details of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. Arguing from

Leibnitz's theory of the world as the best possible, Baumgarten

concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and

that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible

imitation of nature.

The next important treatment of aesthetics by a philosopher is
that of Kant. He deals with the " Judgment of Taste " in the
Critique of the Power of Judgment (]. H. Bernard's trans-
lation, 1892), which treatise supplements the two better-
known critiques (vide KANT), and by investigating the conditions
of the validity of feeling mediates between their respective subjects,
cognition and desire (volition). He takes an important step in deny-
ing objective existence to beauty. Aesthetic value for him is fitness
to please as object of pure contemplation. This aesthetic satis-
faction is more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinter-
ested and free^— that is to say, from all concern about the real exist-
ence of the object, and about our dependence on it. He appears to
concede a certain formal objectivity to beauty in his doctrine of
an appearance of purposiveness (Zweckmdssigkeit) in the beautiful
object, this being defined as its harmony with the cognative faculties
involved in an aesthetic judgment (imagination and understand-
ing) ; a harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic
pleasure. Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly developed.
While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have objective validity and
remains valid only for the contemplator, he claims for it universal
subjective validity, since the object we pronounce to be beautiful is
fitted to please all men. We know that this must be so from re-
flecting on the disinterestedness of our pleasure, on its entire inde-
pendence of personal inclination. Kant insists that the aesthetic
judgment is always, in logical phrase, an " individual," i.e. a singu-
lar one, of the form " This object (e.g. rose) is beautiful." He
denies that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the
form " All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful."
(A judgment of this form would, he considers, be logical, not aesthetic.)
In dealing with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a
source of aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he shows
something of contempt. He seems to retreat from his doctrine of

pure subjectivity when he says that the highest significance of
beauty is to symbolize moral good ; going further than Ruskin when
he attaches ideals of modesty, frankness, courage, &c., to the seven
primary colours of Newton's system. He has made a solid contribu-
tion to the theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive
if a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous. But his main service
to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical determination of
its aim and its fundamental problems.

Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of Art. He
develops this as the third part of his system of transcendental ideal-
ism following theoretic and practical philosophy. (See
SCHELLING ; also Schelling's Werke, Bd. v., and I. Watson, •*"«""'*
Schelling' s Transcendental Idealism, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) Ac-
cording to Schelling a new philosophical significance is ?iven to art
by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object — which is
half disguised in ordinary perception and volition — is only clearly
seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its real self
by intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling of
infinite satisfaction. Art in thus effecting a revelation of the absolute
seems to attain a dignity not merely above that of nature but above
that of philosophy itself. Schelling throws but little light on the con-
crete forms of beauty. His classification of the arts, based on his anti-
thesis of object and subject, is a curiosity in intricate arrangement.
He applies his conception in a suggestiye way to classical tragedy.

In Hegel's system of philosophy art is viewed as the first stage of
the absolute spirit. (See HEGEL; also Werke, Bd. x., and Bosan-
quet's Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art.) In
this stage the absolute is immediately present to sense-
perception, an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with
Kant s doctrine of the " subjectivity " of beauty. The beautiful is
defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous
medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Schein)
and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the
universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the
beautiful is unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) gives
necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), while the reality
demands the semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He
discusses very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of
notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of
organic life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds
the Jiighest revelation of the beautiful. Art makes up for the
deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into clearer
light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual
animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern
worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form.
He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle
of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest being
architecture, the highest, poetry.

Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be found
in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation to the ugly, the
sublime, &c., by Hegel's disciples, e.g. C. H. Weisse and J. K. F.
Rosenkranz. The most important product of the Hegelian nfa/ecf/c
School is the elaborate system of aesthetics published by
F. T. Vischer (Asthetik, 3 Theile, 1846-1854). It illustrates „ „
the difficulties of the Hegelian thought and terminology ; "*•«**
yet in dealing with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive.

The aesthetic problem is also treated by two other philosophers
whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system,
viz. Schopenhauer and Herbart. Schopenhauer (see
SCHOPENHAUER, also The World as Will and Idea, trans-
lated by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219-346), abandon-
ing also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in
aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of intellect from
will. In this contemplation the mind is filled with pure intellectual
forms, the " Platonic Ideas " as he calls them, which are objecti-
fications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representa-
tion. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in
which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of existence is
surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds
that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed
as merely imperfect manifestation or obiectification of will. In this
way the beauty of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel,
is rehabilitated.

J. F. Herbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping from
Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbach's edition of
Werke, Bd. ii. pp. 339 et seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 105 et seq., Herbart
and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq.). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's
view of the aesthetic judgment as singular (" individual "); though
he secures a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphasiz-
ing the point that the predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the
same aesthetic object. At the same time, by referring the beauty of
concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted
the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra). Since
he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known as a for-
malist, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He
sets out with the idea that only relations please — in the Kantian
sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire; and his aim is to
determine the " aesthetic elementary relations," or the simplest
relations which produce this pleasure. These include those of will,
so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought

Schopen-
hauer.

AESTHETICS

287

under an aesthetic form. His typical example of aesthetic relations
in objects of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones.
The science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music what
should be done also for other departments of aesthetic experience.
This doctrine of elementary relations is brought into connexion with
the author's psychological doctrine of presentations with their
tendencies to mutual inhibition and to fusion, and of the varying
feeling-tones to which these processes give rise. This mode of treat-
ing the problem of beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly
developed and worked up into a complete system of aesthetics by
one of Herbart's disciples, Robert Zimmermann (Asthetik, 1858).

Lessing, in his Laocoon and elsewhere, sought to deduce the special
function of an art from a consideration of the means at its disposal.
Lessiax ^ took pains to define the boundaries of poetry and
painting, and in so doing he reached general reflexions
upon the ends and appliances of art. Among these his distinction
between arts which employ the coexistent in space and those which
employ the successive (as poetry and music) is of lasting value. In
his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop clear
general principles on such points as poetic truth, improving upon
Aristotle, on whose teaching he mainly relies.

Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many
aphorisms. He attempts to mediate between the claims of ideal
Goethe beauty, as taught by J. I. Winckelmann, and the aims of
Schiller 'ndiyidualization. Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number
of disconnected essays and letters, some of the main ques-
tions in the philosophy of art. He looks at art from the side of
culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically
cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His
letters on aesthetic education (Ober die dsthetische Erziehung des
Menschen, trans, by J. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing
out among other points the connexion between aesthetic activity
and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts
on aesthetic subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philo-
sophy. Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of
art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorschule der Asthetik of
Jean Paul Jean ^au' Richter. This is a rather ambitious discussion
of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains
much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic
poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically
on the problems to which modern poetry gives rise are Wilhelm von
Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Gervinus.

A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German
savants to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions to the
investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic effect,
as welF as to introduce into the study of the simpler
aesthetic forms the methods of natural science. The classic
work of Helmholtz on " Sensations of Tone " is a highly
successful attempt to ground the known facts and laws of
musical composition on physics and physiology. The endeavour to
determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions
of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by
E. W. Briicke, Ewald Hering and more recent investigators, has so
far failed to realize the desideratum laid down by Herbart, that
there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness
and exactness to that of tone-relations. The experimental inquiry
into simple aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner
in seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeising's hypothesis that
the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the vertical part
of a cross, is the " golden section," where the smaller division is to
the larger as the latter to the sum. He describes in his work on
". Experimental Aesthetics " (Zur experimentalen Asthetik) a series
of experiments carried out on a large number of persons, bearing on
this point, the results of which he considers to be in favour of Zeising's
hypothesis.

3. French Writers. — In France aesthetic speculation grew out of
the discussion by poets and critics on the relation of modern art, and
especially poetry, to ancient. The writings of Malherbe
and Boileau in the 1 7th century, the development of the
dispute between the " ancients " and the " moderns " at
the end of the ryth century by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle
and Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discus-
sion as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the
1 8th century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only offer
to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape of a record by
experts of their aesthetic experience, but disclose glimpses of im-
portant aesthetic principles. A more systematic examination of
the several arts (corresponding to that of Lessing) is to be found in
the Cpurs de belles lettres of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the
meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further
elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) according as
they employ the forms of space or those of time.

The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in
general is connected with the name of Pere Burner (see First Truths,
English translation, 1780). He confines himself to organic
form, and illustrates his theory by the human face. A
beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare
among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy
way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical
form of the species. This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted

Coatrlbu
tloas by
German
savants.

Discus-
sions of
more
concrete
problems.

Theories

oforganic

beauty.

Huffier.

by Reynolds) has been worked out more recently by H. Taine. In
his work, The Ideal in Art (trans, by J. Durand), he proceeds in the
manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters Talae
in the physical and moral man. The degree of the uni-
versality or importance of a character, and of its beneficence or
adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its aesthetic
value, and render the work of art, which seeks to represent it in its
purity, an ideal work.

The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French literature
are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosophic writers
who under the influence of German thinkers effected a ,,
reaction against the crude sensationalism of the i8th
century. They aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual *es</i"tfJ>-
element in aesthetic impressions, appearing to ignore any -. . ., '
capability in the sensuous material of affording a true ,,,
aesthetic delight. V. Cousin and Jean Charles Levgque
are the principal writers of this school. The latter developed
an elaborate system of the subject (La Science du beau). All
beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The i_ev^aue
several beautiful characters of an organic body — of which
the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity
of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment —
may be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and
order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the mani-
festations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of in-
organic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays
of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty is in its objective
essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in
order.

4. English Writers. — There is nothing answering to the German
conception of a system of aesthetics in English literature. The
inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for the most part
to such modest problems as the psychological process by which we
perceive the beautiful — discussions which are apt to be regarded by
German historians as devoid of real philosophical value. Tne writers
may be conveniently arranged in two divisions, answering to the two
opposed directions of English thought : (l) the Intuitipnalists, those
who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which is a simple
unanalysable attribute or principle of things; and (2) the Analytical
theorists, those who follow the analytical and psychological method,
concerning themselves with the sentiment of beauty as a complex
growth out of simpler elements.

Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on beauty. In
his Characteristics the beautiful and the good are combined in one
ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself is
ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really
resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the
product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived
not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral
sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the
only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment.

Francis Hutcheson, in his System of Moral Philosophy, though he
adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any inde-
pendent self-existing beauty in objects. " All beauty," he
says, " is relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it."
The cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple sensa-
tion such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or
" uniformity amidst variety." The faculty by which this principle
is discerned is an internal sense which is defined as " a passive power
of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is
uniformity in variety." This inner sense resembles the external
senses in the immediateness of the pleasure which its activity brings ;
and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing
being always, whether we will or no, beautiful. He distinguishes
two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or compara-
tive. The latter is discerned in an object which is regarded as an
imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that " an
exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were
entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of this
sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlarge-
ment of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uni-
formity than the opposite.

In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. " Of Taste ") Thomas
Reid applies his principle of common sense to the problem of beauty
by saying that objects of beauty agree not only in pro- Reid.

ducing a certain agreeable emotion, but in the excitation
along with this emotion of a belief that they possess some perfection
or excellence, that beauty exists in the objects independently of
our minds. His theory of beauty is severely spiritual. All beauty
resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral.
The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an
emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because it sym-
bolizes and expresses the latter. Thus the beauty of a plant resides
in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expres-
sion of the wisdom of its Creator.

In his Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a short
account of the sentiments of taste, which (with a superficial resem-
blance to Kant) he regards as subserving both the sub- Hamilton.
sidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, that is,
the imagination and the understanding. The activity of the

The Jntul-
tlonallsts.
Shaftes-
bury.

Hutche-
son.

288

AESTHETICS

former corresponds to the element of variety in a beautiful object,
that of the latter with its unity. He explicitly excludes all other
kinds of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification
of beauty. He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness.

John Kuskin's well-known speculations on the nature of beauty
in Modern Pa-inters (" Of ideas of beauty "), though sadly wanting in
Ruskla scientific precision, have a certain value in the history of
aesthetics. For him beauty is spiritual and typical of
divine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic
faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and apprecia-
tion of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imagina-
tive or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain
way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He
distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the
external quality of bodies,which typifies some divine attribute. The
(alter consists in " the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function
in living things." The forms of typical beauty are: — (l) infinity,
the type of the divine incomprehensibility ; (2) unity, the type of the
divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine per-
manence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity,
the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of
government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative
when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic
if only the degree of conformity, of an individual to the appointed
functions of the species is taken into account. Ruskin's writings
illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral
perception.

Addison's " Essays on the Imagination," contributed to the
Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ
The °' scientific analysis in the statement that the pleasures

analytical °^ imagination (which arise originally from sight) fall into
theorists. two c'asses: — (i) primary pleasures, which entirely pro-
Addison. ce£d from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary
pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The
latter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment
of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison
recognizes, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon
our aesthetic preferences.

In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Kames) another at-
tempt is made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its elements.
Home Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and un-
pleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. He
appears to admit no general characteristic of beautiful objects
beyond this power of yielding pleasure. Like Hutcheson, he divides
beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter the
appearance of fitness and utility, which is excluded from the beautiful
by Hutcheson.

Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of
beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we come to the
Horarth speculationsofanotherartist and painter, William Hogarth.
He discusses, in his Analysis of Beauty, all the elements of
visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements: — (i) fitness
of the parts to some design ; (2) variety in as many ways as possible ;
(3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful
when it helps to preserve the character of fitness ; (4) simplicity or
distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its
enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which
provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye " a
wanton kind: of chase"; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws
our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of
proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies
these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in
lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for
special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round
from the base to the apex of a long slender cone).

Burke's speculations, in his Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of
the Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency of English writers
„ . to treat the problem as a psychological one and to intro-

duce physiological considerations. He finds the elements
of beauty to be : — (i) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation
of direction in gentle curves; (4) delicacy, or the appearance of
fragility ; (5) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime
is rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always
contains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a tendency to
fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls
" efficient causes " for these aesthetic impressions incertain affections
of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely,
the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres. The arbitrari-
ness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's
attention.

Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and Principles of
Taste, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth
... and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process when

we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. He
finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination,
namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas
always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheer-
fulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes
association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the exist-
ence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates

the working of the principle of association at great length, and with
much skill ; yet his attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic
pleasure fails completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in
the Edinburgh Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are
little more than a modification of Alison's theory.

D. Stewart's chief contribution to aesthetic discussion in his
Philosophical Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted
assumption lurking in the doctrine of a single quality Dusald
running through all varieties of beautiful object. He seeks Stewart,
to show how the successive changes in the meaning of the
term " beautiful " have arisen. He suggeststhat it originally connoted
the pleasure of colour. The value of his discussion resides more in
the criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new
ideas. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology
of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects.

Of the association psychologists James Mill did little more towards
the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than re-state Alison's doc-
trine. Alexander Bain, in his treatise, The Emotions and Bala.
the Will (" Aesthetic Emotions "), carries this examination
considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other
varieties of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics: — (i) their
freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought for their
own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable concomitants;
(3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a
comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, in-
cluding the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its " ideal "
form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of
those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty,
of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected
with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees,
which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder.
The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on Aristotle
and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing dignity in
circumstances that excite no other strong emotion.

Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of Psychology
and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of
aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of evolution. Adopting
Schiller's idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity Herbert
and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing spencer.
the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the
outcome of the superfluous energies of the organism : as the activity
of organs and faculties which, owing to a prolonged period of in-
activity, have become specially ready to discharge their function, and
as a consequence vent themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic
activities supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the
higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree
with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to
life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer
seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to
the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of
sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute
the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived
emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race
transmitted by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable
emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones expressive
of feeling built up during the past history of our species. His bio-
logical treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influence, some
(e.g. Grant Allen) being content to develop his evolutional method.
Yet, as suggested above, his theory is now recognized as taking us
only a little way towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic
experience.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.' — (a) Works on General Aesthetics.

English and American. — There are no important recent works
which deal with the whole subject. The following will be found
helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt. viii. c. 9,
" Aesthetic Sentiments," and the papers on " Use and Beauty,"
" Origin and Function of Music "Land others in the Essays; A. Bain,
Emotions and Will, "Aesthetic Emotions"; J. Sully, Human
Mind, ii. " Aesthetic Sentiment " ; Grant Allen, " Physiological
Aesthetics " (Meth., PI., Senses, Play) ; Rutgers Marshall, Pain,
Pleasure and Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., PI., Play).

French and Italian Works. — M. Guyau, LesProblemesdel'esthetique
contemporaine (1884) (PI., Play) ; E. Veron, L'Esthetique(i8<)o) (slight
PI.) ; L. Bray, Du Beau (1902), (PI., Play) ; P. Saurian, La Beaute
rationnelle (1904) (Meth., PL, Senses, Einf.) ; M. Pilo, Estetica (PL,
Senses); A. Rolla, Storia delle idee estetiche in Italia (1905) (full,
account of ideas of Dante and other medieval writers, as well as of1
modern systems).

German Works. — K. Kostlin, Prolegomena zur Asthetik (1889)

1 Only recent works are included. Important points in each are
indicated by abbreviations, namely : —
Einf., for Einfuhlung (expres- PL, for theory of pleasure.

sional element in form). Play, for Play and aesthetic

EvoL, for bearings of evolution. enjoyment.
111., for aesthetic illusion. Senses, for aesthetic value of

Judg., for aesthetic judgment" higher senses.

Meth., for method of aesthetics. VaL, for aesthetic value.
Norm., for normative function of

aesthetics.

AESTIVATION— ^THELFRITH

289

(good introduction to subject); K. Groos, Der dsthetische Genuss
(1902) (Meth., Judg. , Play, Senses, Einf. and 111.) ; J. Volkelt, System
der Asthetik (1905) (very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses,
Einf.); J. Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K.
Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., 111., Play).

(b) Works on History o] Aesthetics. — H. Lotze, Geschichte der
Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Krilische Geschichte der
Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with ancient and modern
theories) ; E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche Asthetik seit Kant
(Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.); K. H. von Stein, Die Entstehung der
neueren Asthetik (theories of French critics, &c.) ; F. Brunetiere,
L' Evolution des genres (History of critical discussions in the I7th
and i8th centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full,
especially on ancient theories and German systems); W. Knight,
Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. " History " (Univ. Extension
Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.)

AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or
summer; the word is sometimes spelled " estivation"), literally
" summer residence," a term used in zoology for the condition
of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest
season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar
winter condition known as hibernation (q.v.). In botany the
word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the
petals in a flower before expansion in the. summer, contrasted with
" vernation " of leaves which unfold in the spring.

jETHELBALD, king of Mercia, succeeded Ceolred A.D. 716.
According to Felix, Life of St GuMac, he visited the saint at
Crowland, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries
before his accession, and was cheered by predictions of his future
greatness. According to Bede, the whole of Britain as far north
as the Humber was included within the sphere of his authority.
His energy in preserving his influence is shown by several entries
in the Chronicle. He made an expedition against Wessex in
733, in which year he took the royal vill of Somerton. In 740
he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria
in a campaign against the Picts to invade his kingdom. In 743
he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, against the Welsh, but
the alliance did not last long, as in 752 Cuthred took up arms
against him. In 757 /Ethelbald was slain by his guards at
Seckington (Warwickshire) and buried at Repton. He seems to
have been the most powerful and energetic king of Mercia be-
tween Penda and Offa. A letter of St Boniface is preserved,
in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities and encroach-
ments on church property, while recognizing his merits as a
monarch. By a charter of 749 he freed ecclesiastical lands from
all obligations except the trinoda necessitas.

See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), v. 23 and Continuatio s.a. 740,
750, 757; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 716, 733, 737,
740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum, ii. pp. 264, 275, 276,
279. 283-284; P. Jaffe, Monumenta Moguntiaca, iii. pp. 168-177;
W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.)

/ETHELBALD, king of Wessex, was the son of ^thelwulf,
with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes
at Aclea, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his
father on the latter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived
him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On his
father's death in 858 he married his widow, Judith.

See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 12; Saxon
Chronicle, s.a. 851, 855, 860.

KTHELBERHT, king of Kent, son of Eormenric, probably
came to the throne in A.D. 560. The first recorded event of
his reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of
Wessex in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune.
jEthelberht married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris,
?ho brought over Bishop Liudhard as her private confessor.
:ording to Bede, ^Ethelberht's supremacy in 597 stretched
)ver all the English kingdoms as far as the Humber. The nature
of this supremacy has been much disputed, but it was at any
rate sufficient to guarantee the safety of Augustine in his con-
ference with the British bishops. ^Ethelberht exercised a
stricter sway over Essex, where his nephew Saberht was king.
In 597 the mission of Augustine landed in Thanet and was re-
ceived at first with some hesitation by the king. He seems to
have acted with prudence and moderation during the conversion
of his kingdom and did not countenance compulsory proselytism.

Kthelberht gave Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and
I. 10
•

who
Accc
over

Christ Church was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to
found the see of Rochester, of which Justus became first bishop
in 604, and his influence established Mellitus at London in the
same year. A code of laws issued by him which is still extant
is probably the oldest document in the English language, and
contains a list of money fines for various crimes. Towards
the close of his reign his pre-eminence as Bretwalda was dis-
turbed by the increasing power of Raedwald of East Anglia.
He died probably in 616, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald.

See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon Chronicle
(Earle and Plummer), s.a. 568. (F. G. M. B.)

KTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the
sub-kingdom of Kent during the lifetime of his father /Ethelwulf ,
and retained it until the death of his elder brother ^Ethelbald in
860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger
brothers .^thelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled
these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. His reign was
marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who
destroyed Winchester in 86p, in spite of the resistance of the
ealdormen Osric and ^Ethelwulf with the levies of Hampshire
and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent.

See Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 860, 865; King
Alfred's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 553.

£THELFLAED (ETHELFLEDA), the " Lady of the Mercians,"
the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with her
brother Edward at her father's court. As soon as she was of
marriageable age (probably about A.D. 886), she was married to
^Ethelred, earl of Mercia, to whom Alfred entrusted the control
of Mercia. On the accession of her brother Edward, ^Ethelflaed
and her husband continued to hold Mercia. In 907 they fortified
Chester, and in 909 and 910 either ^Ethelflaed or her husband
must have led the Mercian host at the battles of Tettenhall and
Wednesfield (or Tettenhall- Wednesfield, if these battles are one
and the same). It was probably about this time that ^Ethelred
fell ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully
besieged Chester. yEthelflaed won the support of the Danes
against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into an
alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans. In
911 ./Ethelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and Oxford-
shire. Except for this ^Ethelflaed's authority remained un-
impaired. In 912 she fortified " Scergeat " and Bridgenorth,
Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddisbury and Warwick in 914,
Cherbury, " Weardbyrig " and Runcorn in 915. In 916 she sent
an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as
Brecknock. In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, and
in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to her.
She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was
buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester. This noble queen,
whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and
brother, left one daughter, yElfwyn. For some eighteen months
iElfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and then,
just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Mercia into his
own hands, and jElfwyn was " led away " into Wessex. .iEthel-
flaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and the
royal title is often given them by the chroniclers.

See The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especially the Mercian register
in MSS. B, C and D) ; Florence of Worcester; Fragments of Irish
Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)

KTHELFRITH, king of Northumbria, is said to have come
to the throne in A.D. 593, being the son of ^Ethelric (probably
reigned 568-572). He married Acha, daughter of Ella GElle),
king of Deira, whom he succeeded probably in 605, expelling
his son Edwin. In 603 he repelled the attack of Aidan, king of
the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating him with great loss.
The appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, ^Ethelfrith's prede-
cessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate family
quarrels in the royal house of Bernicia. Later in his reign,
probably in 614, he defeated the Welsh in a great battle at
Chester and massacred the monks of Bangor who were assembled
to aid them by their prayers. This war may have been due
partly to ^Ethelfrith's persecution of Edwin, but it had a stra-
tegic importance in the separation of the North Welsh from the
Strathclyde Britons. In 617 ^Ethelfrith was defeated and slain

290

HIRELING— ^THELRED II.

at the river Idle by Raedwald of East Anglia, whom Edwin had
persuaded to take up his cause.

See Bede, Chronica Majora, § 531; Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 34,
ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist. Brittonum,
§§57, 63; Annales Cambriae, s.a. 613. (F. G. M. B.)

JETHELING, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of cethele, or
ethel, meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin to the
modern German words Adel, nobility, and adelig, noble. During
the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England the word
was probably used to denote any person of noble birth. Its
use was, however, soon restricted to members of a royal family,
and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively
for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally
used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the
royal family. The earlier part of the word formed part of the
name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, e.g. ^Ethelbert, .iEthelwulf,
/Ethelred, and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth.
According to a document which probably dates from the loth
century, the wergild of an aetheling was fixed- at 15,000 thrymsas,
or 1 1 , 2 50 shillings. This wergild is equal to that of an archbishop
and one-half of that of a king.

£THELNOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known
also as EGELNODUS or EDNODUS, was a son of the ealdorman
^Ethelmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex. He
became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of
Christ Church, Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and
on the I3th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of
Canterbury. In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium,
and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII.
Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to
be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents of
silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of Coventry.
He appears to have exercised considerable influence over Canute,
largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at Canterbury.
A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown
King Harold I., as he had promised Canute to crown none but a
son of the king by his wife, Emma. ^Ethelnoth, who was called
the " Good," died on the 29th of October 1038, and his name
appears in the lists of saints.

4STHELRED, king of Mercia, succeeded his brother Wulfhere
in A.D. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword,
destroying thomonasteries and churches and taking Rochester.
jEthelred married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of
Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose
between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the
province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close
of the reign of Wulfhere. In a battle on the banks of the Trent
in 679, the king of Mercia was victorious and regained the
province. ^Elfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this
occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of
Canterbury, yEthelred agreed to pay a wergild for the North-
umbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Osthryth
was murdered in 697 and yEthelred abdicated in 704, choosing
Coenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney,
and, according to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Coenred on
his return from Rome. ^Ethelred died at Bardney in 716. (See
WILFRID.)

SOURCES. — Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23 40, 43, 45-48, 57;
Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), iii. n, iv. 12,21; Saxon Chronicle,
s.a. 676, 679, 704, 716, (F. G. M. B.)

jETHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was
the fourth son of ^Ethelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his
father's will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest
brother ^Ethelbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in
favour of his brother jEthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint
kingdoms he succeeded in 866. ^Ethelred's reign was one long
struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a
large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868
^Ethelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or
Burhred, of Mercia, against this host, but the Mercians soon
made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at
Reading, where they defeated ^Ethelred and his brother, but
later in the year the English won a great victory at " /Escesdun."

A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially
retrieved their fortune by a victory at " Msretun " (perhaps
Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the
Easter of this year ^Ethelred died, perhaps of wounds received
in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne.
He left a son, yEthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin
Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom.
^Ethelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king.
AUTHORITIES. — The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, Cartul.
Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v. ; Eng. Hist. Review, {.
218-234. (A. Mw.)

JETHELRED II. (or ETHELRED) (c. 968-1016), king of the
English (surnamed THE UNREADY, i.e. without rede or counsel),
son of King Edgar by his second wife ^Elfthryth, was born in
968 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder of his
step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was dis-
astrous from the beginning. The year after his accession the
Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the Peaceful,
recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder only,
not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 982 and 988.
In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated and slew the
East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon. After this, peace
was purchased by a payment of £10,000 — a disastrous expedient.
The Danes were to desist from their ravages, but were allowed
to stay in England. Next year ^Ethelred himself broke the peace
by an attack on the Danish ships. Despite the treachery of
JElinc, the English were victorious; and the Danes sailed off to
ravage Lindsey and Northumbria. In 994 Olaf Tryggvason,
king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, united in a great
invasion and attacked London. Foiled by the valour of the
citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast from Essex to
Hampshire. ^Ethelred now resorted to the old experiment
and bought them off for £16,000 and a promise of supplies.
Olaf also visited ^Ethelred at the latter's request and, receiving
a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise that he
would never again come to England with hostile intent, an en-
gagement which he faithfully kept. The Danish attacks were
repeated in 997, 998, 999, and in 1000 ^Ethelred availed himself
of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to invade
Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold. Next year,
however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil than
ever. The national defence seemed to have broken down alto-
gether. In despair ^Ethelred again offered them money, which
they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion being £24,000.
But soon afterwards the king, suspecting treachery, resolved to
get rid of his enemies once and for all. Orders were issued
commanding the slaughter on St Brice's day (December 2) of
" all the Danish men who were in England." Such a decree
could obviously not be carried out literally; but we cannot
doubt that the slaughter was great. This violence, however,
only made matters worse. Next year Sweyn returned, his
hostility fanned by the desire for revenge. For two years he
ravaged and slew; in 1003 Exeter was destroyed; Norwich
and Thetford in 1004. No effectual resistance was offered,
despite a gallant effort here and there; the disorganization of
the country was complete. In 1005 the Danes were absent in
Denmark, but came back next year, and emboldened by the utter
lack of resistance, they ranged far inland. In 1007 ^Ethelred
bought them off for a larger sum than ever (£36,000), and for
two years the land enjoyed peace. In 1009, however, in accord-
ance with a resolution made by the witan in the preceding year,
,Cthelred collected such a fleet " as never before had been in
England in any king's day"; but owing to a miserable court
quarrel the effort came to nothing. The king then summoned
a general levy of the nation, with no better result. Just as he
was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from doing
so, and the opportunity was lost. In 1010 the Danes returned,
to find the kingdom more utterly disorganized than ever. " There
was not a chief man in the kingdom who could gather a force,
but each fled as he best might; nor even at last would any there
resist another." Incapable of offering resistance, the king again
offered money, this time no less than £48,000. While it was being

.ETHELSTAN— ^THELWEARD

291

collected, the Danes sacked Canterbury and barbarously slew
the archbishop Alphege. The tribute was paid soon afterwards;
and about the same time the Danish leader Thurkill entered the
English service. From 1013 an important change is discernible
in the character of the Danish attacks, which now became
definitely political in their aim. In this year Sweyn sailed up
the Trent and received the submission of northern England,
and then marching south, he attacked London. Failing to take
it, he hastened west and at Bath received the submission of
Wessex. Then he returned northwards, and after that " all the
nation considered him as full king." London soon acknowledged
him, and .•Ethelred, after taking refuge for a while with Thurkill's
fleet, escaped to Normandy. Sweyn died in February 1014,
and ^thelred was recalled by the witan, on giving a promise
to reign better in future. At once he hastened north against
Canute, Sweyn's son, who claimed to succeed his father, but
Canute sailed away, only to return next year, when the traitor
Edric joined him and Wessex submitted. Together Canute and
Edric harried Mercia, and were preparing to reduce London,
when .lEthelred died there on the 23rd of April 1016. Weak,
self-indulgent, improvident, he had pursued a policy of oppor-
tunism to a fatal conclusion.

^Ethelred's wife was Emma, or ^Elfgif u, daughter of Richard I.
the Fearless, duke of the Normans, whom he married in 1002.
After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute the
Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to secure
England for her son, Hardicanute. In 1037, however, when
Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she went
to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 1040.
In 1043, after Edward the Confessor had become king he seized
the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the queen lived
in retirement at Winchester until her death on the 6th of March
1052. By ^Jthelred Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor
and the aHheling Alfred (d. 1036), and by Canute she was the
mother of Hardicanute. Emma's marriage with ^Jthelred was
an important step in the history of the relations between
England and Normandy, and J. R. Green says " it suddenly
opened for its rulers a distinct policy, a distinct course of
action, which led to the Norman conquest of England. From
the moment of Emma's marriage Normandy became a chief
factor in English politics."

AUTHORITIES. — The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C.
Plummer, 2 vols. Oxford, 1892-1899) ; Florence of Worcester (ed. B.
Thorpe, London, 1848—1849) ; Encomium Emmae (ed. by G. H. Pertz
.in the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Band xix., Hanover, 1866)
for the latter part of the reign. .See also J. M. Kemble, Codex Diplo-
maticus aevi Saxonici (London, 1839—1848); and B. Thorpe, Ancient
Laws (London, 1840). (C. S. P.*)

JETHELSTAN (c. 894-940), Saxon king, was the son
(probably illegitimate) of Edward the elder. He had been the
favourite of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the
household of his aunt ^Ethelflaed, the " Lady of the Mercians."
On the death of his father in 924, at some date after the i2th
of November, ^Ethelstan succeeded him and was crowned at
Kingston shortly after. The succession did not, however, take
place without opposition. One Alfred, probably a descendant
of ^thelred I., formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester;
the plot was discovered and Alfred was sent to Rome to defend
himself, but died shortly after. The king's own legitimate
brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he
was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances;
the later chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on the part
of the king, but this seems more than doubtful.

One of jEthelstan's first public acts was to hold a conference
at Tamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria,
and as a result Sihtric received yEthelstan's sister in marriage.
In the next year Sihtric died and ^Ethelstan took over the
Northumbrian kingdom. He now received, at Dacre in Cumber-
land, the submission of all the kings of the island, viz. Howel Dda,
king of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, Constantine, king
of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and henceforth he calls
himself "rex totius Britanniae." About this time (the exact
chronology is uncertain) ^Ethelstan expelled Sihtric's brother

Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at York, received the
submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing their boundary along
the line of the Wye, and drove the Cornishmen west of the Tamar,
fortifying Exeter as an English city.

In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing
to an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson. The
army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire,
while the navy sailed to Caithness. Simeon of Durham speaks
of a submission of Scotland as a result; if it ever took place it
was a mere form, for three years later we find a great confederacy
formed in Scotland against ^Ethelstan. This confederacy of
937 was joined by Constantine, king of Scotland, the Welsh of
Strathclyde, and the Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson
and Anlaf Godfredsson, who, though they came from Ireland,
had powerful English connexions. A great battle was fought
at Brunanburh (perhaps Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E.
Dumfriesshire), in which ^thelstan and his brother Edmund were
completely victorious. England had been freed from its greatest
danger since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Guthrum.

jEthelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any
real sense to be lord paramount of Britain. In his charters he
is continually called " rex totius Britanniae," and he adopts for
the first time the Greek title basileus. This was not merely an
idle flourish, for some of his charters are signed by Welsh and
Scottish kings as subreguli. Further, ^Ethelstan was the first
king to bring England into close touch with continental Europe.
By the marriage of his half-sisters he was brought into connexion
with the chief royal and princely houses of France and Germany.
His sister Eadgifu married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became
the wife of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth was
married to the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister ^Elfgifu to
a petty German prince. Embassies passed between ^Ethelstan
and Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result
that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is
known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adalsteinsfostri.

yEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmes-
bury, an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his
lifetime. Apparently he was never married, and he certainly
had no issue.

A considerable body of law has come down to us in ^Ethel-
stan'sname. The chief collections are those issued at Grately in
Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresfeld, and the Judicia civitatis
Lundonie. In the last-named one personal touch is found when
the king tells the archbishop how grievous it is to put to death
persons of twelve winters for stealing. The king secured the
raising of the age limit to fifteen.

AUTHORITIES. — Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; William
of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls Series, contain-
ing valuable original information (v. Stubbs' Introduction, II. lx.-
Ixvii.); Birch, Cartel. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 641-747; A.S. Laws,
(ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; jEthelweard, Florence of Worcester.
Secondary: Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142;
D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)

&THELWEARD (ETHELWARD), Anglo-Saxon historian, was
the great-grandson of yEthelred, the brother of Alfred, and
ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the
whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973,
and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death
must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with
archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious
Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop yElfheah
(Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover.
>Ethelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to
the year 975. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on
the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is
largely independent of it. ^Ethelweard gave himself the bom-
bastic title " Patricius Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus," and un-
fortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man.
His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time
attempts more than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often
very obscure. ^Ethelweard was the friend and patron of jElfric
the grammarian.

AUTHORITIES. — Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch,

292

.&THELWULF— AETHER

Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224;
Fabii Ethelwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 449-454. Secondary:
Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci. ; Napier and Stevenson,
Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)

JETHELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father
Ecgberht in A.D. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for
823 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and
the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent,
which was successfully accomplished. On the accession of
^thelwulf , jEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of
Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. ^Ethelwulf's reign was chiefly
occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king's
defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at
the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of
Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and yEthelstan of
Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered
in England that year for the first time. In 851 also ^Ethelwulf
and ^Ethelbald won their great victory at Aclea, probably the
modern Ockley. In 853 jEthelwulf subdued the North Welsh,
in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, and gave him his
daughter .lEthelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Dona-
tion of yEthelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On
his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald.
According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his
son jEthelbald on his return, and content himself with the
eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858.

See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 1-16; Saxon
Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.)

AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. aiOrip, probably from aWw, I burn,
though Plato in his Cratylus (410 B) derives the name from
its perpetual motion — oYt 6.fl Oel irepl rdv aipa pkuiv, d«0ei)p
Suaicos o.v /caXoTro), a material substance of a more subtle
kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of
space which are apparently empty.

" The hypothesis of an aether has been maintained by different
speculators for very different reasons. To those who maintained
the existence of a plenum as a philosophical principle, nature's
abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient reason for imagining
an all-surrounding aether, even though every other argument
should be against it. To Descartes, who made extension the
sole essential property of matter, and matter a necessary condi-
tion of extension, the bare existence of bodies apparently at a
distance was a proof of the existence of a continuous medium
between them. But besides these high metaphysical necessities
for a medium, there were more mundane uses to be fulfilled by
aethers. Aethers were invented for the planets to swim in, to
constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia, to convey
sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on,
till all space had been filled three or four times over with aethers.
It is only when we remember the extensive and mischievous
influence on science which hypotheses about aethers used for-
merly to exercise, that we can appreciate the horror of aethers
which sober-minded men had during the i8th century, and
which, probably as a sort of hereditary prejudice, descended
even to John Stuart Mill. The disciples of Newton maintained
that in the fact of the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies,
according to Newton's law, they had a complete quantitative
account of their motions; and they endeavoured to follow out
the path which Newton had opened up by investigating and
measuring the attractions and repulsions of electrified and
magnetic bodies, and the cohesive forces in the interior of
bodies, without attempting to account for these forces. Newton
himself, however, endeavoured to account for gravitation by
differences of pressure in an aether; but he did not publish his
theory, ' because he was not able from experiment and observa-
tion to give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the
manner of its operation in producing the chief phenomena of
nature.' On the other hand, those who imagined aethers in
order to explain phenomena could not specify the nature of the
motion of these media, and could not prove that the media, as
imagined by them, would produce the effects they were meant to
explain. The only aether which has survived is that which was
invented by Huygens to explain the propagation of light. The

evidence for the existence of the luminiferous aether has accumu-
lated as additional phenomena of light and other radiations
have been discovered; and the properties of this medium, as
deduced from the phenomena of light, have been found to be
precisely those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena."

This description, quoted from James Clerk Maxwell's article
in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, represents the
historical position of the subject up till about 1860, when Maxwell
began those constructive speculations in electrical theory, based
on the influence of the physical views of Faraday and Lord Kelvin,
which have in their subsequent development largely transformed
theoretical physics into the science of the aether.

In the remainder of the article referred to, Maxwell reviews
the evidence for the necessity of an aether, from the fact that
light takes time to travel, while it cannot travel as a substance,
for if so two interfering lights could not mask each other in the
dark fringes (see INTERFERENCE or LIGHT). Light is therefore
an influence propagated as wave-motion, and moreover by trans-
verse undulations, for the reasons brought out by Thomas Young
and Augustin Fresnel; so that the aether is a medium which
possesses elasticity of a type analogous to rigidity. It must be
very different from ordinary matter as we know it, for waves
travelling in matter constitute sound, which is propagated
hundreds of thousands of times slower than light.

If we suppose that the aether differs from ordinary matter in
degree but not in kind, we can obtain some idea of its quality
from a knowledge of the velocity of radiation and of its possible
intensity near the sun, in a manner applied long ago by Lord
Kelvin (Trans. R. S. Edin, xxi. 1854). According to modern
measurements the solar radiation imparts almost 3 gramme-
calories of energy per minute per square centimetre at the
distance of the earth, which is about 1-3X10° ergs per sec. per
cm.2 The energy in sunlight per cubic cm. just outside the
earth's atmosphere is therefore about 4X10"* ergs; applying
the law of inverse squares the value near the sun's surface would
be 1-8 ergs. Let E be the effective elasticity of the aether;
then E = pc2, where p is its density, and c the velocity of light
which is 3X10 10 cm./sec. If £=A cosn (t-x/c) is the linear
vibration, the stress is E d£/dx; and the total energy, which is
twice the kinetic energy £p(d£/dt)2dx, is 2p«2A2 per cm., which
is thus equal to 1-8 ergs as above. Now X = 2irc/w, so that
if A/X=fc, we have £p(27rc£)2=i-8, giving p = io~22^~2 and
E=io~1&~2. Lord Kelvin assumed as a superior limit of k, the
ratio of amplitude to wave-length, the value io~2, which is a
very safe limit. It follows that the density of the aether must
exceed io~18, and its elastic modulus must exceed io3, which
is only about io~8 of the modulus of rigidity of glass. It thus
appears that if the amplitude of vibration could be as much as
lo"2 of the wave-length, the aether would be an excessively rare
medium with very slight elasticity; and yet it would be capable
of transmitting the supply of solar energy on which all terrestrial
activity depends. But on the modern theory, which includes
the play of electrical phenomena as a function of the aether,
there are other considerations which show that this number io""1
is really an enormous overestimate; and it is not impossible
that the co-efficient of ultimate inertia of the aether is greater
than the co-efficient of inertia (of different kirjd) of any existing
material substance.

The question of whether the aether is carried along by the
earth's motion has been considered from the early days of the
undulatory theory of light. In reviving that theory at the be-
ginning of the igth century, Thomas Young stated his conviction
that material media offered an open structure to the substance
called aether, which passed through them without hindrance
" like the wind through a grove of trees." Any convection of
that medium could be tested by the change of effective velocity
of light, which would be revealed by a prism as was suggested
by F. J. D. Arago. Before 1868 Maxwell conducted the experi-
ment by sending light from the illuminated cross-wires of an
observing telescope forward through the object-glass, and
through a train of prisms, and then reflecting it back along the
same path; any influence of convection would conspire in

AETHER

293

altering both refractions, but yet no displacement of the image
depending on the earth's motion was detected. As will be seen
later, modern experiments have confirmed the entire absence of
any effect, such as convection would produce, to very high
precision. It has further been verified by Sir Oliver Lodge that
even in very narrow spaces the aether is not entrained by its
surroundings when they are put into rapid motion.

A train of ideas which strongly impressed itself on Clerk
Maxwell's mind, in the early stages of his theoretical views,
was put forward by Lord Kelvin in 1858; he showed that the
special characteristics of the rotation of the plane of polarization,
discovered by Faraday in light propagated along a magnetic
field, viz. that it is doubled instead of being undone when the
light retraces its path, requires the operation of some directed
agency of a rotational kind, which must be related to the
magnetic field. Lord Kelvin was thereby induced to identify
magnetic force with rotation, involving, therefore, angular
momentum in the aether. Modern theory accepts the deduction,
but ascribes the momentum to the revolving ions in the molecules
of matter traversed by the light; for the magneto-optic effect
is present only in material media. Long previously Lord Kelvin
himself came nearer this view, in offering the opinion that
magnetism consisted, in some way, in the angular momentum
of the material molecules, of which the energy of irregular
translations constitutes heat; but the essential idea of moving
electric ions of both kinds, positive and negative, in the molecules
had still to be introduced.

The question of the transparency of the celestial spaces
presents itself in the present connexion. Light from stars at
unfathomable distances reaches us in such quantity as to suggest
that space itself is absolutely transparent, leaving open the
question as to whether there is enough matter scattered through
it to absorb a sensible part of the light in its journey of years
from the luminous body. If the aether were itself constituted
of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies, such
transparency would not be conceivable. We must be content
to treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by
itself; and we can thus recognize that it may behave very
differently from matter, though in some manner consistent with
itself — a remark which is fundamental in the modern theory.

Action across a Distance contrasted with Transmitted Action. —
In the mechanical processes which we can experimentally modify
at will, and which therefore we learn to apprehend with greatest
fulness, whenever an effect on a body, B, is in causal connexion
with a process instituted in another body, A, it is usually possible
to discover a mechanical connexion between the two bodies
which allows the influence of A to be traced all the way across
the intervening region. The question thus arises whether, in
electric attractions across apparently empty space and in gravi-
tational attraction across the celestial regions, we are invited
or required to make search for some similar method of continuous
transmission of the physical effect, or whether we should rest
content with an exact knowledge of the laws according to which
one body affects mechanically another body at a distance.
The view that our knowledge in such cases may be completely
represented by means of laws of action at a distance, expressible
in terms of the positions (and possibly motions) of the interacting
bodies without taking any heed of the intervening space, belongs
modern times. It could hardly have been thought of before
Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the actual facts regarding uni-
versal gravitation. Although, however, gravitation has formed
lie most perfect instance of an influence completely expressible,
up to the most extreme refinement of accuracy, in terms of laws
of direct action across space, yet, as is well known, the author
of this ideally simple and perfect theory held the view that it is
not possible to conceive of direct mechanical action independent
means of transmission. In this belief he differed from his
Dupil, Roger Cotes, and from most of the great mathematical
stronomers of the i8th century, who worked out in detail the
task sketched by the genius of Newton. They were content
with a knowledge of the truth of the principle of gravitation;
instead of essaying to explain it further by the properties of a

transmitting medium, they in fact modelled the whole of their
natural philosophy on that principle, and tried to express all
kinds of material interaction in terms of laws of direct mechanical
attraction across space. If material systems are constituted of
discrete atoms, separated from each other by many times the
diameter of any of them, this simple plan of exhibiting their
interactions in terms of direct forces between them would
indeed be exact enough to apply to a wide range of questions,
provided we could be certain that the laws of the forces depended
only on the positions and not also on the motions of the atoms.
The most important example of its successful application has
been the theory of capillary action elaborated by P. S. Laplace;
though even here it appeared, in the hands of Young, and in
complete fulness afterwards in those of C. F. Gauss, that the
definite results attainable by the hypothesis of mutual atomic
attractions really reposed on much wider and less special prin-
ciples— those, namely, connected with the modern doctrine of
energy.

Idea of an Aether. — The wider view, according to which the
hypothesis of direct transmission of physical influences expresses
only part of the facts, is that all space is filled with physical
activity, and that while an influence is passing across from a
body, A, to another body, B, there is some dynamical process in
action in the intervening region, though it appears to the senses
to be mere empty space. The problem is whether we can repre-
sent the facts more simply by supposing the intervening space
to be occupied by a medium which transmits physical actions,
after the manner that a continuous material medium, solid or
liquid, transmits mechanical disturbance. Various analogies of
this sort are open to us to follow up: for example, the way in
which a fluid medium transmits pressure from one immersed
solid to another — or from one vortex ring belonging to the fluid
to another, which is a much wider and more suggestive case;
or the way in which an elastic fluid like the atmosphere transmits
sound; or the way in which an elastic solid transmits waves of
transverse as well as longitudinal displacement. It is on our
familiarity with modes of transmission such as these, and with
the exact analyses of them which the science of mathematical
physics has been able to make, that our predilection for filling
space with an aethereal transmitting medium, constituting a
universal connexion between material bodies, largely depends;
perhaps ultimately it depends most of all, like all our physical
conceptions, on the intimate knowledge that we can ourselves
exert mechanical effect on outside bodies only through the
agencies of our limbs and sinews. The problem thus arises,
Can we form a consistent notion of such a connecting medium?
It must be a medium which can be effective for transmitting all
the types of physical action known to us; it would be worse
than no solution to have one medium to transmit gravitation,
another to transmit electric effects, another to transmit light,
and so on. Thus the attempt to find out a constitution for the
aether will involve a synthesis of intimate correlation of the
various types of physical agencies, which appear so different to
us mainly because we perceive them through different senses.
The evidence for this view, that all these agencies are at bottom
connected together and parts of the same scheme, was enormously
strengthened during the latter half of the ipth century by the
development of a relation of simple quantitative equivalence
between them; it has been found that we can define quantities
relating to them, under the names of mechanical energy, electric
energy, thermal energy, and so on, so that when one of them
disappears, it is replaced by the others to exactly equal amount.
This single principle of energy has transformed physical science
by making possible the construction of a network of ramifying
connexions between its various departments; it thus stimulates
the belief that these constitute a single whole, and encourages
the search for the complete scheme of interconnexion of which
the principle of energy and the links which it suggests form
only a single feature.

In carrying out this scientific procedure false steps will from
time to time be made, which will have to be retraced, or rather
amended; but the combination of experimental science with

294

AETHER

theory has elevated our presumption of the rationality of all
natural processes, so far as we can apprehend them at all, into
practical certainty; so that, though the mode of presentation of
the results may vary from age to age, it is hardly conceivable
that the essentials of the method are not of permanent validity.

Atomic Structure of Matter. — The greatest obstacle to such a
search for the fundamental medium is the illimitable complexity
of matter, as contrasted with the theoretical simplicity and uni-
formity of the physical agencies which connect together its
different parts. It has been maintained since the times of the
early Greek philosophers, and possibly even more remote ages,
that matter is constituted of independent indestructible units,
which cannot ever become divided by means of any mutual
actions they can exert. Since the period, a century ago, when
Dalton and his contemporaries constructed from this idea a
scientific basis for chemistry, the progress of that subject has
been wonderful beyond any tonception that could previously
have been entertained; and the atomic theory in some form
appears to be an indispensable part of the framework of physical
science. Now this doctrine of material atoms is an almost
necessary corollary to the doctrine of a universal aether. For if
we held that matter is continuous, one of two alternatives would
be open. We might consider that matter and aether can co-
exist in the same space; this would involve the co-existence
and interaction of a double set of properties, introducing great
complication, which would place any coherent scheme of physical
action probably beyond the powers of human analysis. Or we
might consider that aether exists only where matter is not,
thus making it a very rare and subtle and elastic kind of matter;
then we should have to assign these very properties to the matter
itself where it replaces aether, in addition to its more familiar
properties, and the complication would remain. The other
course is to consider matter as formed of ultimate atoms, each
the nucleus or core of an intrinsic modification impressed on
the surrounding region of the aether; this might conceivably
be of the nature of vortical motion of a liquid round a ring-core,
thus giving a vortex atom, or of an intrinsic strain of some sort
radiating from a core, which would give an electric atom. We
recognize an atom only through its physical activities, as mani-
fested in its interactions with other atoms at a distance from it;
this field of physical activity would be identical with the sur-
rounding field of aethereal motion or strain that is inseparably
associated with the nucleus, and is carried on along with it as it
moves. Here then we have the basis of a view in which there are
not two media to be considered, but one medium, homogeneous
in essence and differentiated as regards its parts only by the
presence of nuclei of intrinsic strain or motion — in which the
physical activities of matter are identified with those arising
from the atmospheres of modified aether which thus belong to
its atoms. As regards laws of general physical interactions, the
atom is fully represented by the constitution of this atmosphere,
and its nucleus may be left out of our discussions; but in the
problems of biology great tracts of invariable correlations have
to be dealt with, which seem hopelessly more complex than any
known or humanly possible physical scheme. To make room for
these we have to remember that the atomic nucleus has remained
entirely undefined and beyond our problem; so that what may
occur, say when two molecules come into close relations, is outside
physical science — not, however, altogether outside, for we know
that when the vital nexus in any portion of matter is dissolved, the
atoms will remain, in their number, and their atmospheres, and
all inorganic relations, as they were before vitality supervened.

Nature of Properties of Material Bodies. — It thus appears
that the doctrine of atomic material constitution and the doctrine
of a universal aether stand to each other in a relation of mutual
support; if the scheme of physical laws is to be as precise as
observation and measurement appear to make it, both doctrines
are required in our efforts towards synthesis. Our direct know-
ledge of matter can, however, never be more than a rough
knowledge of the general average behaviour of its molecules;
for the smallest material speck that is sensible to our coarse
perceptions contains myriads of atoms. The properties of the

most minute portion of matter which we can examine are thus
of the nature of averages. We may gradually invent means of
tracing more and more closely the average drifts of translation
or orientation, or of changes of arrangement, of the atoms; but
there will always remain an unaveraged residue devoid of any
recognized regularity, which we can only estimate by its total
amount. Thus, if we are treating of energy, we can separate out
mechanical and electric and other constituents in it; and there
will be a residue of which we know nothing except its quantity,
and which we call thermal. This merely thermal energy —
which is gradually but very slowly being restricted in amount as
new subsidiary organized types become recognized in it — though
transmutable in equivalent quantities Nvith the other kinds, yet
is so only to a limited extent; the tracing out of the laws of this
limitation belongs to the science of thermodynamics. It is the
business of that science to find out what is the greatest amount
of thermal energy that can possibly be recoverable into organized
kinds under given circumstances. The discovery of definite laws
in this region might at first sight seem hopeless; but the argu-
ment rests on an implied postulate of stability and continuity of
constitution of material substances, so that after a cycle of
transformations we expect to recover them again as they were
originally- — on the postulate, in fact, that we do not expect them
to melt out of organized existence in our hands. The laws of
thermodynamics, including the fundamental principle that a
physical property, called temperature, can be defined, which
tends towards uniformity, are thus relations between the
properties of types of material bodies that can exist permanently
in presence of each other; why they so maintain themselves
remains unknown, but the fact gives the point d'appui. The
fundamental character of energy in material systems here
comes into view; if there were any other independent scalar
entity, besides mass and energy, that pervaded them with
relations of equivalence, we should expect the existence of yet
another set of qualities analogous to those connected with
temperature. (See ENERGETICS.)

Returning now to the aether, on our present point of view
no such complications there arise; it must be regarded as a
continuous uniform medium free from any complexities of
atomic aggregation, whose function is confined to the transmis-
sion of the various types of physical effect between the portions
of matter. The problem of its constitution is thus one which
can be attacked and continually approximated to, and which
may possibly be definitely resolved. It has to be competent to
transmit the transverse waves of light and electricity, and the
other known radiant and electric actions; the way in which
this is done is now in the main known, though there are still
questions as to the mode of expression and formulation of our
knowledge, and also as regards points of detail. This great
advance, which is the result of the gradual focussing of a century's
work in the minute exploration of the exact laws of optical and
electric phenomena, clearly carries with it deeper insight into
the physical nature of matter itself and its modes of inanimate
interaction.

If we rest on the synthesis here described, the energy of the
matter, even the thermal part, appears largely as potential
energy of strain in the aether which interacts with the kinetic
energy associated with disturbances involving finite velocity
of matter. It may, however, be maintained that an ultimate
analysis would go deeper, and resolve all phenomena of elastic
resilience into consequences of the kinetic stability of steady
motional states, so that only motions, but not strains, would
remain. On such a view the aether might conceivably be a
perfect fluid, its fundamental property of elastic reaction arising
(as at one time suggested by Kelvin and G. F. FitzGerald) from
a structure of tangled or interlaced vortex filaments pervading
its substance, which might conceivably arrange themselves into
a stable configuration and so resist deformation. This raises
the, further question as to whether the transmission of gravitation
can be definitely recognized among the properties of an ultimate
medium; if so, we know that it must be associated with some
feature, perhaps very deep-seated, or on the other hand perhaps

AETHER

295

depending simply on incompressibility, which is not sensibly
implicated in the electric and optical activities. With reference
to all such further refinements of theory, it is to be borne in
mind that the perfect fluid of hydrodynamic analysis is not a
merely passive inert plenum; it is also a continuum with the
property that no finite internal slip or discontinuity of motion
can ever arise in it through any kind of disturbance; and this
property must be postulated, as it cannot be explained.

Motion of Material Atoms through the Aether. — An important
question arises whether, when a material body is moved through
the aether, the nucleus of each atom carries some of the surround-
ing aether along with it; or whether it practically only carries
on its strain-form or physical atmosphere, which is transferred
from one portion of aether to another after the manner of a
shadow, or rather like a loose knot which can slip along a rope
without the rope being required to go with it. We can obtain
a pertinent illustration from the motion of a vortex ring in a fluid;
if the circular core of the ring is thin compared with its diameter,
and the vorticity is not very great, it is the vortical state of
motion that travels across the fluid without transporting the
latter bodily with it except to a slight extent very close to the
core. We might thus examine a structure formed of an aggrega-
tion of very thin vortex rings, which would move across the fluid
without sensibly disturbing it; on the other hand, if formed of
stronger vortices, it may transport the portion of the fluid that
is within, or adjacent to, its own structure along with it as if it
were a solid mass, and therefore also push aside the surrounding
fluid as it passes. The motion of the well-known steady spherical
vortex is an example of the latter case.

Convection of Optical Waves. — The nature of the motion, if any,
that is produced in the surrounding regions of the aether by the
translation of matter through it can be investigated by optical
experiment. The obvious body to take in the first instance is
the earth itself, which on account of its annual orbital motion is
travelling through space at the rate of about 18 miles per second.
If the surrounding ae(ther is thereby disturbed, the waves of
light arriving from the stars will partake of its movement; the
ascertained phenomena of the astronomical aberration of light
show that the rays travel to the observer, across this disturbed
aether near the earth, in straight lines. Again, we may split a
narrow beam of light by partial reflexion from a transparent
plate, and recombine the constituent beams after they have
traversed different circuits of nearly equivalent lengths, so as
to obtain interference fringes. The position of these fringes will
depend on the total retardation in time of the one beam with
respect to the other; and thus it might be expected to vary
with the direction of the earth's motion, relative to the apparatus.
But it is found not to vary at all, even up to the second order
of the ratio of the earth's velocity to that of light. It has in
fact been found, with the very great precision of which optical
experiment is capable, that all terrestrial optical phenomena —
reflexion, refraction, polarization linear and circular, diffraction
— are entirely unaffected by the direction of the earth's motion,
while the same result has recently been extended to electrostatic
forces; and this is our main experimental clue.

We pass on now to the theory. We shall make the natural
supposition that motion of the aether, say with velocity (u,v,vi)
at the point (x,y,z), is simply superposed on the velocity V of
lie optical undulations through that medium, the latter not
eing intrinsically altered. Now the direction and phase of the
light are those of the ray which reaches the eye; and by Fermat's
principle, established by Huygens for undulatory motion, the

ith of a ray is that track along which the disturbance travels

least time, in the restricted sense that any alteration of any
short reach of the path will increase the time. Thus the path of
he ray when the aether is at rest is the curve which makes
fds/V least; but when it is in motion it is the curve which makes

sl(V+lv+im>+nw) least, where (l,m,n) is the direction vector
of 8s. The latter integral becomes, on expanding in a series,

fds/V -/(udx +vdy +wdz)/V2 +A»dx +vdy +wdz)*/
since lds=dx. If the path is to be unaltered by the motion of

the aether, as the law of astronomical aberration suggests, this
must differ iromfds/V by terms not depending on the path —
that is, by terms involving only the beginning and end of it. In
the case of the free aether V is constant; thus, if we neglect
squares like (w/V)2, the condition is that udx +vdy+wdz be the
exact differential of some function $. If this relation is true
along all paths, the velocity of the aether must be of irrotational
type, like that of frictionless fluid. Moreover, this is precisely
the condition for the absence of interference between the com-
ponent of a split beam; because, the time of passage being to
the first order

fds/V -/(udx+vdy+wdz')y,

the second term will then be independent of the path (<j> being a
single valued function) and therefore the same for the paths of
both the interfering beams. If therefore the aether can be put
into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such motion, in free
space, must be of strictly irrotational type.

But our experimental data are not confined to free space. If
c is the velocity of radiation in free space and /* the refractive
index of a transparent body, V=c/ju; thus it is the expres-
sion c~^fij?(u'dx+v'dy+w'dz) that is to be integrable explicitly,
where now («' ',v' ,iti'} is what is added to V owing to the velocity
(u,ii,w) of the medium. As, however, our terrestrial optical appa-
ratus is now all in motion along with the matter, we must
deaLwith the rays relative to the moving system, and to these
also Fermat's principle clearly applies; thus V+ (/«' +mv' +niv')
is here the velocity of radiation in the direction of the ray, but
relative to the moving material system. Now the expression
above given cannot be integrable exactly, under all circumstances
and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, unless (/i2M',/iV,/ra>')
is the gradient of a continuous function. In the simplest case,
that of uniform translation, these components of the gradient
will each be constant throughout the region; at a distant place
in free aether where there is no motion, they must thus be equal
to -M,-»,-W, as they refer to axes moving with the matter.
Hence the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the
material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the
system, provided the velocity of radiation relative to the system,
in material of index ju, is diminished by n~* times the velocity of
the system in the direction of the radiation, that is, provided the
absolute velocity of radiation is increased by i-/i"2 times the
velocity of the material system; this" involves that the free
aether for which fj. is unity shall remain at rest. This statement
constitutes the famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures
that all phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those
depending on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection
of the material medium, in accordance with the results of
experiment.

Is the Aether Stationary or Mobile? — This theory secures that
the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of the
motion of the system, only up to the first order of the ratio of
its velocity to that of radiation. But a classical experiment of
A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was wholly in air, showed
that the independence extends to higher orders. This result is
inconsistent with the aether remaining at rest, unless we assume
that the dimensions of the moving system depend, though to an
extent so small as to be not otherwise detectable, on its orienta-
tion with regard to the aether that is streaming through it. It is,
however, in complete accordance with a view that would make
the aether near the earth fully partake in its orbital motion — a
view which the null effect of convection on all terrestrial optical
and electrical phenomena also strongly suggests. But the aether
at a great distance must in any case be at rest; while the facts of
astronomical aberration require that the motion of that medium
must be irrotational. These conditions cannot be consistent
with sensible convection of the aether near the earth without
involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate
distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory.

Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be stationary
is afforded by the character of the equations of electrodynamics;
they are all of linear type, and superposition of effects is possible.
Now the kinetics of a medium in which the' parts can have finite

296

AETHER

relative motions will lead to equations which are not linear — as,
for example, those of hydrodynamics — and the phenomena will
be far more complexly involved. It is true that the theory of
vortex rings in hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric
currents cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because
their circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness
on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed.

Dynamical Theories of the Aether. — The analytical equations
which represent the propagation of light in free aether, and also
in aether modified by the presence of matter, were originally
developed on the analogy of the equations of propagation of
elastic effects in solid media. Various types of elastic solid
medium have thus been invented to represent the aether, without
complete success in any case. In T. MacCullagh's hands the
correct equations were derived from a single energy formula by
the principle of least action; and while the validity of this
dynamical method was maintained, it was frankly admitted
that no mechanical analogy was forthcoming. When Clerk
Maxwell pointed out the way to the common origin of optical
and electrical phenomena, these equations naturally came to
repose on an electric basis, the connexion having been first
definitely exhibited by FitzGerald in 1878; and according as
the independent variable was one or other of the vectors which
represent electric force, magnetic force or electric polarity, they
took the form appropriate to one or other of the elastic theories
above mentioned.

In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the more
recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which in-
volve the dynamical verification of Fresnel's hypothesis regard-
ing optical convection and the other relations above described.
The aether is taken to be at rest; and the strain-forms belong-
ing to the atoms are the electric fields of the intrinsic charges,
or electrones, involved in their constitution. When the atoms
are in motion these strain-forms produce straining and unstrain-
ing in the aether as they pass across it, which in its motional or
kinetic aspect constitutes the resulting magnetic field; as the
strains are slight the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved
must be great. True electric current arises solely from con-
vection of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is there-
fore not restricted as to form in any way. But when the rate of
change of aethereal strain — that is, of (j,g,h) specified as Max-
well's electric displacement in free aether — is added to it, an
analytically convenient vector (u,v,w) is obtained which possesses
the characteristic property of being circuital like the flow of
an incompressible fluid, and has therefore been made funda-
mental in the theory by Maxwell under the name of the total
electric current.

As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical pro-
pagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid medium
have failed; and though the idea of regions of intrinsic strain,
as for example in unannealed glass, is familiar in physics, yet
on account of the absence of mobility of the strain no_ attempt
had been made to employ them to illustrate the electric fields
of atomic charges. The idea of MacCullagh's aether, and its
property of purely rotational elasticity which had been ex-
pounded objectively by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much
vivified by Lord Kelvin's specification (Complex Rendus, 1889)
of a material gyrostatically constituted medium which would
possess this character. More recently a way has been pointed
out in which a mobile permanent field of electric force could
exist in such a medium so as to travel freely in company with
its nucleus or intrinsic charge — the nature of the mobility of the
latter, as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown.

A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field of
electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the displaced
positive and negative intrinsic charges in the atom : the polariza-
tion per unit volume (f',g',h') may be defined on the analogy of
magnetism, a.ndd/dt(f',g',h') thus constitutes true electric current
of polarization, i.e. of electric separation in the molecules,
specified per unit volume. The convection of a medium thus
polarized involves electric disturbance, and therefore must con-
tribute to the true electric current; the determination of this

constituent of the current is the most delicate point in the in-
vestigation. The usual definition of the component current in
any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses,
towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in space
at right angles to that direction, per unit area per unit time,
here gives no definite result. The establishment and convection
of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a ^Maw-magnetization,
in addition to the polarization current as above defined, the
negative poles completing the current circuits of the positive
ones. But in the transition from molecular theory to the electro-
dynamics of extended media, all magnetism has to be replaced
by a distribution of current; the latter being now specified by
volume as well as by flow so that (u,v,w) ST is the current in the
element of volume ST. In the present case the total dielectric
contribution to this current works out to be the change per unit
time in the electric separation in the molecules of the element
of volume, as it moves uniformly with the matter, all other
effects being compensated molecularly without affecting the
propagation.1 On subtracting from this total the current of
establishment of polarization d/dt/(f',g',h') as formulated above,
there remains vd/dx(f ,g' ,//') as the current of convection of
polarization when the convection is taken for simplicity to be
in the direction of the axis of x with velocity v. The polariza-
tion itself is determined from the electric force (P,Q,R) by the
usual statical formula of linear type which becomes tor an iso-
tropic medium

because any change of the dielectric constant K arising from the
convection of the material through the aether must be inde-
pendent of the sign of v and therefore be of the second order.
Now the electric force (P,Q,R) is the force acting on the electrons
of the medium moving with velocity v; consequently by Fara-
day's electrodynamic law

where (P',Q',R') is the force that would act on electrons at
rest, and (a,b,c) is the magnetic induction. The latter force is,
by Maxwell's hypothesis or by the dynamical theory of an aether
pervaded by electrons, the same as that which strair s the aether,
and may be called the aethereal force; it thereby produces an
aethereal electric displacement, say (f,g,h), according to the
relation (f,g,h) = (4TC!) -'(P'.Q'.R1).

in which C is a constant belonging to the aether, which turns
out to be the velocity of light. The current of aethereal dis-
placement d/dt(f,g,h) is what adds on to the true electric current
to produce the total circuital current of Maxwell.

We have now to substitute these data in the universally valid
circuital relations — namely, (i) line integral of magnetic force
round a circuit is equal to \-K times the current through its
aperture, which may be regarded as a definition of the constitu-
tion of the aether and its relation to the electrons involved in
it; and (ii) line integral of the electric force belonging to any
material circuit (i.e. acting on the electrons situated on it which
move with the velocity of the matter) is equal to minus the
time-rate of change of the magnetic induction through that
circuit as it moves with the matter, this being a dynamical
consequence of the aethereal constitution assigned in (i).

We may now, as is somewhat the more natural course in the
terrestrial application, take axes (x,yp) which move with the
matter; but the current must be invariably defined by the flux
across surfaces fixed in space, so that we may say that relation
(i) refers to a circuit fixed in space, while (ii) refers to one moving
with the matter. These circuital relations, when expressed
analytically, are then for a dielectric medium of types

where
and

(«.r,w)

(f',g',h')+jt(f,g,h), <

dQ_ da
dj~df~~a7 .........

_

1 See H. A. Lorentz, loc. cit. infra; J. Larmor, Aether and Matter,
p. 262 and passim.

AETHICUS ISTER

297

where, when magnetic quality is inoperative, the magnetic
induction (a,b,c) is identical with the magnetic force (a,(3,7).

These equations determine all the phenomena. They take
this simple form, however, only when the movement of the
matter is one of translation. If v varies with respect to locality,
or if there is a velocity of convection (p,q,r) variable with respect
to direction and position, and analytical expression of the re-
lation (ii) assumes a more complex form; we thus derive the
most general equations of electrodynamic propagation for
matter treated as continuous, anyhow distributed and moving
in any manner.

For the simplest case of polarized waves travelling parallel
to the axis of *, with the magnetic oscillation 7 along 2 and
the electric oscillation Q along y, all the quantities are functions
of x and / alone; the total current is along y and given with
respect to our moving axes by

also the circuital relations here reduce to
"dx~ vv< dx~ ~^H

thus dx^^^Si

giving, on substitution for v,

For a simple wave-train, Q varies as sin m(x-Vt), leading on
substitution to the velocity of propagation V relative to the
moving material, by means of the equation KV2+ ?uV = c2— u2;
this gives, to the first order of u/c, V = c/K» — u/K, which is in
accordance with Fresnel's law. Trains of waves nearly but not
quite homogeneous as regards wave-length will as usual be
propagated as wave-groups travelling with the slightly different
velocity rf(VX~1)/<^X~1, the value of K occurring in V being a
function of X determined by the law of optical dispersion of the
medium.

For purposes of theoretical discussions relating to moving
radiators and reflectors, it is important to remember that the
dynamics of all this theory of electrons involves the neglect of
terms of the order (u/c)2, not merely in the value of K but
throughout.

Recent Experimental Developments. — The modification of the
spectrum of a radiating gas by a magnetic field, such as would
result from the hypothesis that the radiators are the system of
revolving or oscillating electrons in the molecule, was detected
by P. Zeeman in 1896, and worked up, in conjunction with H. A.
Lorentz, on the general lines suggested by the electron-theory
of molecular constitution. While it cannot be said that the full
significance of this very definite phenomenon, consisting of the
splitting of the spectral line into a number of polarized com-
ponents, has yet been made out, a wide field of correlation with
optical theory, especially in the neighbourhood of absorption
bands, has been developed by Zeeman himself, by A. H. Bec-
querel, by D. Macaluso and O. M. Corbino, and by other workers.

The most fundamental experimental confirmation that the
theory of the aether has received on the optical side in recent
years has been the verification of Maxwell's proposition that
radiation exerts mechanical force on a material system, on which
it falls, which may be represented in all cases as the resultant
of pressures operating along the rays, and of intensity equal at
each point of free space to the density of radiant energy. A
high vacuum is needed for the detection of the minute forces
here concerned; but just in that case the indirect radiometer-
effect of the heating of the residual gas masks the effect. P. N.
Lebedew in 1900 succeeded, by operating on metallic vanes so
thin that the exposed and averted faces were practically at the
same temperature, in satisfactorily verifying the relation for
metals; and very soon after, E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull
published accounts of an exact and extensive research, in which
the principle had been fully and precisely confirmed as regards

both transparent and opaque bodies. The experiment of J. H.
Poynting may also be mentioned, in which the tangential com-
ponent of the thrust of obliquely incident radiation is separately
put in evidence, by the torsion produced in an arrangement
which is not sensitive to the normal component or to the radio-
meter-pressure of the residual gas. (See RADIOMETER.)

Next to these researches on the pressure of radiation, which,
by forming the mechanical link between radiation and matter,
are fundamental for the thermodynamics of radiant energy, the
most striking recent result has been the discovery of H. Rubens
and E. Hagen that for dark heat rays of only about ten times the
wave-length of luminous radiation, the properties of metals are
determined by their electric resistance alone, which then masks
all resonance due to periods of free vibration of the molecules;
and, moreover, that the resistance for such alternations is practi-
cally the same as the ohmic resistance for ordinary steady cur-
rents. They found that the absorbing powers of the metals, and
therefore, by the principle of exchanges, their radiating powers
also, are proportional to the square roots of their electric con-
ductivities. Maxwell had himself, at an early stage of his theory,
tested the absorbing power of gold-leaf for light, and found that
the effective conductivity for luminous vibrations must be very
much greater than its steady ohmic value; it is, in fact, there a
case of incipient conductivity, which is continually being undone
on account of the rapid alternation of force before it is fully
established. That, however, complete conduction should arrive
with alternations only ten times slower than light was an un-
expected and remarkable fact, which verifies the presumption
that the process of conduction is one in which the dynamic
activities of the molecules do not come into play. The corollary,
that the electric resistance of a metal can be determined in
absolute units by experiments on the reflexion of heat-rays
from its surface, is a striking illustration of the unification of
the various branches of physical science, which has come in the
train of the development of the theory of the aether. (See
RADIATION.)

Finally, reference should be made to the phenomena of radio-
activity, whether excited by the electric discharge in vacuum
tubes, foreshadowed in part by Sir Wm. Crookes and G. G.
Stokes, and later by A. Schuster and others, but first fully
developed with astonishing results including the experimental
discovery of the free electron by J. J. Thomson, or the correlated
phenomena occurring spontaneously in radio-active bodies as
discovered by H. Becquerel and by M. and Mme Curie, and
investigated by them and by E. Rutherford and others. These
results constitute a far-reaching development of the modern or
electrodynamic theory of the aether, of which the issue can
hardly yet be foreseen.

REFERENCES. — Maxwell, Collected Papers-, H. A. Lorentz, Archives
.Neerlandaises, xxi. 1887, and xxv. 1892, and a tract, Versuch einer
Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten
Korpern (Leyden, 1895) ; also recent articles " Elektrodynamik "
and " Elektronentheorie " in the Encyk. der Math. Wissenschaften,
Band v. 13, 14; O. Lodge, " On Aberration Problems," Phil. Trans.
1893 and 1897; J. Larmor, Phil. Trans. 1894-95-97, and a treatise,
Aether and Matter (1900), where full references are given. Of recent
years most treatises on physical optics, e.g. those of P. K. L. Drude,
A. Schuster, R. W. Wood, have been written largely on the basis of
the general physics of the aether; while the Collected Papers of
LordRayleigh should be accessible to all who desire a first-hand know-
ledge of the development of the optical side of the subject. See
also MOLECULE, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT and RADIATION. (J. L.*)

AETHICUS ( = ETHICUS) ISTER, "the philosopher of Istria,"
the supposed but unknown author of a description of the world
written in Greek. An abridgment, under the title of Cosmo-
graphia Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, and wrongly described
as the work of St Jerome, probably belongs to the 7th century.
After a discussion of the creation of the world and a description
of the earth, an account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus
is given, with digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander
the Great and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous
details.

The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical
treatise probably dating from the 6th century, a reproduction,

298

AETIOLOGY— AETOLIA

with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography — little
else than a dry list of names — of Julius Honorius.

EDITIONS.— D'Avezac (1852); Pertz (1853); Wuttke (1854);
Riese's Geographi Latini Minores (1878); see also Bunbury, History
of Ancient Geography.

AETIOLOGY, or ETIOLOGY (from Gr. alria, cause, and
Xo7ia, discourse) , strictly, the science or philosophy of causation,
but generally used to denote the part of any special science (and
especially of that of medicine and disease) which investigates the
causes and origin of its phenomena. An aetiological myth is
one which is regarded as having been invented ex post facto to
explain some fact, name or coincidence, the true account or
origin of which has been forgotten. Such myths were often
based on grotesque philological analogies, according to which
an existing connexion between two personalities (cities, &c.)
was traced back to a common mythical origin. For a good
example of the evolution of such myths, see the argument under
AEGINA, History.

AETION, or EETION, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero,
Pliny and Lucian. His most noted work, described in detail
by Lucian (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing
the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. He is said to have
exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won
the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in
marriage. Through a misunderstanding of the words of Lucian,
Action has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines;
but there can be little doubt that he was a contemporary of
Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen
Kunstler, ii. p. 243). Pliny gives his date as 350 B.C.

AETIUS (fl. 350), surnamed " the Atheist," founder of an
extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria. After
working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a
travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on
medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a
wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of
the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus,
bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the
presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon
by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by
the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of
Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops,
Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up
against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to
Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) in order to advocate Arianism,
but he was banished by Constantius. Julian recalled him from
exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him
for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated
a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating
other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364)
he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constanti-
nople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians,
of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him
Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connexion
with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. Ixxvi. 10). Its
main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. the doctrine that the
Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-con-
tradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which
constitutes the nature of God.

See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim.

AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia,
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century A.D. He studied
at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and
comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial household.
He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, founded on
Oribasius and compiled from various sources, especially Galen
[Galenos]. Superstition and mysticism play a great part in
his remedies. Eight books of the Greek original were printed
at Venice, 1534, and a complete Latin translation by Cornarius
appeared at Basel, 1542.

See Weigel, Aetianarum exercitationum specimen (1791) ; Danelius,
Beitrag zur Augenheilkunde des Aetius (1889); Zernos, Aetii sermo
sextidecintus et ultimus, editio princeps (1901).

AETIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the closing period of the
Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the 4th
century. He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although possibly
of barbarian family, rose in the service of the Western empire to
be master of the horse, and later count of Africa. Aetius passed
some years as hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and later
in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, acquiring in this way the
knowledge which enabled him afterwards to defeat them. In 424
he led into Italy an army of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns,
which he employed first to support the primicerius Joannes, who
had proclaimed himself emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter,
to enforce his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul
upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III.
His calumnies against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at
first believed by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the
Vandals to Africa. Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface,
although defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valen-
tinian; but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic
wars, like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed
wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin. From 433 to 450
Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western empire.
In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding for nearly
twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the falling fortunes
of the empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur-
Marne (September 20, 451), in which he led the Gallic forces
against Attila and the Huns. This was the last triumph of the
empire. Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at
court to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son
Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs upon the
crown, slew him with his own hand.

See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (1880).

AETOLIA, a district of northern Greece, bounded on the S.
by the Corinthian Gulf, on the W. by. the river Achelous, on the
N. and E. by the western spurs of Parnassus and Oeta. The
land naturally falls into two divisions. The basins of the lower
Achelous (mod. Aspropotamo) and Euenus (Phidharis) form a
series of alluvial valleys intersected by detached ridges which
mostly run parallel to the coast. This district of " Old Aetolia "
lacks a suitable sea-board, but the inland, and especially the plain
of central Aetolia lying to the north of Lakes Hyria and Trichonis
and Mount Aracynthus, forms a rich agricultural country. The
northern and eastern regions are broken by an extensive complex
of chains and peaks, whose rugged limestone flanks are clad at
most with stunted shrubs and barely leave room for a few pre-
carious mule-tracks. These heights often rise in the frontier-
ranges of Tymphrestus, Oxia and Corax to more than 7000 ft.;
the snow-capped pinnacle of Kiona attains to 8240 ft. A few
defiles pass through this barrier to the other side of the north
Greek watershed.

In early legend Old Aetolia, with its cities of Pleuron and
Calydon, figures prominently. During the great migrations (see
DORIANS) the population was largely displaced, and the old
inhabitants long remained in a backward condition. In the sth
century some tribes were still living in open villages under petty
kings, addicted to plunder and piracy, and hardly recognized
as Hellenes at all. Yet their military strength was not to be
despised: in 426 their archers and slingers easily repelled an
Athenian invasion under Demosthenes. In the 4th century the
Aetolians began to take a greater part in Greek politics, and, in
return for helping Epaminondas(367)andPhilipofMacedon (338),
recovered control of their sea-board, to which they annexed the
Acarnanian coast and the Oeniadae. Aetolia's prosperity dates
from the period of Macedonian supremacy. It may be ascribed
partly to the wealth and influence acquired by Aetolian mer-
cenaries in Hellenistic courts, but chiefly to the formation of a
national Aetolian league, the first effective institution of this
kind in Greece. Created originally to meet the peril of an in-
vasion by the Macedonian regents Antipater and Craterus, who
had undertaken a punitive expedition against Aetolia after the
Lamian War (322), and by Cassander (314-311), the confederacy
grew rapidly during the subsequent period of Macedonian weak-
ness. Since 290 it had extended its power over all the uplands of

AFARS— AFFECTION

299

central Greece, where its command over Heracleia (280) provided
it with an important defensive position against northern invaders,
its control of Delphi and the Amphictyonic council with a useful
political instrument. The valour of the Aetolians was con-
spicuously displayed in 279, when they broke the strength of the
Celtic irruption by slaughtering great hordes of marauders. The
commemorative festival of the Soteria, which the league estab-
lished at Delphi, obtained recognition from many leading Greek
states. After annexing Boeotia (by 245) the Aetolians controlled
all central Greece. Endeavouring next to expand into Pelopon-
nesus, they allied themselves with Antigonus Gonatas of Mace-
donia against the Achaean league (q.v.), and besides becoming
protectors of Elis and Messenia won several Arcadian cities.
Their naval power extended to Cephalonia, to the Aegaean
islands and even to the Hellespont. The league at its zenith had
thus a truly imperial status.

Later in the century its power began to be sapped by Mace-
donia. To check King Demetrius (239-229) the Aetolians joined
arms with the Achaeans. In 224 they held Heracleia Trachis
against Antigonus Doson, but lost control of Boeotia and Phocis.
Since 228 their Arcadian possessions had been abandoned to
Sparta. At the same time a new enemy arose in the Illyrian
pirate fleets, which outdid them in unscrupulousness and violence.
The raids of two Aetolian chiefs in Achaean territory (220) led to
a coalition between Achaea and Philip V. of Macedon, who
assailed the invaders with great energy, driving them out of
Peloponnesus and marching into Aetolia itself, where he surprised
and sacked the federal capital Thermon. After buying peace by
the cession of Acarnania (217) the league concluded a compact
with Rome, in which both states agreed to plunder ruthlessly
their common enemies (211). In the great war of their Roman
allies against Philip the federal troops took a prominent part,
their cavalry being largely responsible for the victory of Cynos-
cephalae (197). The Romans in return restored central Greece
to the league, but by withholding its former Thessalian posses-
sions excited its deep resentment. The Aetolians now invited
Antiochus III. of Syria to European Greece, and so precipitated
a conflict with Rome. But in the war they threw away their
chances. In 192 they wasted themselves in an unsuccessful
attempt to secure Sparta. In 191 they supported Antiochus
badly, and by their slackness in the defence of Thermopylae
made his position in Greece untenable. Having thus isolated
themselves the Aetolians stood at bay behind their walls against
the Romans, who refused all compromises, and, after the general
surrender in 189, restricted the league to Aetolia proper and
assumed control over its foreign relations. In 167 the country
suffered severely from the intrigues of a philo-Roman party,
which caused a series of judicial murders and the deportation of
many patriots to Italy. By the time of Sulla, when the league
is mentioned for the last time, its functions were purely nominal.
The federal constitution closely resembled that of the Achaean
league (<?.».), for which it doubtless served as a model. The
general assembly, convoked every autumn at Thermon to elect
officials, and at other places in special emergencies, shaped the
league's general policy; it was nominally open to all freemen,
though no doubt the Aetolian chieftains really controlled it.
The council of deputies from the confederate cities undertook
the routine of administration and jurisdiction. The strategus
(general) , aided by 30 apocleti (ministers) , had complete control
in the field and presided over the assembly, though with restricted
advisory powers. The Aetolians also used the Amphictyonic
synod for passing solemn enactments. The league's relation to
outlying dependencies is obscure; many of these were probably
mere protectorates or " allied states " and secured no representa-
tion. The federal executive was certainly much more efficient
than that of the Achaeans, and its councils suffered less from
disunion; but its generals and admirals, official or otherwise,
enjoyed undue licence; hence the league deservedly gained an
evil name for the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which
its troops committed. But as a champion of republican Greece
against foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal
services. After the first overthrow of the Byzantine empire

Aetolia passed to a branch of the old imperial house (1205).
In the isth century it was held by Scanderbeg (q.v.) and by
the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it definitely under
Turkish rule. In the War of Independence the Aetolians by
their stubborn defence, culminating in the sieges of Missolonghi
(q.v.), formed the backbone of the rebellion. Northern Aetolia
remains a desolate region, inhabited mainly by Vlach shep-
herds. The south-western plain, though rendered unhealthy by
lagoons, and central Aetolia yield good crops of currants, vine,
maize and tobacco, which are conveyed by railway from Agrinion
and Anatolikon to the coast. The country, which forms part of
the modern department of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains
numerous fragments of Ancient fortifications. It has contributed
a notable proportion of distinguished men to modern Greece.

AUTHORITIES. — Strabo pp. 450 sqq.; Thucydides iii. 94-98;
Diodorus xviii. 24. 5; Pausanias x. 20 sq.; Polybius and Livy
passim; W. J. Woodhouse, Aetolia (Oxford, 1897); M. Dubois,
Les Ligues acheenne et elolienne (Paris, 1885); E. A. Freeman,
Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), ch. vi. ; B. V. Head, Historia
Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in Bulletin de
Correspondence Hellenique (1905, pp. 362-372); G. Sotiriades in
'E07jM«pis 'ApxcuoXo-xiKij, (1900) pp. 163-212, (1903) pp. 73-94, and
in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1907), pp. 139-184;
C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), PP-
270-320. (M. O. B. C.)

AFARS (DANAKIL), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic
stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia
and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the
Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral
and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich
and tree- worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism.
They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and
small pointed chins; their cheekbones are not prominent.
They are more scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla,
wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-cloth. Their women,
when quite young, are pretty and graceful. Their huts are often
tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats,
embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided
into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose
power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in
1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under
Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888, however, their most important
sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian
protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian
and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in
considerable numbers in French Somaliland. They have a
saying " Guns are only useful to frighten cowards." They were
formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these
corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red
Sea who hunt the dugong.

See Fr. Scazamucci and E. H. Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil (1884) ;
P. Paulitschke, Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., Berlin, 1893-
1896), and Die geographische Erf orschung der A Ml- Lander und Har&rs
in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884).

AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, bom at
Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in the
reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil
Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known;
but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against
some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He
gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the
widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts
against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consul-
ship under Caligula (39) ; and under Nero he was superintendent
of the water supply. He died A.D. 60, according to Jerome, of
over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta),
collections of which were published, and mentions two books by
him On Witnesses.

Quintilian, Instil, vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. I. 118, &c. ; Tac. Ann.
iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, Ix. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18.

AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a
person), literally, a mental state resulting generally from an
external influence. It is popularly used of a relation between
persons amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. By
ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct

300

AFFIDAVIT— AFFILIATION

states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it
with " passion " as being free from the distinctively sensual
element. More specifically the word has been restricted to
emotional states which are in relation to persons. In the former
sense, it is the Gr. ira.6os, and as such it appears in Descartes
and most of the early British ethical writers. On various
grounds, however — e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excite-
ment, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the
entire absence of the sensuous element — it is generally and use-
fully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the
word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have
spoken of the social or parental " affections " as in some sense
a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and
similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in
which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick,
Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349.

In psychology the terms " affection " and " affective " are
of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has
been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection,
the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately
composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has
been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many
psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all
experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions
proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are
primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those
which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it
does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that
it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit
between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is
that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name.
W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig,
1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective
directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in
question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and the
reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depres-
sion. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been
discovered.

Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The
first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists
in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to
accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus
it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant,
and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight
and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection —
and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are
insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly
problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results
can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with a
perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable.

The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him
in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in
groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes.

Mention should also be made of a third method which has
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate
one of the three " directions " by the method of suggestion or
even hypnotic trance observations.

For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O.
Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans.
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experi-
mental Psychology (1905) ; art. PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted.

AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath,"
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn or affirmed
to before some person who has authority to administer an oath
or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits
in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in England

on a petition, summons or motion. Interlocutory proceedings
before trial are conducted by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of
documents, hence called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are
sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have
been duly and legally performed (such as service of proceed-
ings, &c.). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice,
in the administration of the revenue and in the inferior and
county courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any
kind, such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must
be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of scripts).
In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit is almost
unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as prima facie
evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court (R.S.C. Ord.
XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid down for all
affidavits and affirmatiems in causes or matters depending in
the High Court. An affidavit must consist of title, body or
statement and jurat. It must be written or printed on foolscap,
bookwise, in the first person; give correctly the names of the
parties to the action; and the description and true place of
abode of the deponent. An affidavit is confined, except on
interlocutory motions, to such facts as the witness is able of
his own knowledge to prove. The signature of the deponent
must be written opposite to the jurat, which must contain the
place, date and time of swearing, and this signed by the officer
or magistrate before whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit
sworn on a Sunday is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and
Separatists were first privileged to make a solemn declaration
or affirmation, and by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852
and other statutes all persons prevented by religious belief from
taking an oath were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths
Act 1888, every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to
affirm in all places and for all purposes where an oath is required
by law. By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take affi-
davits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a
false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. The same
act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any
matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when
an oath was specially authorized by statute, as in the bankruptcy
law, and excepting criminal inquiries, parliamentary proceedings
and instances where oaths are required to give validity to docu-
ments abroad. Scottish justices can act in England and vice
versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and the Commissioner of Oaths
Act 1889 consolidated all previous enactments relating to oaths
and gave the lord chancellor power to appoint commissioners
for oaths to take affidavits for all purposes (see OATH). Under
the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff may file an affidavit for the
arrest of a debtor (affidavit to hold to bail) when the debt
amounts to £50 or upwards, where it can be shown that the
debtor's absence from the kingdom would materially prejudice
the prosecution of the action.

Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador,
jenvoy, minister, charge d'affaires, secretary of embassy or lega-
tion, consul or consular agent.

In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in
England and its general uses are the same, but it is not sub-
stituted for oral evidence in court to anything like the extent
to which that is done in the English courts of chancery. The
statutes of each state designate the persons before whom affi-
davits may be made outside the state, and special commissioners
are appointed for that purpose by each state. Affidavits made
abroad must be made before such commissioners or persons
so designated, who are usually diplomatic and consular officials,
justices, notaries public or mayors. "Affidavit of documents"
is not generally used in the United States; discovery is procured
by motion.

AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son),
in law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child
is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support
enforced. In England a number of statutes on the subject
have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of 1845,
and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to

AFFINITY— AFFRE

301

petty sessions within twelve months of the birth (or at any later
time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support
within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after
hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence
be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man
to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a
sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance,
together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the
funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the
costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the
child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the
order direct the payments to be continued until the child is
sixteen years of age. An appeal to quarter sessions is open to
the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the
King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child after-
wards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father
may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child,
whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable
to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative
father for a contribution. Any woman who is single, a widow,
or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make
an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the
child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application
for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but
in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of
a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years
of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum
down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the
making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual
to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due provision for
the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers
an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by
the Army Act 1 88 1, if an order has been made against a soldier
of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the
secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay
to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard
to sailors in the royal navy.

In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States
(with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon,
Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed
filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a
mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate
child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid
may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y.
Supplt. 372). On the continent of Europe, however, the legis-
lation of the various countries differs rather widely. France,
Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Servia and the canton of
Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an
illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls
upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons pro-
vide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children,
and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the
father.

Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption
by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs
to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.
(See ADOPTION. Also BASTARD; POOR LAWS.)

AUTHORITIES. — Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders of Affilia-
tion; Lushington, Law of Affiliation and Bastardy; Little, Poor
Law Statutes. (T. A. I.)

AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from
affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law,
as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term applied to
the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and
wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually de-
scribed as of three kinds, (i) Direct: that relationship which
subsists between the husband and his wife's relations by blood or
between the wife and the husband's relations by blood. The
marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each
are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse

as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with
the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in
affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister
has no affinity to her husband's brother. This is (2) Secondary
affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting
between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations.

The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibi-
tions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity.
Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited
on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended
to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would
be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be
the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease.

Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been
founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of
Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the
degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable
to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both
parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical,
not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 all marriages
of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were
declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared
null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a
marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. (See CONSAN-
GUINITY; MARRIAGE.)

AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of
which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemi-
cal combination with each other. (See CHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL
ACTION; VALENCY.)

AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declara-
tion that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the
union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly,
in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscien-
tiously object to taking an oath. (See OATH.)

AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a
public place to the terror (a I' ejfroi ) of the lieges. The offence is
a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and
imprisonment. A fight in private is an assault and battery, not
an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also
liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see
ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these
offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may,
and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an
affray. In the United States the English common law as to
affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes
of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892,
vol. i. § 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the
English definition of affray, with the substitution of " actual
disturbance of the peace " for " causing terror to the lieges."
The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray
as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a
fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place
to which the public have access. This definition is taken from
that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the
Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the
definition of vis publica.

AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTS (1793-1848), archbishop of Paris,
was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th
of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St
Sulpice, where in 1818 he became professor of dogmatic theology.
After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to
the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the
government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but
devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however,
is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close. During the
insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that
by his personal interference peace might be restored between
the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the
warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the
entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch
as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however,
when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they

302

AFFREIGHTMENT

were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the
archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to
his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day
the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great
sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on the
7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind,.
The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value,
including an Essai sur les hieroglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834),
in which he showed that Champollion's system was insufficient
to explain the hieroglyphics.

See Ricard, Les grands eveques de I'eglise de France au XIXe
siecle (Lille, .1893) ; L. Alazard, Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de
Paris (Paris, 1905).

AFFREIGHTMENT (from "freight," ?.».). Contract of
A/reightment is the expression usually employed to describe
the contract between a shipowner and some other person
called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods
of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of
the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the
carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a
specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a
specified price, called " freight," for the carriage of the goods
or the use of the ship. A ship may be let like a house to some
person who takes possession and control of it for a specified
term. The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during
the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract
by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it
is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is
mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the
distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is some-
times called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a
form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear.

The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of
course, a branch of the general law of contract. The rights and
obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the
case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement
entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to
some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts.
Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are,
therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important
example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is
when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law
interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract.
The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in
other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it,
must be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that
certain'more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment
have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions
in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite
logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon
certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts.
A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain
rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the
absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter
dealt with by such rules. This is done either by statutory
enactment, as by that part (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping
Act 1894 which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by
established rules of the unwritten law, the " common law "
as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common
carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of
the goods carried, unless it is prevented by t\: act of
God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common
law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods
by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon
though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an
affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It
will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind
where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as
to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, conse-
quently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other
terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remember-
ing always that these same rules apply when there is a written

Rules
ol law.

contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by
the terms of such contract.

The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England
with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered
by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of
goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to
common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the
general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the
English law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See,
as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judg-
ments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson (1874), L.R., 9 Ex.
338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) i C.P.D. 423.) In practice
goods are not often shipped without a written contract or
acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried.
For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a
bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo
is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called
a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the
one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the
other part. But at present we are considering the relations of
shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract,
as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried
to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but
without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In
such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law,
or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties
or promises which though not expressed must, as the „" *p™fs
courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation contract.
between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obli-
gations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to
be as follows: — The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or
in a Condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable
care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods,
unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity
to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be
prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery
of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship
at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in
some usual discharging place. The shipper must pay the agreed
freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight
has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the
goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage.
On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first
and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods
shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to
this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or
damage 'caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by
statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part VIII.) it is further
qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss,
happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board
the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away
with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of
which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment;
and, further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of
goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding
eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The
shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other
words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into
an express undertaking: (i) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that
she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and
shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the
voyage.

It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or
doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations
of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been
agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods,
are such as have been described above. The importance of
appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and
shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules
apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading,
charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified
or negatived by the express terms of the contract.

AFFREIGHTMENT

303

Bills of Lading.

The document signed by the master or agent for the ship-
owner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of
goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a
Bill of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are
used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from
Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has
been selected as a sample: —

Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by in

and upon the good Vessel called the now lying in the port of

and bound for , with liberty to call at any ports in

any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in dis-
tress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property ;
and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the afore-
said port of unto or to his or their assigns, freight
and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils
of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates,
and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people,
collisions, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted,
even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment
of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners.

Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of
boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or
hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the
Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager.

General Average payable according t6 York-Antwerp Rules.

In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath
affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn
as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the
others to stand void.

Dated in this day of 188 .

The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of
goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination
on terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the
master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the
shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel
may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways :

(1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship,
to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send
goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is
bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the load-
ing, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an
acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is after-
wards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment
by a general ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memor-
andum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper.

(2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of
the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a
case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper,
and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case
a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper
to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or
otherwise. By the ancient custom of merchants recognized
and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of
title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of
which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when
a cargo is shipped under a charter-party, although bills of lading
may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not
the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract
between the parties — of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3)
There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two
with which we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly
chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to
ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places
the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship
under bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading
freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of
course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the
chartered freight, and so make a profit. The master, although
he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term
of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and
on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal
effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills
of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party
are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible
to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends

essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of
lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains
nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed
to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations
between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the
master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to
bind his owner by signing bills of lading.

The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses
have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a
vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at
all events those common to all bills of lading, may be stated as
follows:

1. The name of the shipper.

2. The name of the ship.

3. The place of loading and destination of the ship.

4. A description of the goods shipped.

5. The place of delivery.

6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made.

7. The freight to be paid.

8. The excepted perils.

9. The shipowner's lien.-

The description of (i) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no
remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because
there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking
by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily
to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the
goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation
are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any
loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the
deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the devia-
tion, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted
perils. The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may
be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however,
very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking
by introducing in the bill of lading certain " liberties " to deviate,
as, for example, in the form given above, " liberty to call at any
ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to
deviate for the purpose of saving life and property." The nature
and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract.
The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses
giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the ship-
owner.

The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped
and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them
as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course,
to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against
the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading,
the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely con-
clusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself
signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is
not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods
described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence
by proving, if he can, that.the goods mentioned, or some of
them, were not in fact shipped.

As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently
arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver
at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle
or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must
wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where,
however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as
must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature
of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the
place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises
from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place
named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen,
for example, in the case of a declaration of war between Great
Britain and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading
is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for break-
ing his contract if its performance has become illegal. There
may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the
voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties
intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on

304

AFFREIGHTMENT

the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of
things, the non-existence of which would render performance
impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading
became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in
consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that
the continued existence of the place named as a port was an
implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was
excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract
remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the
contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable
for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of
his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though
such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason
why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes
important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place
described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the
consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay in-
volves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The
shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which
occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery
described in the bill of lading.

(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of
lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more usually
they are made deliverable to the " order or assigns " of the
named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made
deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable
instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the
rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of
lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the
document. When an indorsement has once been made by the
shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the
back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be trans-
ferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A bill of lading so
indorsed is said to be indorsed " in blank." But the shipper or
consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by
indorsing it not " in blank," but with a direction requiring
delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his
order. This is called an indorsement " in full." When an in-
dorsement has been made " in full " to a named indorsee or order,
such indorsee must again indorse " in blank " or " in full " to
effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading.

(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill
of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight
under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party,
by reference to the charter-party. A common form of such
reference is " freight and other conditions, as per charter-party."
It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not in-
corporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms
and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply
to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters
ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as
demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party
thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions
in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the
bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the
contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their
destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion
becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of
freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether.
This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented
by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the
act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the
express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is
interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may,
by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be
delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment
of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length
of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied
in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in
taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all
such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in
fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight

pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not
be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward
the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods,
therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered.

When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is pre-
vented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery
named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or
unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he
may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destina-
tion, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and
the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him
either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her
disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement
of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably
convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the
further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the
other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the
shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destina-
tion, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destina-
tion by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner
of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at
any place short of their destination without payment of the full
freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made
payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become
due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in
the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be
paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become
repayable because the goods do not reach their destination.
If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance
are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of
freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing
the damage recoverable from the shipowner.

(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater
practical importance or which demands more careful considera-
tion by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth
the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of
loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By
the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier,
apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act
of God or the king's enemies. The expression " act of God "
requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say
that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes
every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or
negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies
much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it
usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint
of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrong-
doing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in
modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to
exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not
arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of
his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy
and fit for the voyage at its commencement. It is important
to point out in this connexion that there are two duties which
the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are
assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions,
unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the
terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes abso-
lutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the
commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed.
If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or
other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel
had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement,
the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable
for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking
by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by
himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at
their destination the goods received by him for carriage. Should
loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause
of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted
peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the
exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage

AFFREIGHTMENT

305

would not have occurred but for the negligence of the maste
or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in
other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable can
to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause.

It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations
which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not b)
„ words but by implication, may not be excluded by tht

express terms of the contract. It has now become
common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not
be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his
servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils
even when brought about bythe negligenceof hisservants. And with
regard toseaworthiness.it isnot uncommon fortheshipownertostipu-
late that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the
unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has
been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the
ship seaworthyat the commencementof theyoyage. There is indeec
no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from exempting
himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage
and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any
other cause ^hatsoever. In such a case the goods are carried at
their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it
by insurance. In this respect the law of England permits greater
freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states.
The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the United
States of America are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly
called the Harter Act, passed in the year 1893, to insert in their
contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner
from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the
same time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has
been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and
fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be
liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew
in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain
other causes set forth in the act. It is now very usual to insert
in the bills of lading of British vessels loading in the United States
a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to
make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading.

The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard
to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact lan-
guage, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are
recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the ques-
tion must be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language
used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general
rules which we have endeavoured to explain ; but the words of the
contract must always be considered with reference to these rules,
which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants
recognized and formulated by the courts of law.

(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the
shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the ship-
owner has by the common law a lien for freight. If it is desired
to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other
charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right
of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has
been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for
which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost
by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee
which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain
possession of the goods until payment has been made. The ship-
owner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining
them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public ware-
house, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894.

Charter-parlies.

Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for
a voyage or for a period of time. ( i ) A charter-party for a voyage
is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and
the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel " being tight,
staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage," shall
load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a
specified description or of general merchandise, and being so
loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified
place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and
there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns. There
are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and
the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described
as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the
demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days;
usually also a clause requiring " the cargo to be brought to and
taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense "; a clause

that the master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped
either at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter-
party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case
with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less
than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the dif-
ference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the
sailing of the vessel); and there is usually what is called the
cesser clause, by which the charterer's liability under the charter-
party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking
a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage. The
charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which
are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses pro-
viding for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing
the charter-party, the " address " commission to be paid to the
agents for the vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters
of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, inde-
finitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the
ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage.

What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage,
the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the
liability of the shipowner and his lien applies equally to .charter-
parties. It may be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead
freight, and on the cesser clause.

Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour
agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the
vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time
allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days.
Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept
on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no
demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is
kept loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is
entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered
by the detention of his ship ; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the
fixed number of demurrage days, damages for detention will be re-
coverable. Sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party
for loading or discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load
or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the
circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with
such reasonable despatch, the shipowner win be entitled to claim
damages for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any)
will generally be accepted as the measure of the damages for deten-
tion, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for
detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which
may be more or may be less than the agreed rate ot demurrage.
The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be
excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated
this exception does not apply to the computation of the period of
detention after the lay days have expired.

Dead freight is the name given to the amount of freight lost, and
therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as
damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with
the terms of the charter-party.

The cesser clause has come into common use because very fre-
quently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo
shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered
:he vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading
freight. The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have
shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the ship-
owner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead
a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead
freight that may be payable to him. It has become an established
rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the language used
will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive
only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the
:harterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien
s given to the shipowner. The shipowner is further secured by the
stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under
the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference
shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty
which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that
although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms ot
he bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive
ien as against the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under
:he bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for
the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and
unless the bill of lading expressly reserves it, they are not subject to
a lien for the chartered freight. The master may guard against this
difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve
he shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often
Dut into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter-
>arty requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger
'. Mod Tryvan, 1907 A. C. 272.

(2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner
nd charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the

306

AFGHANISTAN

charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment,
either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within
certain limits. A place is usually named at which the vessel is to
be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the
freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always
pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide
coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain
rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly
in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain
cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is
and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the
orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel,
they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which
they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or
otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the
contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of
lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline
of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and
their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circum-
stances of each case.

It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner
to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is
employed within certain limits according to the wish and direc-
tions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers. But, as
we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the
shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the
master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and
proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been
already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by
the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge
of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner
responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by
the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his
ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact
in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and
at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In
the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to
the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have
pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner,
the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employ-
ment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer,
who appoints his own master and crew, different considera-
tions apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is
let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of
affreightment.

There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the
relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of
Custom extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage,
rights"" y which, though not strictly contractual, are well estab-
lished by the customs of merchants and recognized by
the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in
the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the
owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be
necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority
or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only
of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner.
Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the
safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be
necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and
afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will
be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost
of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner;
part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of
the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in
order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and
safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be
necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or
to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In
such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner,
as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of
the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo
from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made

and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are
called general average (see AVERAGE) sacrifices and expenses,
and are made good, to the person who has made the sacrifice or
incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is
recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion
to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably accord-
ing to the benefit received. The law regulating the rights of the
parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of
General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the
owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment
to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage
of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay
all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage.
He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by
accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred
by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such
expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo;
or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a volun-
tary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo
from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo
to contribute in general average to make good the loss.

See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905) ; Scrutton, Charter-
parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.)

AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia. Estimated area
245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan). Pop.
about 5,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan,
on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the
independent tribes of the North-West Frontier of India and
Baluchistan. The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern
days is due to its position as a " buffer state " intervening be-
tween the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British India.
During the last quarter of the igth century our knowledge of
the country was greatly increased, and its boundaries on the
N., E. and S. were strictly delimited. The second Afghan war
of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for the extension of wide
geographical surveys on a scientific basis. The Russian-Afghan
Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 resulted in the delimitation
and mapping of the northern frontier. The Durand agreement
of 1893 led to the partition of the Pathan tribes on the southern
and eastern frontiers. The Pamir Commission of 1895 settled
its north-eastern border. Finally the Perso-Baluch Commission
of 1904-1905 defined its western face.

Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari
Rud river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows
a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, and
about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the Kushk river in
Jamshidi territory at a point which was once known as Chahil
Dukteran, but is now the Russian post Kushkinski, and the
terminus of a branch railway from Merv. Kushkinski is about
20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement of Kushk, which is
the capital of Badghis. The settlement and the post originally
called Kushk must not be confused together. From Kushk-
inski the boundary runs north-east, crossing the Murghab river
near Maruchak (which is an Afghan fortress) , and thence passes
north-east through the hills of the Chul, and the undulating
deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, to the Oxus, leaving the valleys
of Charshamba and of Andkhui (to which it runs approximately
parallel) within Afghan limits. These valleys denote the limits
of cultivation in this direction. Throughout all this region the
boundary is generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars,
but it is here and there indicated by natural features forming
local lines of water-parting or water-course. The boundary meets
the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the culti-
vated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to the
eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel of
the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. (See
Oxus.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier line was
determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. A
part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan territory, but the
boundary crosses this Pamir before the great bend northwards of
the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a series of crags and un-
traversable mountain ridges, is lost on the Chinese frontier in the

AFGHANISTAN

307

AFGHANISTAN

66° Longitude East 68 of Greenwich

Emtry Walker ic.

snowfields of Sarikol. Bending back westwards upon itself, the
line of Afghan frontier now follows the water-parting of the
Hindu Rush; and as the Hindu Kush absolutely overhangs the
Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, it follows that, at this point,
Afghanistan is about 10 m. wide. Thus a small and highly
elevated portion of the state extends eastwards from its extreme
north-eastern corner, and is attached to the great Afghan quadri-
lateral by the thin link of the Panja valley. These narrow limits
(called Wakhan) include the lofty spurs of the northern flank
of the Hindu Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where
the glacial passes reach 19,000 ft. in altitude, and the enclosing
peaks 24,000 ft. The backbone or main water-divide of the
Hindu Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghan-
istan and those semi-independent native states which fringe
Kashmir in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan.
From near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral
with the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-clad spur
reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of
Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote the
eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the Chitral
river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45 m. south of Chitral.
Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the boundary
passes to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, after crossing
it by a spur which leaves the insignificant Arnawai valley to
the north; along this water-divide it extends to a point nearly
opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in the Kunar valley (the
Chitral river has become the Kunar in its course southwards),
and then stretches away in an uneven and undefined line, dividing
certain sections of the Mohmands from each other by hypo-
thetical landmarks, till it. strikes the Kabul river near Palosi.

Thence following a course nearly due south, it reaches Landi
Kotal. From the abutment of the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol
in the Pamir regions to Landi Kotal, and throughout its eastern
and southern limits, the boundary of Afghanistan touches
districts which were brought under British political control with
the formation of tlje North- West Frontier Provinces of India in
1901. From the neighbourhood of Landi Kotal the boundary
is carried to the Safed Koh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and
then, rounding off the cultivated portions of the Kurram valley
below the Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper
reaches of the Tochi. Crossing these again, it is continued on
the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at
Domandi. South of the Gomal it separates the interests of
Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the
North-West Frontier Province. From Domandi (the junction
of the Kundar river with the Gomal) the Afghan boundary
marches with that of Baluchistan. (See BALUCHISTAN.) It is
carried to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by
the channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond
the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of the
Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and
Nushki. From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching
the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great part
of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it strikes nearly
west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on the Koh-i-Malik Siah
mountain, south of Seistan. Two points of this part of the
Afghan boundary are notable. It leaves some of the most
fanatical of the Durani Afghan people on the Baluch side of the
frontier in the Toba district, north of the Quetta-Chaman line
of railway; and it passes 50 m. south of the Helmund river,

3o8

AFGHANISTAN

enclosing within Afghanistan the only approach to Seistan from
India which is available during the seasons of Helmund overflow.
Between Afghanistan and Persia the boundary was denned by
Sir F. Goldsmid's Commission in 1872 from the Malik-Siah-Koh
to the Helmund Lagoons, and rectified by the Commission under
Sir Henry MacMahon in 1903-1905. Beyond these lagoons to
Hashtadan it is still indefinite. The eastern limits of Hashtadan
had been previously fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river
at Toman Agha. From this point to Zulfikar the Hari Rud is
itself the boundary.

Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises
four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern

Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Turkes-
proviaces. *-an' together with the minor dependencies of the

Ghilzai and Hazara Highlands, Ghazni, Jalalabad and
Kafiristan. All these are described in separate articles. The
kingdom of Kabul is the historic Afghanistan; the link which
unites it to Kandahar, Herat and the other outlying provinces
having been frequently broken and again restored by amirs of
sufficient strength and capability. The Herat province is largely
Persian, while Afghan Turkestan is chiefly Usbeg; and in neither
is the sentiment of loyalty to the central government very strong.
The bond is geographical and political rather than racial. The
geographical divisions of the country are created by the basins
of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund, the Hari Rud and
the Oxus. The Kabul river drains Northern Afghanistan, the
Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus that of Afghan
Turkestan. Afghanistan is largely a country of mountains and
deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly irrigated and most
productive country where fruit is grown in such abundance
as to become an important item in the export trade. The
Afghans are expert agriculturists and make profitable use of all
the natural sources of water-supply. As practical irrigation
engineers they are only rivalled by the Chinese.

The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu
Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which
Mountain is indicated by the Koh-i-Baba to the north-west of
systems. Kabul, and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan),

which merges still farther to the west by gentle
gradients into the Paropamisus, and which may be traced across
the Hari Rud to Mashad.

The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources
of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kunduz and the Kabul very
nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, is 16,870),
and from them to the south-west long spurs divide the upper tribu-
taries of the Helmund, _and separate its basin from that of the Farah
Rud. These spurs retain a considerable altitude, for they are marked
by peaks exceeding 1 1,000 ft. They sweep in a broad band of roughly
parallel ranges to the south-west, preserving their general direction
till they abut on the Great Registan desert to the west of Kandahar,
where they terminate in a series of detached and broken anticlinals
whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching sand. The long,
straight, level-backed ridges which divide the Argandab, the Tarnak
and Arghastan valleys, and flank the route from Kandahar to Ghazni,
determining the_ direction of that route, are outliers of this system,
which geographically includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Amran, range
in Baluchistan.

North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad syn-
clinal plateau into which the Hindu Kush is merged is traversed
by the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of
the Kunduz, and farther to the west by the Band-i-Amir or Balkh
river. Between the debouchment of the Upper Murghab from the
Firozkhoi uplands into the comparatively low level of the valley
above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a nearly straight line
to the upper sources of the Shibarghan stream, the Band-i-Turkestan
range forms the northern ridge between the plateau and the sand
formations of the Chul. It is a level, straight-backed line of sombre
mountain ridge, from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extra-
ordinary configuration of that immense loess deposit called the Chul
can be seen stretching away northwards to the Oxus — ridge upon
ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yellow-grey sea of storm-twisted
billows. The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may be traced eastwards
of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within the folds of the Kara Koh
to the Kunduz, and beyond ; but the Kara Koh does not mark the
northern wall of the great plateau nor overlook the sands of the
Oxus plain, as does the Band-i-Turkestan. Here there intervenes
a second wide synclinal plateau, of which the northern edge is denned
by the flat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Mazar-i-Sharif, and
immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial plains of Mazar

Geology.

and Tashkurghan. Opposite Tashkurghan the Oxus plain narrows
to a short 25 m. On the south this great band of roughly un-
dulating central plateau is bounded by the Koh-i-Baba, to the west
of Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush to the north and north-east of that
city. Thus the main routes from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must
cross either one or other of these ranges, and must traverse one or
other of the terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by
the upper tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the
Oxus. Probably in no country in the world are there gathered
together within comparatively narrow limits so many clean-cut
waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording such a
stupendous system of narrow roadways through the hills.

After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range
which divides Ningrahar (or the valley of Jalalabad) from Kurram
and the Afridi Tirah, and is called Safed Koh (also the name of the
range south of the Hari Rud), is the most important, as it is the
most impressive, in Afghanistan.

The highest peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram, is 15,600 ft. above
sea-level. From this central dominating peak it falls gently towards
the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, reaching to within a
few miles of Kabul and barring the road from Kabul to Ghazni. At
a point which is not far east of the Kabul meridian an offshoot is
directed southwards, which becomes the water-parting between the
Kurram and the Logar at Shutargardan, and can be traced to a
connexion with the great watershed of the frontier dividing the
Indus basin from that of the Helmund. This main watershed
retains its high altitude far to the south. There are peaks measur-
ing over 12,000 ft. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghazni
plains.

So far as we know at present the geological history of Afghan-
istan differs widely from that of India. When, somewhere at
the commencement of the Cretaceous period, the
peninsula of India was connected by land with Mada-
gascar and Southern Africa, all Afghanistan, Baluchistan and
Persia formed part of an area which was not continuously below
sea-level, but exhibited alternations of land and sea. The end
of the Cretaceous period saw the beginning of a series of great
earth movements ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale
such as the earth has never since witnessed, which resulted
in the upheaval of the Himalayas by a process of crushing
and folding of the sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were
forced to an altitude of 20,000 ft. above the sea. It v/as not
till the Tertiary age, and even late in that age, that much
of the land area of Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level.
Then the ocean gradually retired into the great Central Asian
depressions.

Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of level
since that period, and the process of flexure and the formation of
anticlinals traversing the northern districts of Afghanistan is a
process which is still in action. So rapid has been the land elevation
of Central Afghanistan that the erosive action of rivers has not been
able to keep pace with that of upheaval ; and the result all through
Afghanistan (but specially marked in the great central highlands
between Kabul and Herat) is the formation of those immensely deep
gorges and denies which are locally known as daras. One of these,
in the Astarab, to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. wide,
and is enclosed between perpendicular limestone cliffs 1500 ft. high.
C. L. Griesbach considers that the general outline of the land con-
figuration has remained much the same since Pliocene times, and
that the force which brought about the wrinkling of the older de-
posits still continues to add fold on fold. The highlands which shut
off the Turkestan provinces from Southern Afghanistan have afforded
the best opportunities for geological investigation, and as might be
expected from their geographical position, the general result of the
examination of exposed sections leads to the identification of geo-
logical affinity with Himalayan, Indian and Persian regions. The
general configuration of the Turkestan highlands has been already
indicated.

Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain area
northwards are ranged the Tertiaries and recent deposits. North
of Maimana they form low undulating loess hills, in which most
of the Band-i-Turkestan drainage is lost. This wide-spreading loess
area, formed partly of wind-blown sand and partly of detritus
from the mountains, is known as Chul, and merges into the great
plains south of the Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with
modern aerial deposits. Beneath this Chul formation the older beds
of the outer and Turkestan ranges dip and pass to an irregular out-
crop near the banks of the Oxus. Between the Oxus and the hills
there has already been formed a rise or flexure in the ground, which
extends more or less parallel to the northern edge of the hills, and,
shutting in the cultivated area of the plains, arrests all tributaries
seeking to effect a junction with the Oxus from the south, and leads
to the formation of marshes and swamps. This appears to be the
beginning of a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the
Balkh plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which

AFGHANISTAN

3.09

may have been effective within historic times in changing the climate
and the agricultural prospects of this part of Central Asia. The Oxus
itself is steadily encroaching on its right banks and depositing detritus
on the left.

No fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of high economic
value to Afghanistan have been made of late years. Such as
are known and worked at present have been worked from very
ancient times, and their capacity is not likely to develop greatly
under the Kabul government. The most important feature in
this connexion which was noted by the geologist of the Russo-
Afghan Commission is the existence of vast coal beds in northern
Afghanistan. In 1903 some coal mines were discovered in the
Jagdalak districts.

There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan ; but

vidences of their recent existence are abundant. The great boulder

ed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern slopes of the
Ferozkhoi plateau are probably of glacial origin. In the mountains
west of Kabul glaciers have retired, leaving the moraines perfectly
undisturbed. They are probably contemporary with the older
alluvia. (T. H. H.*)

The oldest rocks which have yet been identified 1 in Afghanistan
occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been referred
to the Carboniferous. At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for
example, there is a dark Productus limestone which seems
to be identical with theProductus limestoneof the Central Himalayas.
These beds are conformably succeeded, along the Central Asian
watershed, by a continuous series of strata which apparently repre-
sent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of Europe. They consist of
marine beds alternating with freshwater and littoral deposits,
' igether with plant beds and coal-seams of considerable thickness.

he lowest beds of this series, which from their position may belong
either to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous,
have yielded no recognizable fossils ; but they include a conglomerate
which closely resembles the boulder bed near the base of the Talchir
series in India. The Upper Trias has been definitely identified by
the occurrence of Halobia and other fossils ; while in the higher beds
of the series marine forms belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic
have been found.

The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the remains
which nave been found in them are several forms which occur
also in the Gondwana beds of India. There can be no doubt
that the series as a whole is the equivalent of the Gondwana
system, and when the country has been more closely examined
the association of marine fossils with Gondwana plants will be of
the greatest value in determining the precise homotaxis of th.e
Indian deposits.

The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect conformity,
by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of Afghan Turkestan
and probably forms the greater part of the ranges which run south
and south-west from the principal watershed. The lowest beds
consist of red grits which contain Neocomian fossils, while the middle
and upper Cretaceous consist chiefly of limestone and chalk. The
entire system may be represented in the west, but in the Herat
province and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to
be absent, and it is probable that, as in other regions, the upper
Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lower beds. Tertiary
and recent deposits are widely spread, filling most of the valleys and
covering the plains of the Helmund. Eocene beds have not yet been
proved to exist; but this is probably owing to the imperfect know-
ledge of the country, for the formation is known in Persia, Baluch-
istan and the Suliman Hills. The lower part of the Miocene is
marine in Herat and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Miocene is
usually of freshwater or estuarine origin. In Afghanistan, as in
other regions near the great Eurasian system of folds, the Miocene
includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt. It was during this
period that the forces which finally raised the country above the
level of the sea began to take effect. The Pliocene consists entirely
of freshwater and terrestrial deposits, which were probably laid
down at the foot of the rising hills and on the floors of the intervening
valleys. As the elevation continued, they were sometimes involved
in the folding to which the mountains owe their origin. During
this period the gradual desiccation of the country continued, and
wind-blown deposits, such as the loess, began to make their
appearance.

Although volcanic cones are known both in Persia and in Baluch-
istan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan itself. There

'. According to

1 with the lowest

part of the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place
during the Neocomian period. But the most important igneous
masses are the great intrusions of syenitic granite and of basic rock
which penetrate the Cretaceous beds. These are probably of Eocene
or of late Cretaceous age. (P. LA.)

1 We owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost
entirely to the observations of C. L. Griesbach, and a summary of
his researches will be found in Records of the Geological Survey of
India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map.

Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central
Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan
through the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see
HINDU RUSH), the highways of Afghanistan may be
classed under two heads: (i) Foreign trade routes, and (2)
Internal communications.

(i) Of the many routes which cross the frontiers of Afghanistan
the most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus
regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those which
lead from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar to the plains of India.

Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three
main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu
Kush. One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its head from
Tashkurgjhan, and then, preserving a high general level of 8000 to
9000 ft., it passes over the water-divides separating the upper tribu-
taries of the Kunduz river, and drops into the valley formed by an-
other tributary at Bamian. From Bamian it passes over the central
mountain chain to Kabul either by the well-known passes of Irak
(marking the water-divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking
the summit of the Sanglakh, a branch of the Hindu Kush), or else,
turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the Shibar,
a pass which is considerably lower than the Irak and is very seldom
snowbound. From the foot of the Unai pass it follows the Kabul
river, and from the foot of the Shibar it follows the circuitous route
which is offered by the drainage of the Ghorband valley to Charikar,
and thence southwards to Kabul. The main points on this route are
Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian. It is full of awkward grades and
minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass
(if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft. That
this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward
from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear silent
witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's talent for
roadmaking has not opened out better alternative lines. One of his
roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar
pass across the Hindu Kush. The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.),
but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, south
of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of
Badakshan, is more direct. A third route also passes through
Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawak
pass and Panjshir river. The latter joins the Ghorband close to
Charikar. The Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades
are easy and the snowfall usually light. This high road is stated (on
Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the year
round by the employment of forced labour for clearing snow. It is
a recently developed route and one of great importance to Kabul,
both strategically "and commercially.

Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier
between Peshawarandthe Gomal occur at intervals alongthe western
border, and in the northern section of the Indian frontier they
are all well marked. The Khyber, Kurram and Tochi are the best
known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan are
held by British troops or Indian levies. But the Bara valley route
into the heart of the Afridi Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked,
although it is not a trade route of any importance. Between Kabul
and Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and
the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Jagdalak
passes, the latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade
in 1842. Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.).
The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route of advance from
Kabul to Peshawar. From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul
river through the valley of Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans
call it) over a gentle water-parting into the Kunar valley, leaving
Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south. From the Kunar it crossed
into Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes,
and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malakand or
some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar.

The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes
(8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of
the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, however
suitable as an alternative military line of advance.

Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India
by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley and the dis-
tricts at its head, yet this is the shortest and most direct route
between Ghazni and the frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni
raiding was the road by which the great robber Mahmucf occasionally
descended on to the Indus plains. Traces of his raiding and road-
making are still visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more
direct route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the
Tochi. The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the
Tochi and the Ghazni plain is still unknown to us.

The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan
and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at Wana,
will do much to ensure its continued popularity. The Gomal in-
volves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to
follow the actual course of the river on account of the narrow defiles
which have been cut through the recent conglomerate beds which
flank the plains of the Indus. It has been carefully surveyed for a
possible railway alignment; and an excellent road now connects

310

AFGHANISTAN

Tank (at its foot) with the Zhob line of Communications to Quetta,
and with VVana on the southern flank of Waziristan. The Gomal
route is of immense importance, both as a commercial and strategic
line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either
the Kurram or the Tochi.

(2) Of theinteriorlinesof communication, those which connect the
great cities of Afghanistan, Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, are obvi-
ously the most important. Between Kabul and Herat there is no
" royal " road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow-
bound wastes that lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i-
Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. It is a
waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the
road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year. Between
Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route
by Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai . There is but one insignificant water-
parting — or kotal — a little to the north of Ghazni; and the road,
although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length
in Europe for military purposes. Between Kandahar and Herat
there is the recognized trade route which crosses the Helmund at
Girishk and passes through Farah and Sabzawar. It includes about
360 miles of easy road, with spaces where waterisscarce. Thereis
not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty,
to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the
north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, con-
taining the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern
Afghan tribes. Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between
Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman. It is on
the whole a route across open plains and hard, stony " dasht"— a
route which would offer no great difficulties to that railway extension
from Chaman which has so long been contemplated. A very con-
siderable trade now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost
prohibitive imposts; but the trade does not follow the railway from
New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak. Long strings of
camels may still be seen from the train windows patiently treading
their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the
train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain tunnel
into the Peshin valley.

The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected.
Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no
Climate great difference between the mean temperature of
Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas. Each
may be placed at a point between 50° and 60° F. But the remark-
able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is
its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The
least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the
greatest in the hot. For seven months of the year (from May
to November) this range exceeds 30° F. daily. Waves of intense
cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure
a cold of 12° below zero, rising to a maximum of 17° below
freezing-point. On the other hand the summer temperature is
exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade
maximum of 1 10° to 120° is not uncommon. At Kabul, and over
all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak,
winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian
plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the
people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At
Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal
equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10° and 15° below zero
(Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the
population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once.

At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an
Indian character. The summer heat is great everywhere in
Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the
Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan.
All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the
simoon is not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of
the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and
fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the
country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render
the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun
has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by
cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually
cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower
hills; when it does, it melts at once.

At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer
climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether
is far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind
blows from the N.W. with great violence, and this extends
across the country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild;

snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie
long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard
enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from
Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at
Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's army,
retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold
in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records
of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as
17° F., and the maximum 38°. The eastern reaches of the Hari
Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the
people travel on it as on a road.

The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in
India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya,
travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are
more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs
of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh.
Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley.
South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the
western limit. of the monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the
rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the
winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though
less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter
rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. In the
absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indica-
tions than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in
winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their
influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold is then
intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally,
the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. The sun shines with
splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even
more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great
differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and
night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of
climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the
emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you
may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours'
journey a place where snow almost never melts!

The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local
climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, and of
some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh.

The people have by no means that immunity from disease
which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine
physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to
expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent;
bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the autumn.
The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top in summer
promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh
Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest
of climates, the mortality from fever and bowel complaint,
between July and October, is great, the immoderate use of
fruit predisposing to such ailments.

The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the
mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people
of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known ufa_

as the Durani. The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful w°^" *
as the Durani) claims to be of Turkish origin; the
Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others
are more or less subject races. Popularly any inhabitant of
Afghanistan is known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without
distinction of origin or language; but the language division
between the Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the
Pathan is a very distinct one. The predominance of the Afghan
in Afghanistan dates from the middle of the 1 8th century, when
Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous con-
quests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire.

The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist on
their descent from the tribes who were carried away captive
from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar. Yet they also
claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other
Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan.
The bond of affinity between the various peoples who compose
the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common language.

AFGHANISTAN

All of them recognize a common code or unwritten law called
Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character
to the old Hebraic law, though modified by Mahommedan
ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to
Rajput custom. Besides their division into clans and tribes,
the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents
and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans
at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, e.g., is the
case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai.

The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in
part the population of the few towns. Their chief occupation
is with the soil. They form the core of the nation and the
main part of the army. Nearly all own the land on which they
live, and which they cultivate with their own hands or by
hired labour. Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering
are their sole occupations. No Afghan will pursue a handicraft
or keep a shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in
travelling trade and transport of goods. As a race the Afghans
are very handsome and athletic, often with fair complexion and
flowing beard, generally black or brown, sometimes, though
rarely, red; the features highly aquiline. The hair is shaved
off from the forehead to the top of the head, the remainder at
the sides being allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders.
Their step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to
be rough.

The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the last
trait often true also of the men) ; fair complexions, sometimes
rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided and plaited
behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels. They
are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent.

The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar
with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by
failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or dis-
cipline ; apparently frank and affable in manner, especially when
they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest
brutality when that hope ceases. They are unscrupulous in
perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindic-
tiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and
in the most cruel manner. Nowhere is crime committed on such
trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it
is punished the punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the
Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrange-
ments and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller
conceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his journey.
The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of prey. If from habit
and tradition he respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet
considers it legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is
afoot, or even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has
quitted his roof. The repression of crime and the demand of
taxation he regards alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally
boasting of their lineage, their independence and their prowess.
They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man
looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan.

They are capable of enduring great privation, and make
excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but
few in the Indian army. Sobriety and hardiness characterize the
bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained
with deep and degrading debauchery. The first impression made
by the Afghan is favourable. The European, especially if he
come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open-
hearted, hospitable and manly manners; but the charm is not
of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and
crafty as he is independent. No trustworthy statistics exist
showing either present numbers or fluctuations in the population
of Afghanistan. Within the amir's dominions there are probably
from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast majority
are agriculturists.

The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers
and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and
as industrious and successful agriculturists they are unsurpassed
in Asia. They have carried the art of irrigation to great per-

fection, and they utilize every acre of profitable soil. Certain
Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construc-
tion of the karez or underground water-channel.

The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan.
Next to Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan
kingdom in existence. The vast majority of Afghans KeUglon_
are of the Sunni sect; but there are, in their midst,
such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central
districts, the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram
border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian
animosity which is so marked a feature in India. The Kafirs of
the mountainous region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahom-
medan. They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace
some faint reflexion of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles
and the tenets of Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from
the varied elements of their mixed extraction. Those contiguous
Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the
faith of Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most
virulent upholders of the faith around them. In and about the
centre of civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are com-
paratively rare. In the western provinces about Kandahar
(amongst the Durani Afghans — the people who claim to be Ben-
i-Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism
runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi — a man
who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds.

Persian is the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan
population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the
language of the court and of literature. Pushtu, how-
ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not *£?/"ase
seem to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west literature.
of the Helmund. Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan.
There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. The oldest
work in Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh
Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (A.D.
1413-24). In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan;
during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered,
and he wrote a history of the events. In the reign of Akbar,
Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " the Saint of Light," the
founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief
antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza.
The literature is richest in poetry. Abdur Rahman ( 1 7th century)
is the best known poet. Another very popular poet is Khushal
Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb.
Many other members of his family were poets also. Ahmad
Shah, the founder of the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry.
Ballads are numerous.

Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghan-
istan. Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher educa-
tion befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more
wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but
the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to
the passer-by. Here the younger boys are collected and in-
structed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious creed
by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires an early
influence over the Afghan mind. The method of teaching is
confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced repetition
which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the Koran
is, of course, the text-book in all forms of education. Every
Afghan gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond
this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical
development of the youth by instruction in horsemanship and
feats of skill. Such advanced education as exists in Afghan-
istan is centred in the priests and physicians; but the ignorance
of both is extreme.

The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under
the amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary. There are
five chief political divisions in the country — namely,
Kabul, Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan,
each of which is ruled by a " naib " or governor, who iaws.
is directly responsible to the amir. Under the governors
of provinces the nobles and kazis (or district judges) dispense
justice rhuch in the feudal fashion. There are three classes of

Education.

312

AFGHANISTAN

chiefs who form the council or durbar of the king. These are
the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs. The sirdars are
hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people,
and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion. The khan is elected
by the clan or tribe. The clannish attachment of the Afghans is
rather to the community than to the chief. These three classes of
representatives are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi
or royal assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or commons. The
mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their
individual rank. The executive officials of the amir have a
selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet council,
but no member can give advice to the crown without being asked
to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own department. The
amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief judge
and supreme court of appeal. Any one has the right to appeal to
the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and
Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their
subjects. Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief
centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who
performs, as in India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate. In
large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the
trial of commercial cases. There are government departments
for the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military
affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts of
Afghanistan is that of Islam and of the customs of the country,
with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman.

The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed
between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar-
Defeace i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at

frontier outposts on the side of India. Abdur Rahman
claimed that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a
week for the defence of Herat. In 1896 he introduced a system
of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between
the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at militdry
training. In this way he calculated that he could have raised
1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief
difficulty would be money and transport. The pay of the
army is apt to be irregular. The amir's factories at Kabul for
arms and ammunition are said to turn out about 20^000
cartridges and 15 rifles daily, with 2 guns per week; but the
arms thus produced are very heterogeneous, and the different
varieties of cartridge used would cause endless complications.
The two chief fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat
and Dehdadi near Balkh. The latter fort took twelve years to
build, and commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into
Afghan Turkestan. It is armed with naval quick-firing guns,
Krupp,Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim. The chief cantonment
for the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, 12 m. from Balkh.

Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a
kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public works

and army. There appears to be no inherent reason

why this should be so. Whilst it can never (in the
absence of any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy
country, it can at least support its own population; and it
would, but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman,
certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency. Its
revenues (about which no trustworthy information is available)
are subject to great fluctuations, and probably never exceed the
value of one million sterling per annum. They fell in Shere Ali's
time to £700,000. The original subsidy to the amir from the
Indian government was fixed at 12 lakhs of rupees (£80,000)
per annum, but in 1893, in connexion with the boundary settle-
ment, it was increased to £120,000.

Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur
Rahman claims in his autobiography that the country is rich
Minerals. *n mmes- Some small quantity of gold is taken from

the streams in Laghman and the adjoining districts.
Famous silver mines were formerly worked near the head of the
Panjshir valley in Hindu Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied
with iron from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the
Upper Kurram and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant.
Iron ore is most abundant near the passes leading to Bamian,

Finance.

and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper ore from various
parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked.
Lead is found in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the
Shinwari country (also among the branches of Safed Koh) , and
in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines
near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found
near the Arghand-ab, 32 m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the
Ghorband valley, north of Kabul. Most of the lead used, how-
ever, comes from the Hazara country, where the ore is described
as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great
extent and elaborate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghor-
band valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities
at Shah-Maksud, about 30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is
,said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments,
but the chief supply comes from the Hazara country and from
Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem
to be a crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the
same place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of
Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near
the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat
(between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni.
Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan,
and often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals.
The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains
of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great
mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their
immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and
terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact,
these are naked rock and stone.

Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself and
its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft., we have
abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the
most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa,
Pinus longijolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch.
We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and
almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of
rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron
and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is im-
portant for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild
vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern
mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and
kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed
with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astra-
galus, &c. Here also are Indigoferae and dwarf laburnum.

Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species of
rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus;
and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis
(which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet
flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of
Gesnerae.

The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as
has been said, 'naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost
wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non-exist-
ent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common.
Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges.

In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains
of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of
the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysarum
Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis
spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush;
plants of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant of
the rue family, called by the natives lip&d; the common worm-
wood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The
rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines — the
former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility
and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lip&d, owing to its
heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some
places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the
rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane,
the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae.

In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow,
poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane; but these are due to man's
planting.

One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex
asafelida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry plains of
Western Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and fjacum.
Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its vated _„,.
way to India, where it is much used as a condiment. It ^ucts Of
is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat va/uc.
the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The
collection of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the
Kakar clan of Afghans.

AFGHANISTAN

In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local
luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones
or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring
hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached
rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked.

The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are
exported.

The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of water-
courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the mountain
yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called
salep; a good deal of this goes to India.

Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its resin,
is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true
pistachio is found only on the northern frontier; the nuts are im-
ported from Badakshan and Kunduz.

Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially
by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for
meat.

Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called
ttiranjbtn, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel-
thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; the other, sir-kasht, in
large grains and irregular masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded,
is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob (black wood),
thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus.

In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as gener-
ally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans bahdrak, or
the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn and
culture reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a
variety of lentils. The other, called pdizah or ttrmdi,
the autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn.
It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize,
Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions
have but one harvest.

Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country.
Rice is not largely distributed. In much of the eastern moun-
tainous country bdjra (Holcus spicatus) is the chief grain. Most
English and Indian garden-stuffs are cultivated; turnips in
some places very largely, as cattle food.

The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous
plants is reckoned very important, especially near towns; and
this crop counts for a distinct harvest.

Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though
cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is
imported.

Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and
Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and supplies
the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable, though it
takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and exported.
The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and furnishes most
of the oil of the country. Tobacco is grown very generally;
that of Kandahar has much repute, and is exported to India
and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are "taken.

Lucerne and a trefoil called shaflal form important fodder
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated,
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The
komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of
Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to
Herat. It is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent
fodder. Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and from
two kinds of panick. It is common to cut down the green wheat
and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition
of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop.
Bellew gives the following statement of the manner in which
the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district: — Barley

»is sown in November; in March and April it is twice cut for
fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the ground is ploughed
and manured and sown with tobacco, which yields two cuttings.
The ground is then prepared for carrots and turnips, which are
gathered in November or December.

Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits
are produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent
quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a
large class of the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported.
In the valleys of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in
skins for winter use. This mulberry cake is often reduced to

flour, and used as such, forming in some valleys the main food
of the people.

Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very
numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, but
most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. high. The
principal part of the garden lands in villages round Kandahar is
vineyard, and the produce must be enormous.

Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern
Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the
country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean
aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting
their combined volume to the surface at a lower level.

As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the frontier
of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to
which region Baluchistan seems to belong) and the Fauaa-
Indo-Malayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat of the
forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian.

Felidae. — F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal (Eur.,
Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be found
almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheetah (F. jubatus,
Ind. and Eth.); F. pardus, the common leopard (Eth. and Ind.).
The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan.

Canidae. — The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds on
the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C.
Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in
troops on the snow, destroying cattle and sometimes attacking
single horsemen. The hyena (H. striata, Africa to India) is common.
These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly attack a
bullock ; they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. A favourite
feat of the boldest of the young men of southern Afghanistan is to
enter the hyena's den, single-handed, muffle and tie him. There are
wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and Conolly. The small Indian
fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) is found; also V. flavescens, common to
India and Persia, the skin of which is much used as a fur.

Mustelidae. — Species of mungoose (Herpestes), species of otter,
Mustela erminea, and two ferrets, one of them with tortoise-shell
marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin; a marten (M.
flavigula, Indian).

Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; and one
of a dirty yellow, U. Isabellinus, both Himalayan species.

Ruminants. — Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep
(Ovis cycloceros or Vignei) ; Gazella subgutturosa — these are often
netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream ; G. dorcas
perhaps; Cervus Wallickii, the Indian barasingha, and probably
some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains.

The wild hog (Sus scrofa) is found on the lower Helmund. The
wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus onager), is frequent on the sandy
tracts in the south-west.

The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant
in Kafiristan.

Talpidae. — A mole, probably Talpa Europaea; Sorex Indicus;
Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian).

Bats believed to be Phyllorhinus cineraceus (Punjab species),
Scotophilus Bellii (W. India), Vesp. auritus and V. barbastellus, both
found from England to India.

Rodentia. — A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacusl) ; Mus Indicus and M.
Gerbellinus; a jerboa (Dipus teluml); Alactaga Bactriana; Gerbil-
lus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian and Indian); Lagomys Nepal-
ensis, a Central Asian species. A hare, probably L. ruficaudatus.

BIRDS. — The largest list of Afghan birds that we know of is given
by Captain Hutton in the /. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 775 seq. ;
but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 124 species in that list,
95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and
Indian, I (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and I only, Carpo-
dacus (Bucaneles) crassirostris, peculiar to the country. Afghanistan
appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat of a variety
of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in winter the
avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian.

REPTILES. — The following particulars are from Gray: — Lizards
— Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horsfieldii, Salea Horsfieldii,
Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Phrynocephalus
Tickelii—a.\\ Indian forms. A tortoise (Testudo Horsfieldii) appears
to be peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or
tailed Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian;
and the same may be said of the fish, but they are as yet most
imperfectly known.

The camel is of a more robust and compact breed than the tall
beast used in India, and is more carefully tended. The two-
humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus regions,
but is seldom seen near the Indian frontier.

Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these,
however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry. Those exported
to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan

AFGHANISTAN

Turkestan. The indigenous horse is the yabu, a stout, heavy-
shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly for
burden, but also for riding. It gets over incredible distances
at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work and cannot
stand excessive heat. The breed of horses was much improved
under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest in it.
Generally, colts are sold and worked too young.

The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities
of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but with the
hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important in Afghan diet,
especially the pressed and dried curd called krul (an article and
name perhaps introduced by the Mongols).

There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail.
One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. Much
of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now largely to
Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the main wealth of
the nomad population, and mutton is the chief animal food of
the nation. In autumn large numbers are slaughtered, their
carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried in the sun. The
same is done with beef and camel's flesh.

The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to be a
degenerate variety of the shawl-goat.

The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding.
Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalala-
bad— large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch;
very like the old double-nosed Spanish pointer. There are grey-
hounds also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs.

The manufactures of the country have not developed much
during recent years. Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the
many varieties of camel and goat's hair-cloth which,
under the name of " barak," " karak," &c., are manu-
factured in the northern districts, are still the chief
local products of that part of Afghanistan. Herat and Kandahar
are famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the
manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many of
the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from the Central
Asian khanates. The district of Herat produces many of the
smaller sorts of carpets (" galichas " or prayer-carpets), of
excellent design and colour, the little town of Adraskand being
especially famous for this industry; but they are not to be
compared with the best products of eastern Persia or of the
Turkman districts about Panjdeh.

The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly pastoral, and
the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar provinces is famous
for its quality. In this direction, the late boundary settlements
have undoubtedly led to a considerable development of local
resources. A large quantity of wool, together with silk, dried
fruit, madder and asafetida, finds its way to India by the
Kandahar route.

It is impossible to give accurate trade statistics, there being
no trustworthy system of registration. The value of the imports
from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated at 221,000 Rx(or
tens of rupees). In 1899 it was little over 217,000 Rx, the period
of lowest intermediate depression being in 1897. These imports
include horses, cattle, fruits, grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco,
drugs and provisions (ghi, &c.). All this trade emanates from
Kabul, there being no transit trade with Bokhara owing to the
heavy dues levied by the amir. The value of the exports from
India to Kabul also shows great fluctuation. In the year 1892-1893
it was registered at nearly 611,000 Rx. In 1894-1895 it had sunk
to 274,000 Rx, and in 1899 it figured at 294,600 Rx. The chief
items are cotton goods, sugar and tea. In 1898-1899 the imports
from Kandahar to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the
exports from India to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three-
fourths of the exports consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths
of the imports were raw wool. The balance of the imports was
chiefly made up of dried fruits. Comparison with trade statistics
of previous years on this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing
to the inclusion of a large section of Baluchistan and Persia
within the official " Kandahar " returns; but it does not appear
that the value of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the
increase. The opening up of the route between Quetta and

Seistan has doubtless affected a trade which was already seriously
hampered by restrictions. In the year after the mission of Sir
Louis Dane to Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that
the trade between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in
value.

The basin of the Kabul river especially abounds in remains
of the period when Buddhism flourished. Bamian is famous
for its wall-cut figures, and at Haibak (on the route
between Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most w"s '" "
interesting Buddhist remains. In the Koh-Daman,
north of Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest
of which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of
thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's
Nicaea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some miles
south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley of Jalalabad
are many remains of the same character.

In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city (Ulan
Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia. About Girishk, on
the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces of build-
ings; and the remains of several great cities exist in the plain of
Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics of ancient
Drangiana. An ancient stone vessel preserved in a mosque
at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was treasured
at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of Sakya-
Muni. In architectural relics of a later date than the Graeco-
Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient. Of the
city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, rto
substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two
remarkable brick minarets. A vast and fruitful harvest of coins
has been gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Ra.wlinson,EnglandandRussiainthe East (1875) ;
H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ; Wyllie's Essays on the
External Policy of India (1875) ; Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom
of Kabul (1809); Parliamentary Papers, " Afghanistan "; Curzon,
Problems in the Far East; Holdich, Indian Borderland( 1901) ; India
(1903) ; Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
(1886); Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). ' (T. H. H.*)

HISTORY

The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-IsraU (Arab,
for Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul (whom
they call by the Mahommedan corruption Talui) through a son
whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a
son called Afghana. The numerous stock of Afghana were
removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their way to the moun-
tains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of Herat). Only nine
years after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard
of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation headed by a
wise and holy man called Kais, to make inquiry. The deputation
became zealous converts, and on their return converted their
countrymen. From Kais and his three sons the whole of the
genuine Afghans claim descent.

This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry
books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the i6th
century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of
older date. In the version given by Major Raverty (Introd. to
Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled by King Solomon himself
in the Sulimani mountains', there is nothing about Nebuchad-
rezzar or Ghor. The historian Ferishta says he had read that
the Afghans were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh.
And one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates
" a current tradition " that, previous to the time of Kais, Bilo
the father of the Biluchis, Uzbek (evidently the father of the
Usbegs) and Afghana were considered as brethren. As Mahom-
med Usbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes
called Usbegs, reigned in the I4th century A.D., this gives some
possible light on the value of these so-called traditions.

We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all
nations that derive their religion or their civilization from a
foreign source. To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a con-
siderable number of persons have been found to propagate
the doctrine that the English people are descended from the
tribes of Israel. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is

AFGHANISTAN

more worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number
of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, have
been strong in their belief of it; and though the customs alleged
in proof will not bear the stress laid on them, undoubtedly a
prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy has a character
strongly Jewish. This characteristic is certainly a remarkable
one; but it is shared, to a considerable extent, by the Kash-
miris (a circumstance which led Bernier to speculate on the
Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe,
by the Tajik people of Badakshan.

Relations with the Greeks. — In the time of Darius Hystaspes
(500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan embraced
in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts of it occupied
by Sarangians (in Seistan), Arians (in Herat), Sattagydians
(supposed in highlands of upper Helmund and the plateau of
Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountain-
eers, perhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy),
Gandarii (in Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyes, on or near the
Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that
we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their
name. Indeed, Pusht, Pasht or Pakht would seem to be the
oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions.

The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and
south.

About 310 B.C. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to
the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a
marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus
occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a
part of the Kabul basin. Some sixty years later occurred the
establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria.
(See BACTRIA, MEDIA, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER of India, EUTHY-
DEMUS, and PERSIA, Ancient History?) Of the details of their
history and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know
almost nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague
data as are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the
coins of independent princes have been found. But their power
extended certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times,
over the whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of
Kashmir, the tope of Manikyala in the Punjab, and many
sculptures found in the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable
Greek influence. Demetrius (c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have
reigned in Arachosia after being expelled from Bactria, much
as, at a later date, Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion
from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 B.C.) is alleged by Justin
to have warred in India. With his coins, found abundantly in
the Kabul basin, commences the use of an Arianian inscription,
in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply the transfer of rule
to the south of the mountains, over a people whom the Greek
dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?),
the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana, pressed
their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India
at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta. The
coinage of a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric
irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical
and Chinese accounts- of the time when Bactria was overrun
by Scythian invaders. The chief nation among these, called by
the Chinese Yue-Chi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in
Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian
era the chief of one of these, which was called Kushan, subdued
the rest, and extended his conquests over the countries south of
the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus
establishing a great dominion, of which we hear from Greek
writers as Indo-Scythia. (See YuE-Cin.)

Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of
the Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted
that system. Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of
Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul.

Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other. A notable
monarch was Kanishka (see INDIA, History) or Kanerkes, whose
date is variously fixed at from 588. c. toA.D. 125, and whose power
extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir

and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the
land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when
the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian Tsang, travelled in India; they had
even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and
geographer, Abu-r-Raihan Muhammad al-Birunl (see BIRUNI),
in the nth century; and they are still celebrated in the Mongol
versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story.

Turkoman Dynasties. — In the time of Hsiian Tsang (A.D. 630-
645) there were both Indian and Turk princes in the Kabul
valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem
to have predominated in succession. The first Mahommedan
attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though
Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early
date. It was not till the end of the loth century that a Hindu
prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands of the
Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at Ghazni.
There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series of
descendants, till the middle of the I2th century, rendering the
city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful
dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race; and
if so, the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent
from Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of
the dynasty was Alauddin, chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for
the cruel death of his brother at the hands of Bahrain the
Ghaznevide was wreaked in devastating the great city. His
nephew, Shahabuddin Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India,
conquering as far as Benares. His empire in India indeed —
ruled by his freedmen who after his death became independent
— may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahommedan
monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief period
the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Khwarizm,
and- it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of
Jalaluddin of Khwarizm to withstand the progress of Jenghiz
Khan.

A passage in Perish ta seems to imply that the Afghans in the
Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the
first century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may
be built on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in
'Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about A.D. 1030,
coupled with that of the Khiljis. It also appears frequently in
connexion with the history of India in the i3th and I4th cen-
turies. The successive dynasties of Delhi are generally called
Pathan, but were really so only in part. Of the Khiljis (1288-
1321) we have already spoken. The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were
originally Tatars of the Karauna tribe. The Lodis (1450-1526)
were pure Pathans. For a century and more after the Mongol
invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were under Mongol
rule; but in the middle of the i4th century a native dynasty
sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which
extended its rule over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar. The history
of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that
regime must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge
from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and
even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language.

The Mogul Dynasty. — All these countries were included in
Timur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in the
possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only three years
before it fell into the hands of another and more illustrious one,
Sultan Baber. It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in
permanently wresting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a family of
Mongol descent, who had long held it. From the time of his
conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526),
Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire
of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul dynasty which Baber
founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir Shah
(1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the Moguls
and the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of Persia. Under the latter it
had remained from 1642 till 1708, when in the reign of Husain,
the last of them, the Ghilzais, provoked by the oppressive
Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan (a Georgian prince of the
Bagratid house), revolted under Mir Wais, and expelled the
Persians. Mir Wais was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar,

3i6

AFGHANISTAN

and eventually defeated the Persian armies sent against him,
but did not long survive (d. 1715).

Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and
energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest of
Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain came forth from
Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered the sword and
diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the Ghilzai (October 1722).
Two years later Mahmud died mad, and a few years saw the end
of Ghilzai rule in Persia.

The Durani Dynasty.— In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered
Kandahar and took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the
Afghans, and enrolled many in his army. Among these was a
noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of the
Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) was
chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their leader,
and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part of Nadir's
empire, with the style of Dur-i-Durdn, " Pearl of the Age,"
bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the Abdalis. With
Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took a place among
the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani dynasty, which he
founded, still occupies its throne. During the twenty-six years
of his reign he carried his warlike expeditions far and wide.
Westward they extended nearly to the shores of the Caspian;
eastward he repeatedly entered India as a conqueror. At his great
battle of Panipat (January 6, 1761), with vastly inferior num-
bers, he inflicted on the Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their
power, a tremendous defeat, almost annihilating their vast army;
but the success had for him no important result. Having long
suffered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeath-
ing to his son Timur a dominion which embraced not only
Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and
Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan
as tributary governments.

Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul,
and continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the
anarchy which followed close on his death. He left twenty-
three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah
Khan, head of the Barakzai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in
grasping the royal power. For many years barbarous wars raged
between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul-
Mulk and Mahmud successively held the throne. The last
owed success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the
"Afghan Warwick "), a man of masterly ability in war and
politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable
intelligence and force of character, and many of these he placed
over the provinces. Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's
jealously by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity
of the king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai
family. He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards
murdered with prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking
the first blow.

The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. The
Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and
with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat remained thus till
Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his able and
wicked minister Yar Mahommed. The rest of the country was
divided among the Barakzais — Dost Mahommed, the ablest,
getting Kabul. Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell
to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 1823. The last
Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost long before — Kashmir
in 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the Turkes-
tan provinces had been practically independent since the death
of Timur Shah.

The First Afghan War, 1838-42. — In 1809, in consequence of
the intrigues of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart
Elphinstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power,
and had been well received by him at Peshawar. This was the
first time the Afghans made any acquaintance with Englishmen.
Lieut. Alex. Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex. Burnes) visited Kabul
on his way to Bokhara in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of
Herat and the proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and
Burnes was sent by the governor-general as resident to the

amir's court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought
were not conceded by the government, and the rash resolution
was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a refugee in
British territory. Ranjit Singh, king of the Punjab, bound
himself to co-operate, but eventually declined to let the expedi-
tion cross his territories.

The war began in March 1838, when the "Army of the Indus,"
amounting to 21, coo men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced
through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane.
There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. Kohandil
Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That city was occupied in
April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather's
mosque. Ghazni was reached 2ist July; a gate of the city was
blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut.,
afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by
storm. Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed
the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 7).
The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a
peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force,
leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir W.
Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague.

During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies
remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. The British
outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah
Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost Mahommed surrendered
(November 3, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honour-
ably treated. From the beginning, insurrection against the new
government had been rife. The political authorities were over-
confident, and neglected warnings. On the and of November 1841
the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of
Burnes and other officers. The position of the British camp, its
communications with the citadel and the location of the stores
were the worst possible; and the general (Elphinstone) was
shattered in constitution. Disaster after disaster occurred, not
without misconduct. At a conference (December 23) with the
Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken the lead of the Afghans,
Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by that chief's own hand. On
the 6th of January 1842, after a convention to evacuate the
country had been signed, the British garrison, still numbering
4500 soldiers (of whom 690 were Europeans), with some 12,000
followers, marched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the
troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and massacre,
and the force was finally overwhelmed in the Jagdalak pass
between Kabul and Jalalabad.

On the 1 3th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only
twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon
reached Jalalabad, wounded and half dead. Ninety-five
prisoners were afterwards recovered. The garrison of Ghazni
had already been forced to surrender (December 10). But
General Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General
Sale, who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of
the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly.

To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners prepara-
tions were made in India on a fitting scale; but it was the i6th of
April 1842 before General Pollock could relieve Jalalabad, after
forcing the Khyber Pass. After a long halt there he advanced
(August 20), and gaining rapid successes, occupied Kabul
(September 15)^ where Nott, after retaking and dismantling
Ghazni, joined him two days later. The prisoners were happily
recovered from Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of
Kabul were destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghan-
istan, December 1842. '

This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with
the elements of inevitable failure. A ruler imposed upon a free
people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to
stand alone; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves
obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or
retiring with the probability that it will fall after their departure.
The leading chiefs of Afghanistan perceived that the maintenance
of Shah Shuja's rule by British troops would soon be fatal to
their own power and position in the country, and probably to
their national independence. They were insatiable in their

AFGHANISTAN

31?

demands for office and emolument, and when they discovered
that the shah, acting by the advice of the British envoy, was
levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be directly under
his control, they took care that the plan should fail. Without a
regular revenue no effective administration could be organized;
but the attempt to raise taxes showed that it might raise the
people, so that for both men and money the shah's government
was still obliged to rely principally upon British aid. All these
circumstances combined to render the new regime weak and
unpopular, since there was no force at the ruler's command
except foreign troops to put down disorder or to protect those
who submitted, while the discontented nobles fomented dis-
affection and the inbred hatred of strangers in race and religion
among the general Afghan population.

British and Russian Relations. — It has been said that the
declared object of this policy had been to maintain the inde-
pendence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure the friendly
alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a great barrier of
mountainous country between the expanding power of Russia in
Central Asia and the British dominion in India. After 1849,
when the annexation of the Punjab had carried the Indian north-
western frontier up to the skirts of the Afghan highlands, the
corresponding advance of the Russians south-eastward along the
Oxus river became of closer interest to the British, particularly
when, in 1856, the Persians again attempted to take possession
of Herat. Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on
his death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civifrwar, until his
son, Shere Ali, had won his way to undisputed rulership in 1868.
In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia. To
the British government an attitude of non-intervention in Afghan
affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer possible. The
meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the viceroy of India
(Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the relations
between the two governments; the amir consolidated and began
to centralize his power; and the establishment of a strong,
friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote of
British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India.

When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the
Russians, and their gradual approach towards the amir's
northern border, had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for
support to the British; and his disappointment at his failure to
obtain distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great
Britain's refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia
over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion
that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian
authorities at Tashkend. In 1869 the Russian government had
assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as
completely outside the sphere of their influence; and in 1872 the
boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled
between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria.

Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tash-
kend continued, and as the Russians were now extending their
dominion over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north-
west, the British government determined, in 1876, once more to
undertake active measures for securing their political ascendancy
in that country. But the amir, whose feelings of resentment
had by no means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though
he mainly desired to hold the balance between two equally
formidable rivals. The result of overtures made to him from
India was that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct
instructions from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere
Ali a treaty of alliance, Shere Ali showed himself very little
disposed to welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit
a British agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke
down.

Second Afghan War, 1878-80. — In the course of the following
year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the inter-
ference of England with their advance upon Constantinople,
sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the
amir. It was immediately notified to him from India that a
British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred
to receiving it; and when the British envoy was turned back

on the Afghan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the viceroy
in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began. Sir
Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by
the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance;
while another army passed through the Khyber Pass and took
up positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road'to
Kabul. Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched
up to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior
of Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal,
and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct
route to Kabul through the Logar valley. The amir Shere Ali
fled from his capital into the northern province, where he died
at Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879. In the course of the next
six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the
tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts
to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up;
but the sphere of British military operations was not materi-
ally extended. It was seen that the farther they advanced the
more difficult would become their eventual retirement; and the
problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who could and would
make terms with the British government.

In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had
announced to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the head-
quarters of the British army, that he had succeeded his father
at Kabul. The negotiations that followed ended in the con-
clusion of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Yakub
Khan was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghan-
istan were transferred to the British government; the amir
placed in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations,
receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; and
the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last con-
ceded. By this convention the complete success of the British
political and military operations seemed to have been attained;
for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance with, and
had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now made
an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had agreed
that a British envoy should reside permanently at his court.
Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and original object
of British policy, that proved speedily fatal to the whole settle-
ment. For in September the envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with
his staff and escort, was massacred at Kabul, and the entire
fabric of a friendly alliance went to pieces. A fresh expedition
was instantly despatched across the Shutargardan Pass under
Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated the Afghans at Charasia
near Kabul, and entered the city in October. Yakub Khan,
who had surrendered, was sent to India; and the British army
remained in military occupation of the district round Kabul
until in December (1879) its communications with India were
interrupted, and its position at the capital placed in serious
jeopardy, by a general rising of the tribes. After they had been
repulsed and put down, not without some hard fighting, Sir
Donald Stewart, who had not quitted Kandahar, brought a
force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming some resistance on
his way, and assumed the supreme command. Nevertheless
the political situation was still embarrassing, for as the whole
country beyond the range of British effective military control
was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw the troops before
a government could be reconstructed which could stand without
foreign support, and with which diplomatic relations of some
kind might be arranged. The general position and prospect
of political affairs in Afghanistan bore, indeed, an instructive
resemblance to the situation just forty years earlier, in 1840,
with the important differences that the Punjab and Sind had
since become British, and that communications between Kabul
and India were this time secure.

Reign of Abdur Rahman. — Abdur Rahman, the son of the
late amir Shere Ali's elder brother, had fought against Shere Ali
in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven
beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the
Russians. In March 1880 he came back across the river, and
began to establish himself in the northern province of Afghan-
istan. The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing of his

3i8

AFGHANISTAN

reappearance, instructed the political authorities at Kabul to
communicate with him. By skilful negotiations a meeting was
arranged, and after pressing in vain for a treaty he was induced
to assume charge of the country upon his recognition by the
British as amir, with the understanding that he should have no
relations with other foreign powers, and with a formal assurance
from the viceroy of protection from foreign aggression, so long
as he should unreservedly follow the advice of the British govern-
ment in regard to his external affairs. The province of Kandahar
was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere
Ali Khan, a member of the Barakzai family, was installed by
the British representative as its independent ruler.

For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive
settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained;
and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved. In July
1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman
as amir at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's
younger son, who had been holding Herat since his father's
death, had marched upon Kandahar, had utterly defeated at
Maiwand a British force that went out from Kandahar to oppose
him, and was besieging that city. Sir Frederick Roberts at
once set out from Kabul with 10,000 men to its relief, reached
Kandahar after a rapid march of 313 miles, attacked and routed
Ayub Khan's army on the ist of September, and restored British
authority in southern Afghanistan. As the British ministry
had resolved to evacuate Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan,
who saw that he could not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to
India, and the amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take posses-
sion of the province. But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile
retreated to Herat, heard that the British forces had retired,
early in 1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again
approached Kandahar. In June the fort of Girishk, on the
Helmund, was seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were
defeated some days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan
took possession of Kandahar at the end of July. The amir
Abdur Rahman, whose movements had hitherto been slow and
uncertain, now acted with vigour and decision. He marched
rapidly from Kabul at the head of a force, with which he en-
countered Ayub Khan under the walls of Kandahar, and routed
his army on 2 2nd September, taking all his guns and equipage.
Ayub Khan fled toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile
been occupied by one of the amir's generals he took refuge
in Persia. By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was
established.

In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a
joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the northern
boundary of Afghanistan. The work went on with much diffi-
culty and contention, until in March 1885, when the amir was
at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy of India, Lord
Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, a disputed place on
the boundary held by the Afghans, the Russians had attacked
and driven out with some loss the amir's troops. For the
moment the consequences seemed likely to be serious; but the
affair was arranged diplomatically, and the demarcation pro-
ceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, beyond which the
commission were unable to settle an agreement.

During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur
Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his
dominion over the whole country. Some local revolts among
the tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to
upset his rulership — the first by Ayub Khan, who entered
Afghanistan from Persia, the second and more dangerous one
by Ishak Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him
in Afghan Turkestan — were defeated. By 1891 the amir had
enforced his supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more
completely than any of his predecessors. In 1895 the amir's
troops entered Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the
north-east, inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto
defied all efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually
reduced to submission. Meanwhile the delimitation of the
northern frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory
on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between

the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern
border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped out
and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention between
the two governments. The amir not only received a large annual
subsidy of money from the British government, but he also
obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, moreover,
availed himself very freely of facilities that were given him for
the importation at his own cost of arms through India. With
these resources, and with the advantage of an assurance from
the British government that he would be aided against foreign
aggression, he was able to establish an absolute military despot-
ism inside his kingdom, by breaking down the power of the
warlike tribes which held in check, up to his time, the personal
autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and by organizing a regular army
well furnished with European rifles and artillery. Taxation of
all kinds was heavily increased, and systematically collected.
The result was that whereas in former times the forces of an
Afghan ruler consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs
of tribes who held land on condition of military service, and who
stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for money
payment, the amir had at his command a large standing army,
and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his treasury.
Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose political
influence he saw reason to fear, or of whose disaffection he had
the slightest suspicion; his administration was severe and his
punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he put down disorder,
stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs and brought violent
crime under some effective control in the districts. Travelling
by the high roads during his reign was comparatively safe;
although it must be added that the excessive exactions of dues
and customs very seriously damaged the external trade. In
short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important political
revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which rose from the
condition of a country distracted by chronic civil wars, under
rulers whose authority depended upon their power to hold down
or conciliate fierce and semi-independent tribes in the outlying
parts of the dominion, to the rank of a formidable military state
governed autocratically. He established, for the first time in
the history of the Afghan kingdom, a powerfully centralized
administration strong enough to maintain order and to enforce
obedience over all the country which he had united under his
dominion, supported by a force sufficiently armed and disciplined
to put down attempts at resistance or revolt. His policy, con-
sistently maintained, was to permit no kind of foreign inter-
ference, on any pretext, with the interior concerns or the econo-
mical conditions of his country. From the British government
he accepted supplies of arms and subsidies of money; but he
would make no concessions in return, and all projects of a
strategical or commercial nature, such as railways and telegraphs,
proposed either for the defence or the development of his posses-
sions, seem to have been regarded by the amir with extreme
distrust, as methods of what has been called pacific penetration
— so that on these points he was immovable. It was probably
due to the strength and solidity of the executive administration
organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for the
first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad Shah
in the latter part of the i8th century, his death was not followed
by disputes over the succession or by civil war.

Succession of Habibullah. — The amir Abdur Rahman died on
the ist of October 1901; and two days later his eldest son,
Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the rulership.
He was recognized with acclamation by the army, by the religious
bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and by all classes of the
people as their lawful sovereign; while a deputation of Indian
Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul from India to convey
the condolences and congratulations of the viceroy. The amir's
first measures were designed to enhance his popularity and to
improve his internal administration, particularly with regard to
the relations of his government with the tribes, and to the
system introduced by the late amir of compulsory military
service, whereby each tribe was required to supply a propor-
tionate number of recruits. With this object a council of state

AFGHAN TURKESTAN— AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR

for tribal affairs was established; and it was arranged that
a representative of each tribe should be associated with the
provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases.

In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah
showed a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to
whom the British government had given an assurance of aid to
repel foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should
follow the advice of that government in regard to external
affairs. This condition was loyally observed by the new amir,
who referred to India all communications of an official kind
received from the Russian authorities in the provinces bordering
on Afghanistan. But toward the various questions left pending
between the governments of India and Afghanistan the new amir
maintained also his father's attitude. He gave no indications of
a disposition to continue the discussion of them, or to entertain
proposals for extending or altering his relations with the Indian
government. An invitation from the viceroy to meet him in
India, with the hope that these points might be settled in
conference, was put aside by dilatory excuses, until at last the
project was abandoned, and finally the amir agreed to receive
at Kabul a diplomatic mission. The mission, whose chief was
Sir Louis Dane, foreign secretary to the Indian government,
reached Kabul early in December 1904, and remained there
four months in negotiation with the amir personally and with
his representatives. It was found impossible, after many inter-
views, to obtain from Habibullah his consent to any addition
to or variation of the terms of the assurance given by the British
government in 1880, with which he professed himself entirely
satisfied, so that the treaty finally settled in March 1905 went no
further than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously
concluded with the amir's predecessor. It was felt in British
circles at the time that a very considerable concession to Habi-
bullah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact that
he was styled in the treaty " His Majesty "; but, in the circum-
stances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to accede to
the amir's determination to insist on this matter of style. But
the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the interests both of
the British government and of Afghanistan that an opportunity
should be made for enabling the amir to have personal acquaint-
ance with the highest Indian authorities. A further step,
calculated to strengthen the relations of amity between the two
governments, was taken when it was arranged that the amir
should pay a visit to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in
January 1907; and this visit took place with great cordiality and
success.

The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed on the 3ist of August
1907, contained the following important declarations with regard
to Afghanistan. Great Britain disclaimed any intention of
altering the political status or (subject to the observance of the
treaty of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing
any territory of Afghanistan, and engaged to use her influence
there in no manner threatening to Russia. Russia, on her part,
recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence.

AUTHORITIES. — MacGregor, Gazetteer of Afghanistan (1871);
Elphinstone,/lccoMni of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809) ; Ferrier, History
of the Afghans (1858) ; Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879) ;
Baber's Memoirs (1844); Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan
(1878); Malleson, History of Afghanistan (1879); Heusman, The
Afghan War (1881) ; Sir H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ;
Forbes, The Afghan Wars (1892); Rawlinson, England and Russia
in the East (1875); Wyllie, Essays on the External Policy of India
(1875) ; A. C. Yate, England and Russia Face to Face in Asia (1887) ;
C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888); Curzon, Problems of the
Far East (1894); Robertson, The Kafir of the Hindu Kush (1896);
Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn, Asiatic Neighbours
(1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1898); Lady
Betty Balfour, Lord Lytton's Indian Administration (1899); Hanna,
Second Afghan War (1899); Gray, At the Court of the Amir (1895);
Sultan Mohammad Khan, Constitution and Laws of Afghanistan
(1900); Life of Abdur Rahman (1900); Angus Hamilton, Afghan-
istan (1906). (H. Y. ; A. C. L.)

AFGHAN TURKESTAN, the most northern province of
Afghanistan. It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N.
by the Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari
Rud river, and on the S. by the Hindu Kush, the Koh-i-Baba

and the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin. Its northern
frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873,
and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of
1885, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident. The whole
territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Oxus
on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, is
some 500 m. in length, with an average width from the Russian
frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m. It thus comprises about
57,000 sq. m. or roughly two-ninths of the kingdom of Afghan-
istan. Except in the river valleys it is a poor territory, rough
and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulat-
ing wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman desert, and
the Oxus riverain which is highly cultivated. The population,
which is mostly agricultural, settled in and around its towns
and villages, is estimated at 750,000. The province includes
the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh with Akcha; the
western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana,
sometimes classed together as the Chahar Villayet, or " Four
Domains "; and such parts of the Hazara tribes as lie north of
the Hindu Kush and its prolongation. The principal town is
Mazar-i-Sharif, which in modern times has supplanted the
ancient city of Balkh; and Takhtapul, near Mazar, is the chief
Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush.

Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more con-
nected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government
it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost Mahommed.
The bulk of the people of the cities are of Persian and Uzbeg
stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol Hazaras and
Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus plains. Over these
races the Afghans rule as conquerors and there is no bond of
racial unity between them. Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was
a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was
occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blood. About
250 B.C. Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the
Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the
history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to
Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. After this
came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic
sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The
district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and has never since
fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged
to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the
i8th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan
Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the
fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back
under the independent rule of various Uzbeg chiefs. At the
beginning of the igth Century they belonged to Bokhara; but
under the great amir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered
Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western
khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over
Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute
between Bokhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian
agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the
strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were
closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah
the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. H.*)

AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of
Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of
Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah.
Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000). Called
Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740,
its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It
stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above
it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of
which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation
on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia
on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c., on the other, the
city became, a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well
stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East.
Opium in large quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms
the staple article of its commerce ; and there are, besides,
manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium

320

A FORTIORI— AFRICA

contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building) ,
and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected
by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople.
See V. Cuinet, Turguie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv.

A FORTIORI (Lat. " from a stronger [reason] "), a term used
of an argument which justifies a statement not itself specifically
demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion which includes
it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and is known to be greater
than C, it follows a fortiori that C is less than B without further
proof. The argument is frequently based merely on a comparison
of probabilities (cf. Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal
to common sense.

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of
the Sertorian (70-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil Wars.
Of humble origin (Cic. ad Alt. i. 16. 20), from his early years
he was a devoted adherent of Pompey. In 60, chiefly by
Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in per-
forming the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity
to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor
of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on
the allotment of Spain to Pompey (ss), Afranius and Marcus
Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the
rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were compelled,
after a short campaign in which they were at first successful,
to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on
promising not to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless
of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the
battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's camp. On the
defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar,
went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of
Thapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of
cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus
Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose
veterans rose in tumult and put them to death.

See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius
xxxvii., xli.-xliii. ; Caesar, B.C. \. 37-87; Appian, B.C. ii.; for the
history of the period, articles on CAESAR and POMPEY.

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about
94 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from
Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed
freely from Menander and others. His style was vigorous and
correct; his moral tone that of the period.

Horace, Epp. ii. i. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. 3; Quintilian
x. I. 100 ; fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scaenicae
Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898).

AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of
the three great southward projections from the main mass of
the earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular
outline an area, according to the most recent computations, of
11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands.1 Separated from
Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its N.E.
extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide. From the most
northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape Blanc,
in 37° 21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas,
34° 51' 15" S., is a distance approximately of 5000 m.; from
Cape Verde, 17° 33' 22" W., the westernmost point, to Ras
Hafun, 51° 27' 52" E., the most easterly projection, is a dis-
tance (also approximately) of 4600 m. The length of coast-line is
16,100 m. and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is
shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 3,760,000
sq. m., has a coast-line of 19,800 m.

I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The main structural lines of the continent show both the
east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern
hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the
north- to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa
is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern
running from east to west, the southern from north to south,
the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two
directions.

L Main Orographical Features. — The mean elevation of the con-
'With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m.

tinent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly the
elevation of both North and South America, but is considerably
less than that of Asia (3117 ft.). In contrast with the other
continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of
very high and of very low ground, lands under 600 ft. occupying
an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the
highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America,
but the area of land over 10,000 ft. is also quite insignificant,
being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and
mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the
characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of
these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are
these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg-
landschaft] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind
of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of
wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to
the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude
towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the low-
lands and the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into
two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line
(somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle
of the Red Sea to about 6° S. on the west coast. We thus obtain
the following four main divisions of the continent:— (i) The
coast plains — often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps —
never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses
of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta
of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands
merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which
constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (2) The Atlas
range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the
continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground,
and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a
depressed and desert area (the Sahara), in places below sea-level.
(3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below
2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 3500 ft. (4) The
north and west African plains, bordered and traversed by bands
of higher ground, but generally below 2000 ft. This division
includes the great desert of the Sahara.

The third and fourth divisions may be again subdivided.
Thus the high plateaus include: — (a) The South African plateau
as far as about 12° S., bounded east, west and south by bands
of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account
South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer.
Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with
level ground between them. The largest of these level areas,
the Great Karroo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of
the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known
as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected
towards the north-east with (6) the East African plateau, with
probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by
some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the
eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into
a number of zones running north and south and consisting in
turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking
feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due
largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust,
the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards
the south the two lines converge and give place to one great
valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which
is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of
the system. Farther north the western depression, sometimes
known as the Central African trough or Albertine rift-valley,
is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the
four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert Edward and Albert,
the first-named over 400 m. long and the longest freshwater
lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a
number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a
meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern
depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley,
contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without
outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough
being Lake Rudolf or Basso Norok. At no great distance east

J& ^ Ir\ ji 'v JrX

Scale 1:32,000,000

Political Colouring :

British m^Bi French

German ••• Portuguese

Spanish i i Italian

Belgian i • i TurMsl

^ forts. ~neils, .-.Rums, i,.- Deserts,
^ Wadis fdry watercourses} . -*— Canals.
— — Main Caravan routes. ^-*-^-»- Cataracts , falls
CAPF. T 0 V.X , Bingcrville • - Colonial Capitals. O, - Oasix i>f
Sea. wider 55O fathom s deep, tinted Tight :
aver 550 fathojns, dark..

AFRICA

as known in 1850.

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by The Encyclopaedia Britauniua Co.

GEOGRAPHY]

AFRICA

321

of this rift-valley are Kilimanjaro — with its two peaks Kibo
and Mawenzi, the former 19,321 ft., and the culminating point
of the whole continent — and Kenya (17,007 ft.). Hardly less
important is the Ruwenzori range (over 16,600 ft.), which lies
east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the
floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group,
north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active, (c) The third
division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abys-
sinian highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the
largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent,
little of its surface falling below 5000 ft., while the summits
reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft. This block of country
lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, the
northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarp-
ment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in
the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana.

Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering
highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast,
the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards along
the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height
of 7000 ft. In the west the zone of high land is broader but
somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland
from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, &c.), where
heights of 6000 to 8000 ft. are reached. Exactly at the head of
the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic
action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height
of 13,370 ft., while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first
of the line of islands, rises to over 9000. Towards the extreme
west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging
point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the
elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.

The area between the east and west coast highlands, which
th of 17° N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins
iy other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally
through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the
curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of
the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area
bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.
The arid region, the Sahara — the largest desert in the world,
covering 3,500,000 sq. m. — extends from the Atlantic to the
Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains
mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft. Bordered N.W.
by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it
from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme
east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the
desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the
north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and
landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m.
broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis

:e a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that
desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels.

The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the

ief mountains and lakes of the continent: —

Mountains. Ft. Lakes.

Rungwe (Nyasa) . 10,400 Chad

Drakensberg

Lereko or Sattima
(Aberdare Range)

Cameroon

Elgon

Karissimbi (Mfum-
biro) .

Meru

Tagharat (Atlas) .

Simen Mountains,
Abyssinia

Ruwenzori

Kenya

Kilimanjaro .

13.370
14,152"

I4.6832
I4,9552
I5,oool

11,700' Leopold II
I3.2I42 Rudolf

Nyasa

Albert Nyanza

Tanganyika

Ngami

Mweru

Albert Edward

Bangweulu.
I5.I6O1 Victoria Nyanza

Abai

i6,6i92 Kivu
17,007* Tsana
19,321* Naivasha

The Hydrographic Systems. — From the outer margin of the

rican plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with

omparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long

1 Estimated.

2 See the calculations of Capt. T. T. Behrens, Geoe. Journal, vol

(1907).
I. ii

Ft.
8501

IIOO

1250

I6452
2028'
2624*
2950
3000

3700
3720*
4200
4829*
5690

distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the
outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north
and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. The high
lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the Nile
and Congo: the former the longest, the latter the largest river
of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies
from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African
trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams
pour east to the Victoria Nyanza, the largest African lake
(covering over 26,000 sq. m.), and west and north to the Albert
Edward and Albert Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents
of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile
flows north, and between 7° and 10° N. traverses a vast marshy
level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating
vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west
and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian
highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood- water), it
crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a
vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the
Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake Bang-
weulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper
course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards
turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad
basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic
northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many
great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to
the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of
the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation
of the surface is the basin of Lake Chad — a flat-shored, shallow
lake filled principally by the Shari coming from the south-east.
West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third river of Africa,
which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source
in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by
the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however — the
Benue — comes from the south-east. These four river-basins
occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and
West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered
only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of
the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the Orange, in the
extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on
the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza,
Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coast highlands of the
southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and
Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal
for over 1000 m. of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic.
Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses,
which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas
mountains.

Of the rive'rs flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining
any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose
western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main
stream has its rise in 11° 21' 3" S. 24° 22' E. at an elevation of
5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance
before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including
the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern
slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the
continent in 10° to 12° S. In the south-west the Zambezi
system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from
which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water
of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is
lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred
in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south the Limpopo
drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the
bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its
source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli
principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands,
the last named losing itself in the sands in dose proximity to
the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the
Abyssinian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the
Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the
centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the

322

AFRICA

[GEOGRAPHY

lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the Omo,
which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries
down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of
Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths
or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when
these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a
network of navigable waters of vast extent.

The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems,
made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897,
pp. 184-186) gives the following general results: —

Basin of the Atlantic .... 4,070,000 sq. m.
„ „ Mediterranean . . . 1,680,000 „
„ „ Indian Ocean . . . 2,086,000 „

Inland drainage area 3,452,000 ,,

The areas of individual river-basins are: —

Congo (length over 3000 m.) . . 1,425,000 sq. m.
Nile ( „ fully 4000 m.) . . i,o82,oool „

Niger ( „ about 2600 m.) . . 8o8,ooo2 „
Zambezi ( „ „ 2000 m.) , . 513,5°° .»

Lake Chad 394.ooo „

Orange (length about 1300 m.) . . 370,500" „
,, (actual drainage area) . . 172,500 ,,

The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other
river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage
area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the
corresponding area is 4,900,000 sq. m.

The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the
description of the East African plateau, but some of the pheno-
mena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly
here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great
rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case
with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the
latter of which has depths of 430 fathoms. Others, however,
are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in
the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression
north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the
eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate
depth, the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under
50 fathoms. Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most
of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive
desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, tending to
the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a drying up has
been in progress during long geologic ages, but doubt exists as
to its practical importance at the present time. The periodic
fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such that its
outflow is intermittent. Besides the East African lakes the
principal are: — Lake Chad, in the northern area of inland
drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream
of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba),
within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru,
are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The
altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated.

Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin
of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some
geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea,
dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was
under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated
in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based
on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine
type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c.,
and were at first considered to form an isolated group found
in no other of the African lakes; but this supposition has been
proved to be erroneous.

Islands. — With one exception — Madagascar — the African
islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m.,
is, after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the world.
It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is
separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. wide at its
narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora
and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern
Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius
and Reunion. Sokotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the

1 The estimate of Capt. H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. m.

2 Including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin.

north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes,
which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of
volcanic origin.

Climate and Health. — Lying almost entirely within the tropics,
and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not
show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is ex-
perienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa,
removed by the great width of the continent from the influence
of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night,
and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the
air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature
in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther
south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture
brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large
part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of
temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea
coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm
temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter
and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the
continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the
surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic
differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The
wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the
corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an ex-
ceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from
the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the
outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the
heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the
scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise
tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of
summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is
vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the
equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction
of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat
deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern
conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and
those of the south northwards along the west. Within the
equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the
Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified
rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of
the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coast-
land west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual
rainfall of about 390 in. as compared with a mean of 458 in.
at Cherrapunji, in Assam. The two distinct rainy seasons of
the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly
intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction
of the tropics, where the suii is overhead but once. Snow falls
on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate
is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are
much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand,
blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as
the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called
on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably
hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold
is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from
the Kalahari in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons
of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the south-east
hurricanes are occasionally experienced.

While the climate of the north and south, especially the south,
is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara is
salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a whole
is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion of the world.
This is especially the case in the lower and moister regions, such
as the west coast, where malarial fever is very prevalent and
deadly; the most unfavourable factors being humidity with
absence of climatic variation (daily or seasonal). The higher
plateaus, where not only is the average temperature lower, but
such variations are more extensive, are more healthy; and in
certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia and parts of British East Africa)
Europeans find the climate suitable for permanent residence.
On tablelands over 6500 ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon
at night, even in places directly under the equator.

FLORA AND FAUNA]

AFRICA

323

acclimatization of white men in tropical Africa generally is
dependent largely on the successful treatment of tropical diseases.
Districts which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans
were rendered comparatively healthy after the discovery, in
1899, of the species of mosquito which propagates malarial
fever, and the measures thereafter taken for its destruction and
the filling up of swamps. The rate of mortality among the
natives from tropical diseases is also high, one of the most fatal
being that known as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this
disease, which also attacks Europeans, reached alarming pro-
portions between 1893 and 1907, and in the last-named year
an international conference was held in London to consider
measures to combat it.) When removed to colder regions natives
of the equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints.
Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population.
Flora. — The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the dis-
tribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern
temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent
generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Medi-
terranean are groves of oranges and olive trees, evergreen oaks,
cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus
and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas range the conditions
alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora,
consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Charac-
teristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, which flourishes where
other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the
semi-desert regions the acacia (whence is obtained gum-arabic)
is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation
— dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of
temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts,
and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension
towards the upper Nile ; and savanna interspersed with trees on
the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are
approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias,
&c. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges
up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree
is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp
character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition
to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two palms, the Elaeis
guincensis (oil-palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo-palm), not
found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. The bombax
or silk-cotton tree attains gigantic proportions in the forests,
which are the home of the indiarubber-producing plants and of
many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora
excelsa), ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) , African teak or
oak (Oldfieldia af rica.no) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The
climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant
and the undergrowth or " bush " is extremely dense. In the
savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree
or baobab (Adansonia digitala), doom palm (Hyphaene) and
euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely
separated places as Liberia and southern Abyssinia. The higher
mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over
wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain
flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo-
China (cf. A. Engler, fiber die Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen

rfrika, 1892).
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa the papyrus and
associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in
immense quantities — and little else is found in the way of
vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in
the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears,
and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted
species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succu-
lent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable
timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus elongatus),
stink wood (Ocolea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile)
and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found
in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater
part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very
prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the
plateaus of the Atlas range.

Fauna. — The fauna again shows the effect of the character-
istics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of
large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to
Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of rhinoceros;
and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyaena, &c. The
okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense
forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas
region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though
its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters)
is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being
otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the
chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few excep-
tions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel — as a
domestic animal — is especially characteristic of the northern
deserts and steppes.

The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and
crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The. vast
herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa,
have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the
interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in
South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somali-
land, &c., while measures for the protection of wild animals
were laid down in an international convention signed in May
1900.

The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance
to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which
does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the
ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed,
but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The
secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and
their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as
are, among game-birds, the francolin and guinea-fowl. Many of
the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, the parrots
and halcyons, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted
for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and
chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous
serpents, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical
countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has
many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the pro-
verbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites
or white ants are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by
means of mosquitoes has already been mentioned. The tsetse fly,
whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many
districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found
nowhere outside Africa. (E. HE.; F. R. C.)

II. GEOLOGY

In shape and general geological structure Africa bears a close
resemblance to India. Both possess a meridional extension with
a broad east and west folded region in the north. In both a
successive series of continental deposits, ranging from the Car-
boniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an older base of crystalline
rocks. In the words of Professor Suess, " India and Africa are
true plateau countries."

Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain. Both on
the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends parallel
with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated plateau of
the interior. Occasionally the crystalline belt comes to the coast,
but it is usually reached by two steps known as the coastal belt
and foot-plateau. On the flanks of the primitive western axis
certain ancient sedimentary strata are thrown into folds which
were completed before the commencement of the mesozoic period.
In the south, the later palaeozoic rocks are also thrown into acute
folds by a movement acting from the south, and which ceased
towards the close of the mesozoic period. In northern Africa the
folded region of the Atlas belongs to the comparatively recent
date of the Alpine system. None of these earth movements
affected the interior, for here the continental mesozoic deposits
rest, undisturbed by folding, on the primary sedimentary and
crystalline rocks. The crystalline massif, therefore, presents a
solid block which has remained elevated since early palaeozoic

I

324

AFRICA

[GEOLOGY

times, and against which earth waves of several geological periods
have broken.

The formations older than the mesozoic are remarkably un-
fossiliferous, so that the determination of their age is frequently
a matter of speculation, and in the following table the European
equivalents of the pre- Karroo formations in many regions must
be regarded as subject to considerable revision.

Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in
West and East Africa and across the Sahara. Along the coastal
margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the
deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them bare.
The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and schists. In the
central regions the predominant strike of the foliae is north and
south. The rocks, for convenience classed as pre-Cambrian,
occur as several unconformable groups, chiefly developed in
the south where alone their stratigraphy has been determined.
They are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of undoubted
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa they may be
regarded as of older date than any of these formations. The

Scale. 1 185,000.000

English Miles
> 500

Recent depot/ft
(Slot* * Sard Ontrtt)

Cretaceous & Tertiary
Congo Sandstones (A)
Karroo & Jurassic (B)

Palaeozoic

Pre-Pataeoioic

Uurtenburg. 4 Suiazi Schilts. Komi BftJS

Katanga. Karayu* $*nl<oli Schists)

Cnsist. granite, Scnistl
Igneous

general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks is of interest, as
these are always present in the ancient pressure-altered sedi-
mentary formations of America and Europe. Some unfossili-
ferous conglomerates, sandstones and dolomites in South Africa
and on the west coast are considered to belong to the Cambrian,
Ordovician and Silurian formations, but merely from their
occurrence beneath strata yielding Devonian fossils. In Cape
Colony the Silurian age of the Table Mountain Sandstone is
based on such evidence.

The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well repre-
sented in the north and south and in northern Angola.

Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions
of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but
the absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central
Africa points to there being land in this direction. In late Car-
boniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to
form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land. In each
country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both
the same specialized orders of reptiles roamedandwere entombed.

The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land was
occupied by several large lakes in which an immense thickness —
amounting to over 18,000 ft. in South Africa — of sandstones
and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid down. This is

par excellence the African formation, and covers immense areas
in South Africa and the Congo basin, with detached portions in
East Africa. During the whole of the time — Carboniferous to
Rhaetic — that this great accumulation of freshwater beds was
taking place, the interior of the continent must have been
undergoing depression. The commencement of the period was
marked by one of the most wonderful episodes in the geological
history of Africa. Preserved in the formation known as the
Dwyka Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the
greater portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glacia-
tion, while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India

TABLE OF FORMATIONS

Recent.

Pleistocene.

Pliocene.
Miocene.
Oligocene.

Eocene.
Cretaceous.

(Jurassic.

Trias.

.Permian.
Carboniferous.

Devonian.
Silurian.
Ordovician.
Cambrian.

Pre-Cambrian.
Archean.

Sedimentary.

Alluvium ; travertine ;
coral; sand dunes; con-
tinental dunes. Gener-
ally distributed.

Ancient alluviums and
gravels ; travertine.
Generally distributed.

N. Africa; Madagascar.

N. Africa.
N. Africa.

N. Africa, along east and
west coasts; Madagas-
car.

Extensively developed in
N. Africa; along coast
and foot-plateaus in east
and west ; Madagascar.

N. Africa; E. Africa;

Madagascar; Stormberg

period (Rhaetic) in S.

Africa.
Beaufort Series in S.

Africa ; Congo basin ;

Central Africa; Algeria;

Tunis.
Ecca Series in S. Africa.

Igneous.

I Some volcanic islands;
rift- valley volcanoes.

A long-continued suc-
cession in the cen-
tral and northern
regions and among
the island groups.
Doubtfully repre-
sented south of the
Zambezi.

Diamond pipes of S.
Africa ; Kaptian
fissure eruptions;
Ashangi traps of
Abyssinia.

^Chief volcanic period
in S. Africa.

Feebly, if anywhere
- developed.

N. Africa; Sabaki Shales

in E. Africa; Dwyka

and Witteberg Series in

S. Africa.
N. Africa; Angola; Bokke-'i M .

veld Series [n S. Africa, f Not recorded
Table Mountain Sandstone

in S. Africa, Silurian(P).

Doubtfully represented

in N. Africa, French

Congo, Angola, and by

Vaal River and Water-
berg Series in S. Africa.
Quartzites, conglomerates,

phyllites, jasper-bearing

rocks and schists. Gener-
ally distributed.
Gneisses and schists of the

continental platform.

Klipriversberg an
Ventersdorp Series
of the Transvaal (?).

•S. Africa and gener-
ally.

Igneous complex of
sheared igneous
rocks; granites.

and Australia. At the close of the Karroo period there was
a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which again
has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India.

How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present
confines has not been determined. To the east it reached India.
In the south all that can be said is that it extended to the south
of Worcester in Cape Colony. The Crystal Mountains of Angola
may represent its western boundary; while the absence of
mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks of the mid-Sahara
indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland had here reached
its most northerly extension. Towards the close of the Karroo
period, possibly about the middle, the southern rim of the great
central depression became ridged up to form the folded regions
of the Zwaarteberg, Cedarberg and Langeberg mountains in
Cape Colony. This folded belt gives Africa its abrupt southern

ETHNOLOGY]

AFRICA

325

termination, and may be regarded as an embryonic indication of
its present outline. The exact date of the maximum develop-
ment of this folding is unknown, but it had done its work and
some 10,000 ft. of strata had been removed before the com-
mencement of the Cretaceous period. It appears to approximate
in time to the similar earth movement and denudation at the
close of the palaeozoic period in Europe. It was doubtless
connected with the disruption of Gondwana Land, since it is
known that this great alteration of geographical outline com-
menced in Jurassic times.

The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered
to have been caused by a series of blocks of country being let
down by faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian
Ocean. Other blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the
island of Madagascar affording a striking example. In the
African portion Ruwenzori is regarded by some geologists to be
a block mountain or horst.

In Jurassic times the sea gained access to East Africa north
of Mozambique, but does not appear to have reached far beyond
he foot-plateau except in Abyssinia.

The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central
Saharan regions, for fossils of this age have been discovered in
the interior. On the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend con-
tinuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco. From here they are
absent up to the Gabun river, where they commence to form a
narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain
by recent deposits. They are again absent up to the Sunday river
in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long con-
sidered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met
with. Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and
Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show
an intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having Euro-
pean affinities. In Mozambique and in German East Africa,
Cretaceous rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of
iver 100 m.

Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only occur
a few isolated patches on the east and west coasts. In northern
rica they are well developed and of much interest. They
intain the well-known nummulitic limestone of Eocene age,
hich has been traced from Egypt across Asia to China. The
pper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded primeval types
if the Proboscidea and other mammalia. Evidences for the
greater extension of the Eocene seas than was formerly con-
sidered to be the case have been discovered around Sokoto.
During Miocene times Passarge considers that the region of the
mbezi underwent extreme desiccation.

The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern
frica by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider exten-
on of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, and
the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara.
The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be
found in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape
peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses
and schists of Central Africa. The Ventersdorp boulder beds
the Transvaal may be of early palaeozoic age; but as a whole
e palaeozoic period in Africa was remarkably free from volcanic
igneous disturbances. The close of the Stormberg period
haetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South Africa,
ilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations were being
laid down in North Africa and around the margins of the rest
the continent, Africa received its last great accumulation of
ta and at the same time underwent a consecutive series of
rth-movements. The additional strata consist of the immense
lantities of volcanic material on the plateau of East Africa,
e basalt flows of West Africa and possibly those of the Zambezi
in. The exact period of the commencement of volcanic
tivity is unknown. In Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are cer-
inly post-Oolitic. In East Africa the fissure eruptions are con-
idered to belong to the Cretaceous. These early eruptions were
illowed by those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani,
id these by the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and
16 Kyulu Mountains. The last phase of vulcanicity took

place along the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though
feebly manifested has not entirely passed away. In northern
Africa a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place
from Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is
doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous.

During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements
were in progress. In the north the chief movements gave rise
to the system of latitudinal folding and faulting of the Moroccan
and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented by the
formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline and the
sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar.
Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East African
plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal rifts extending
from Nyasaland to Egypt. The depressed areas contain the
long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East Africa. The
Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough.

Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal
regions, the Barbary coast and along the east coast. (W. G.*)

III. ETHNOLOGY

In attempting a review of the races and tribes which inhabit
Africa, their distribution, movements and culture, it is advisable
that three points be borne in mind. The first of these is the
comparative absence of natural barriers in the interior, owing to
which intercommunication between tribes, the dissemination of
culture and tribal migration have been considerably facilitated.
Hence the student must be prepared to find that, for the most
part, there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the
various races composing the population, but that the number of
what may be termed " transitional " peoples is unusually large.
The second point is that Africa, with the exception of the lower
Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa (see AFRICA,
ROMAN), is, so far as its native inhabitants are concerned, a
continent practically without a history, and possessing no records
from which such a history might be reconstructed. The early
movements of tribes, the routes by which they reached their
present abodes, and the origin of such forms of culture as may be
distinguished in the general mass of customs, beliefs, &c., are
largely matters of conjecture. The negro is essentially the child
of the moment; and his memory, both tribal and individual, is
very short. The third point is that many theories which have
been formulated with respect to such matters are unsatisfactory
owing to the small amount of information concerning many of
the tribes in the interior.

Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various
parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of India
introduced by them (see section History below), the
population of Africa consists of the following elements: AMcaa
— the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, races.
the Libyan and the Semite, from the intermingling
of which in various proportions a vast number of " transi-
tional " tribes has arisen. The Bushmen (?.».), a race
of short yellowish-brown nomad hunters, inhabited, in the
earliest times of which there is historic knowledge, the land
adjoining the southern and eastern borders of the Kalahari
desert, into which they were gradually being forced by the
encroachment of the Hottentots and Bantu tribes. But signs of
their former presence are not wanting as far north as Lake
Tanganyika, and even, it is rumoured, still farther north. With
them may be classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral
people of medium stature and yellowish-brown complexion, who
in early times shared with the Bushmen the whole of what is now
Cape Colony. Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have
been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is that
they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic
elements. Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern fringe
of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to the Cape, with
the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and Somali-lands, is peopled
by Negroes and the " transitional " tribes to which their ad-
mixture with Libyans on the north, and Semites (Arabs) and
Hamites on the north-east and east, has given rise. A slight
qualification of the last statement is necessary, in so far as, among

326

AFRICA

[ETHNOLOGY

the Fula in the western Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, &c., of the
Victoria Nyanza, Libyan and Hamitic elements are respectively
stronger than the Negroid. Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is
inhabited mainly by Semito-Hamites (though a fairly strong
negroid element can be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by
Hamites. North of the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the
Libyans (Berbers, <?.».), a distinctively white people, who have in
certain respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence. In
the north-east the brown-skinned Karaite and the Semite mingle
in varied proportions. The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the
vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by
Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to
the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from the
Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the
bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to
Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the coast.
North of this line are the Negroes proper, south are the Bantu.
The division is primarily philological. Among the true Negroes
the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for instance, in certain
parts of Nigeria it is possible to find half-a-dozen villages within
a comparatively small area speaking, not different dialects, but
different languages, a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of
political administration. To the south of the line the condition
of affairs is entirely different; here the entire population speaks
one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v.). As said
before, the division is primarily linguistic and, especially upon the
border line, does not always correspond with the variations of
physical type. At the same time it is extremely convenient
and to a certain extent justifiable on physical and psycho-
logical grounds; and it may be said roughly that while the
linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is accompanied by great
variation of physical type, the converse is in the main true of the
Negro proper, especially where least affected by Libyan and
Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea coast. The variation of
type among the Bantu is due probably to a varying admixture of
alien blood, which is more apparent as the east coast is approached.
This foreign element cannot be identified with certainty, but
since the Bantu seem to approach the Hamites in those points
where they differ from the Negro proper, and since the physical
characteristics of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems
probable that the last two races have entered into the composi-
tion of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic
influence should have permeated any distance from the east coast.
An extremely interesting section of the population not hitherto
mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes inhabiting the
densely forested regions along the equator from Uganda to the
Gabun and living the life of nomadic hunters. The affinities of
this little people are undecided, owing to the small amount of
knowledge concerning them. The theories which connected them
with the Bushmen do not seem to be correct. It is more probable
that they are to be classed among the Negroids, with whom they
appear to have intermingled to a certain extent in the upper basin
of the Ituri, and perhaps elsewhere. As far as is known they
speak no language peculiar to themselves but adopt that of the
nearest agricultural tribe. They are of a dark brown complexion,
with very broad noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but
usually sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated
owing to insufficiency of food. Another peculiar tribe, also of
short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region of the north
Transvaal. Practically nothing is known of them except that
they are said to be very dark in colour and live in holes in the
ground, and under rock shelters.

Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees
of purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed,

it remains to consider them in greater detail, particu-
ethttoiogi- larlv from the cultural standpoint. This is hardly
cat zone*, possible without drawing attention to the main physical

characters of the continent, as far as they affect
the inhabitants. For ethnological purposes three principal zones
may be distinguished; the first two are respectively a
large region of steppes and desert in the north, and a smaller
region of steppes and desert in the south. These two zones are

connected by a vertical strip of grassy highland lying mainly
to the east of the chain of great lakes. The third zone is a vast
region of forest and rivers in the west centre, comprising the
greater part of the basin of the Congo and the Guinea coast.
The rainfall, which also has an important bearing upor the
culture of peoples, will be found on the whole to be greatest in
the third zone and also in the eastern highlands, and of course
least in the desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway
between the two. As might be expected these variations are
accompanied by certain variations in culture. In the best-
watered districts agriculture is naturally of the greatest import-
ance, except where the density of the forest renders the work
of clearing too arduous. The main portion therefore of the
inhabitants of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the
nomad Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest
and support themselves by hunting the game, with which it
abounds. Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands,
and throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna
region of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter.
In fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the
Ova-Herero of German South- West Africa, whose purely pastoral
habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they in-
habit. But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding the
forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, and there are
few tribes who do not take advantage of the fact. At the same
time a natural check is imposed upon the desire for cattle,
which is so characteristic of the Bantu peoples. This is con-
stituted by the tsetse fly, which renders a pastoral life absolutely
impossible throughout large tracts in central and southern
Africa. In the northern zone this check is absent, and the
number of more essentially pastoral peoples, such as the eastern
Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, &c., correspondingly greater.
The desert regions yield support only to nomadic peoples, such
as the Tuareg, Tibbu, Bedouins and Bushmen, though the
presence of numerous oases in the north renders the condition
of life easier for the inhabitants. Upon geographical conditions
likewise depend to a large extent the political conditions pre-
vailing among the various tribes. Thus among the wandering
tribes of the desert and of the heart of the forests, where large
communities are impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with
the family as the unit. Where the forest is less dense and small
agricultural communities begin to make their appearance, the
unit expands to the village with its headman. Where the forest
thins to the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier,
are found the larger kingdoms and " empires " such as, in the
north those established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi,
Ba-Hima, &c., and in the south the states of Lunda, Kazembe,
the Ba-Rotse, &c.

But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of
large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies
it, it is, nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture which, at
first, it fostered, in so far as the absence of natural boundaries
renders invasion easy. A good example of this is furnished by
the history of the western Sudan and particularly of East and
South-East Africa. From its geographical position Africa looks
naturally to the east, and it is on this side that it has been most
affected by external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic
peninsula) and by sea. Though a certain amount of Indonesian
and even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African
ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious
ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the
Arabs. This is particularly the case in East Africa, where the
systematic slave raids organized by them and carried out with
the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced vast regions
to a state of desolation. In the north and west of Africa, how-
ever, the Arab has had a less destructive but more extensive
and permanent influence in spreading the Mahommedan religion
throughout the whole of the Sudan.

The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer
natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed
to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture most
characteristically African must be sought on the other side.

ETHNOLOGY]

AFRICA

327

It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among the lagoons
and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this earlier culture will
The char- most probably be found. That there is a culture
acteristic distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic
African ]jne dividing the Bantu from the Negro proper, has
now been recognized. Its main features may be
summed as follows: — a purely agricultural life, with the plan-
tain, yam and manioc (the last two of American origin) as the
staple food; cannibalism common; rectangular houses with
ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; clothing of bark-cloth or palm-fibre;
occasional chipping or extraction of upper incisors; bows with
strings of cane, as the principal weapons, shields of wood or
wickerwork; religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the
belief that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies,
the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden
gongs. With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu
peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in addition,
where possible, great cattle-breeders, whose staple food is millet
and milk. These are distinguished by circular huts with domed
or conical roofs; clothing of skin or leather; occasional chipping
or extraction of lower incisors; spears as- the principal weapons,
bows, where found, with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather;
religion, ancestor-worship with belief in the power of the
magicians as rain-makers. Though this difference in culture
may well be explained on the supposition that the first is the
older and more representative of Africa, this theory must not
be pushed too far. Many of the distinguishing characteristics
of the two regions are doubtless due simply to environment,
even the difference in religion. Ancestor-worship occurs most
naturally among a people where tribal organization has reached
a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural outcome of patriotic
reverence for a successful chief and his councillors. Rain-making,
too, is of little importance in a well-watered region, but a matter
of vital interest to an agricultural people where the rainfall
is slight and irregular.

Within the eastern and southern Bantu area certain cultural
variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu-
Xosa and Herero, giving place among the Bechuana to the
cylindrical variety with conical roof, a type which, with few
exceptions, extends north to Abyssinia. The tanged spear-
head characteristic of the south is replaced by the socketed
variety towards the north. Circumcision, characteristic of the
Zulu-Xosa and Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther
north; tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, is absent among the
more southern tribes. The lip-plug is found in the eastern area,
especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the south. The
head-rest common in the south-east and the southern fringe of
the forest area is not found far north of Tanganyika until the
Horn of Africa is reached.

In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro
proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of culture
outweigh the differences. Here the cylindrical type of hut
prevails; clothing is of skin or leather but is very scanty; iron
ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not feathered;
shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are found and also
fighting bracelets. Certain small differences appear between
the eastern and western portions, the dividing line being formed
by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland. Characteristic
of the east are the harp and the throwing-club and throwing-
knife, the last of which has penetrated into the forest area.
Typical of the west are the bow and the dagger with the ring
hilt. The tribes of the upper Nile are somewhat specialized,
though here, too, are found the cylindrical hut, iron ornaments,
fighting bracelets, &c., characteristic of the Sudanese tribes.
Here the removal of the lower incisors is common, and circum-

I cision entirely absent.

Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Semitic culture

• introduced by the Arabized Libyan. Circumcision, as is usual
among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation
absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has pene-
trated to the northern portion of the forest area. The culture
prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly Hamito-

Semitic; here are found both cylindrical and bee-hive huts,
the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the south),
the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic tribes)
and the head-rest. Circumcision is practically universal.

As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back
but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower Nile
valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records
exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very recent
events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch the main
outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless,
owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone imple-
ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically
in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the Zambezi, in Cape Colony
and the northern portions of the Congo Free State, as well as
in Algeria and Tunisia; but the localities are far too few and
too widely separated to warrant the inference that they are to
be in any way connected. Moreover, where stone implements
are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually on, the
surface of the earth; nothing occurs resembling the regular
stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based
on geological grounds is possible.

The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint
implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes,
not only on the surface of the ground, which for several thousand
years has been desert owing to the contraction of the river-bed,
but also in stratified gravel of an older date. References to a
number of papers bearing on the discussion to which theii
discovery has given rise may be found in an article by Mr H. R.
Hall in Man, 1905, No. 19. The Egyptian and also the Somali-
land finds appear to be true palaeoliths in type and remarkably
similar to those found in Europe. But evidence bearing on the
Stone age in Africa, if the latter existed apart from the localities
mentioned, is so slight that little can be said save that from the
available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone can
with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote period of
antiquity, and that the chips scattered over Mashonaland and
the regions occupied within historic times by Bushmen are
the most recent; since it has been shown that the stone flakes
were used by the medieval Makalanga to engrave their hard
pottery and the Bushmen were still using stone implements in
the igth century. Other early remains, but of equally uncertain
date, are the stone circles of Algeria, the Cross river and the
Gambia. The large system of ruined forts and " cities " in
Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, concerning which so
many ingenious theories have been woven, have been proved to
date from medieval times.

Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age, divided into periods
according to various types of implement disposed in geological
strata, and followed in orderly succession by the ages origin ana
of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true spread of
Stone age and practically no Bronze at all. The reason the racial
is not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is *
found distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so
rich that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble
and by the simplest methods. Iron has been worked from
time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes
are found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging
of the metal. Under such conditions, questions relating to the
origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the population
of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; at best only a
certain amount of probability can be attained.

Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman,
Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related
through some common ancestor. Of these the honour of being
considered the most truly African belongs to the two first. It
is true that people of Negroid type are found elsewhere, princi-
pally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion with the
African Negro is little more than theoretical, and for the present
purposes it need not be considered.

The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be
conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion of
the continent. The original home of the Negro, at first an

328

AFRICA

[ETHNOLOGY

agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood
of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe of the
Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands southward.
Northerly expansion was prevented by the early occupation
of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the Mediterranean,
but there seems no doubt that the population of ancient Egypt
contained a distinct Negroid element. The question as to the
ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians is still unsolved;
but they may be regarded as, in the main, Hamitic, though it is
a question how far it is just to apply a name which implies a
definite specialization in what may be comparatively modern
times to a people of such antiquity.

The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from
which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have
applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of expan-
sion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the latter. These
emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic pastoral culture,
and with a strain of Hamitic blood in their veins, passed rapidly
down the open tract in the east, doubtless exterminating their
predecessors, except such few as took refuge in the mountains
and swamps. The advance-guard of this wave of pastoral
Negroids, in fact primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen
and produced the Hottentots. The penetration of the forest
area must certainly have taken longer and was probably accom-
plished as much from the south-east, up the Zambezi valley,
as from any other quarter. It was a more peaceful process,
since natural obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of
large bodies of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent
the spread of language and culture. A modern parallel to the
spread of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language,
which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the western
and central Sudan. Thus those qualities, physical and otherwise,
in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually fade as we
proceed westward through the Congo basin, while in the east,
among the tribes to the west of Tanganyika and on the upper
Zambezi, " transitional " forms of culture are found. In later
times this gradual pressure from the south-east became greater,
and resulted, at a comparatively recent date, in the irruption of
the Fang into the Gabun.

The earlier stages of the southern movement must have been
accompanied by a similar movement westward between the
Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same time, or even
earlier, the Libyans crossing the desert had begun to press upon
the primitive Negroes from the north. In this way were produced
the Fula, who mingled further with the Negro to give birth to
the Mandingo, Wolof and Tukulor. It would appear that either
Libyan (Fula) or, less probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the
composition of the Zandeh peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed.
These Libyans or Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his " Mediter-
ranean Race," were active on the north coast of Africa in very
early times, and had relations with the Egyptians from a pre-
historic period. For long these movements continued, always
in the same direction, from north to south and from east to
west; though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the
open country, especially in the great eastern highway from
north to south, than in the forest area. Large states arose in
the western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the yth century A.D.,
Melle in the nth, Songhai in the i4th, and Bornu in the i6th.

Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the
Bechuana, which was probably .spread over a considerable
period. Later than they, but proceeding faster, came the
Zulu-Xosa (" Kaffir ") peoples, who followed a line nearer the
coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the south.
Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion in South
Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up and disappeared;
but ere this the culture represented by the ruins in Rhodesia
had waxed and waned. It is uncertain who were the builders of
the forts and " cities," but it is not improbable that they may be
found to have been early Bechuana. The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana
and Herero together form a group which may conveniently be
termed " Southern Bantu."

Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the

history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu blood
began to press north, spreading destruction in their wake. Of
these the principal were the Matabele and Angoni. The move-
ment continued as far as the Victoria Nyanza. Here, on the
border-line of Negro, Bantu and Hamite, important changes
had taken place. Certain of the Negro tribes had retired to
the swamps of the Nile, and had become somewhat specialized,
both physically and culturally (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi,
&c.). These had blended with the Hamites to produce such
races as the Masai and kindred tribes. The old Kitwara empire,
which comprised the plateau land between the Ruwenzori
range and Kavirondo, had broken up into small states, usually
governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) aristocracy. The more
extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which the name Zanzibar
(Zanguebar) is a lasting memorial, extending along the sea-board
from Somaliland to the Zambezi, was also extinct. The Arabs
had established themselves firmly on the coast, and thence made
continual slave-raids into the interior, penetrating later to the
Congo. The Swahili, inhabiting the coast-line from the equator
to about 16° S., are a somewhat heterogeneous mixture of Bantu
with a tinge of Arab blood.

In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite,
Bantu, Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact,
the ethnic relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not
under a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann
into the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara,
Waseguha, Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later
Immigration (Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita,
Wachaga, &c.), who are more strongly Hamitized and in many
cases have adopted Masai customs. These peoples, from the
Victoria Nyanza to the Zambezi, may conveniently be termed
the " Eastern Bantu."

Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba and
Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the continent,
the latter, from at any rate the end of the i6th century until the
close of the igth century, more or less united under a single ruler,
styled Muata Yanvo. These seem to have been the most recent
immigrants from the south-east, and to exhibit certain affinities
with the Barotse on the upper Zambezi. Among the western
Baluba, or Bashilange, a remarkable politico-religious revolution
took place at a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret
society termed Bena Riamba or " Sons of Hemp," and resulted
in the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in
accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves
brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c., is acknow-
ledged. North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, are the
Balolo, &c., the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; and westward,
on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number of tribes as yet
imperfectly known. Farther west are the tribes of Angola, many
of whom were included within the old " Congo empire," of which
the kingdom of Loango was an offshoot. North of the latter lies
the Gabun, with a large number of small tribes dominated by the
Fang who are recent arrivals from the Congo. Farther to the
north are the Bali and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom
many primitive Negroid elements begin to appear. Eastward
are the Zandeh peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids
with a Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain), with whom the
Dor tribe of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain affinities;
while to the west along the coast are the Guinea Negroes of
primitive type. Here, amidst great linguistic confusion, may be
distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech in the Niger delta and
the east portion of the Slave Coast; those of Ewe speech, in the
western portion of the latter; and those of Ga and Tshi speech,
on the Gold Coast. Among the last two groups respectively may
be mentioned the Dahomi and Ashanti. Similar tribes are found
along the coast to the Bissagos Islands, though the introduction
in Sierra Leone and Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves
from the American plantations has in those places modified the
original ethnic distribution. Leaving the forest zone and entering
the more open country there are, on the north from the Niger
to the Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan
blood and professing the Mahommedan religion. Such are the

ETHNOLOGY]

AFRICA

329

la Mada-
gascar.

Mandingo, the Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagirmi
Kanembu, and the peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few
aborigines who persist, on the southern fringe of the Chad basin,
are imperfectly known.

The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent,
still remains for discussion. Here the ethnological conditions are
Peculiar peculiar. Before the French occupation the dominant
conditions people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people
who must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the
adjacent islands. The date of their immigration has been
the subject of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that
their arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy
ech, which is the language of the island, is principally Malayo-
Polynesian in origin, and contains no traces of Sanskrit. Such
traces, introduced with Hinduism, are present in all the cultivated
languages'of Malaysia at the present day. The Hova occupy the
able-land of Imerina and form the first of the three main groups
a to which the population of Madagascar may be divided. They
are short, of an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or
"lintly wavy hair. On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in
physical characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the
akalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the island
ind displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics.

Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to sea-
iring, the contrary is the case respecting the Negroid population,
id the presence of the latter in the island has been explained by
supposition that they were imported by the Hova. Other
authorities assign less antiquity to the Hova immigration and
elieve that they found the Negroid tribes already in occupation
r the island.

As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar con-
ains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian. The first of
hese two shows certain affinities with the culture characteristic
of the western area of Africa, such as rectangular huts, clothing of
bark and palm- fibre, fetishism, &c., but cattle-breeding is found
as well as agriculture. However, the Negroid tribes are more and
more adopting the customs and mode of life of the Hova, among
whom are found pile-houses, the sarong, fadi or tabu applied to
food, a non-African form of bellows, &c., all characteristic of
their original home. The Hova, during the igth century, em-
braced Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old
animistic beliefs; their original social organization in three
classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and andevo or slaves,
has been modified by the French, who have abolished kingship
and slavery. An Arab infusion is also to be noticed, especially on
he north-east and south-east coasts.

It is impossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting
Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored.
Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic
relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities.

The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tenta-
:ive, and liable to correction in the light of fuller information: —

AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION

LIBYANS

(North Africa, excluding Egypt)
Berbers, including —
Kabyles
Mzab
Shawia
Tuareg

LIBYO-NEGROW TRANSITIONAL
Fula (West Sudan)
Tibbu (Central Sudan)

HA MITES

(East Sudan and Horn of Africa)
Beja, including —
Ababda
Hadendoa
Bisharin
Beni-Amer
Ham ran

HA MITES— continued
(East Sudan and Horn of Africa) — continued

Galla
Somali

Danakil (Afar)
Ba-Hima, including—

Wa-Tussi

Wa-Hha

Wa-Rundi

Wa- Ruanda

HA MITO-SEMITES
Fellahin (Egypt)
Abyssinians (with Negroid admixture)

HAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
Masai
Wa-Kuafi

NEGROID TRIBES

West Sudan
Tukulor
Wolof
Serer
Leybu
Mandingo, including-

Kassonke

Yallonke

Sonink6

Bambara

Vei

Susu

Soli ma

Malinke

Probably also —

Mossi

Borgu
Tombo
Gurma
Gurunga
Dagomba
Mampursi
Gonja ° S ^

&c. j£

Central Sudan
Songhai
Hausa
Bagirmi
Kanembu
Kanuri
Tama
Maba
Birkit
Massalit
Korunga
Kabbaga
&c.

Fur

Dago

Kunjara

Tegele

Nuba

Eastern
Kargo
Kulfan
Kolaji
Tumali

-c
.tJ c

--

.^S S

Zandeh Tribes
(Akin to Nilotics, but

probably with Fula

element)

Azandeh (Niam Niam)
Makaraka
Mundu
Mangbettu
Ababwa
Mege
Abisanga

Allied are —
Banziri Languassi
Ndris Wia-Wia

Togbo Awaka
&c.

Khabunke

Balanta

Bagnori

Bagnum

Felup, including —

Ayamat

"pla
igush
"aca

Joat

Karon

Banyum

Banjar

Fulum

Bayot
&c.
Bujagos
Biafare
Landuman
Nalu
Baga
Sape
Bulam
Mendi
Limba
allina
Timni
Pessi
ola

Kondo
3assa
Kru

rebo

Awekwom
Agni
Juiu

NEGROES

West African Tribes

Tribes of Tshi and Ga

speech, including —

Ashanti

Safwi

Denkera

Bekwai

Nkoranza

Adansi

Assin

Wassaw

Ahanta

Fanti

Agona

Akwapim

Akim

Akwamu

Kwao

Ga.

Tribes of Elbe speech,
including —

Dahomi

Eweawo

Agotine

Krepi

Avenor

Awuna

Agbosomi

Aflao

Ataklu

Krikor

Geng

Attakpami

Aja

Ewemi

Appa

Tribes of Yoruba
speech, including —

Yoruba

Ibadan

Ketu

Egba

Jebu

Ode

Hlorin

Ijesa

Ondo

Mahin

Bini

Kakanda

Wan

Ibo

Efik
Andoni
Kwa
Ibibio
Ekoi
Inokun
Akunakuna
Munshi
Ikwe

330

AFRICA

[ETHNOLOGY

NEGROES— continued

BANTU NEGROIDS— continued

Central Negroes
Bolo
Yako
Tangala
Kali
Mishi
Doma
Mosgu, including —

Mandara

Margi

Logon

Gamergu

Keribina
Yedina
Kuri

&c.

Nilptics with affinity
with Zandeh tribes
Dor (Bongo)

NEGRO-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL

Bali

Ba-Kossi

Ba-Ngwa

Ba-Nyang

Ngolo

Ba-Fo

Ba-Kundu

Isubu

Ba-Kwiri

Abo

Dualla

Bassa

Ba-Noko

Ba-Puko

Ba-Koko

Eastern Negroes
Pure Nilotic*
Shilluk
Nuer
Dinka
Jur (Diur)
Mittu
Jibbeh
Madi
Lendu
Alur (Lur)
Acholi
Lango
Abaka
Golo

Nilotics with affinity
with Masai
Latuka
Bari

NILOTIC-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL

Ja-Luo

PYGMY TRIBES
(Central Africa)
Akka
Ba-Mbute
Ba-Bongo
Ashango
&c.

Western

Central

Ba-Nunu
Ba-Loi
Ba-Teke
Wa-Pfuru
Wa-Mbundu
Wa-Mfumu
Ba-Nsinik
Ma-Wumba
Ma-Yakalla
&c.

BANTU NEGROIDS

Western

^Central Eastern

Ogowe

Luba-Lunda Group Lacustrjans

Ashira
Ishogo
Ashango

lit 1 *

Ba-Luba, including — Ba-Nyoro
Ba-Songe Ba-Toro
Wa-Rua Wa-Siba

Bakalai
Nkomi
Orungu

Wa-Guha Wa-Sinja
Katanga Wa-Kerewe
Ba-Shflange (with Wa-Shashi

pongwe

Ba-Kete ele- Wa-Rundi

Oshekiani

ment) Ba-Iro

Benga

Ba-Lunda Ba-Ganda

Ininga
Galao

Probably connected Ba-Soga
are — .Ba-Kavirondo, includ-

Apingi
Okanda

Manyema ing —
Ba-Kumu Awaware

Osaka
Aduma
Mbamba

Wa-Regga Awarimi
Ba-Rotse, including — Awakisii
Ma-Mbunda &c.

Umbete

15. .!A

Ma-Supia

0BH

Ma-Shukulumbwe

Bane
Yaunde
Maka
Bomone

Ba-Tonga Bantu of Recent

Va^aTe^ „ *£«**"

Wa-Kikuyu

Kunabembe

Tribes of the Congo Wa-Kamba

Fang (recent im-

Bend Wa-Pokomo

migrants from
the Congo

Ba-Kussu Wa-Duruma
Ba-Tetela Wa-Digo

group)
&c.

Ba-Songo Mino Wa-Giriama
Ba-Kuba Wa-Taita

Ba-Kongo, in-

t J*

Ba-Lolo Wa-Nyaturu

eluding —
Mushi-Kongo
Mussorongo
Kabinda
Ka-Kongo
Ba-Vili
Ma-Yumbe

Ba-Kuti Wa-Iramba
Ba-Mbala Wa-Mbugwe
Ba-Huana Wa-Kaguru
Ba-Yaka Wa-Goeo fP°sslb.le
Ba-Pindi Wa rhatra 1 'y*831
Ba-Kwese Wa-Cnaga Clement

&c

Ba-Lumbo

Older Bantu

Ba-Sundi

Tribes of the Congo

Ba-Bwende

Bank Wa-Nyamwezi,includ-

Ba-Lali
Ba-Kunya

Wa-Genia ing-

Ia~Poto Wa-Sukuma
MobaH Wa-Sumbwa

il

i connected «ir \r* «
Ba-NgalaJ witi, Zan- Wa-Kimbu

.22

Wa-Buma

II

TRANSITIONAL
FROM CENTRAL
TO SOUTHERN

BANTU
Amboela
Ganguela
Kioko
Minungo
Imbangala
Ba-Achinji
Golo
Hollo

&c.

Mbunda peoples in-
cluding—

Bihe

Dembo

Mbaka

Ngola

Bondo

Ba-Ngala

Songo

Haku

Lubolo

Kisama
&c.

Eastern

Wa-Gunda

Wa-Guru

Wa-Galla
Wa-Sambara
Wa-Seguha
Wa-Nguru
Wa-Sagara
Wa-Doe
Wa-Khutu
Wa-Saramo
Wa-Hehe
Wa-Bena
Wa-Sanga
Wa-Swahili (with
elements)

Connected are —
Wa-Kisi
Wa-Mpoto
Ba-Tonga
Ba-Tumbuka
Wa-Nyika
Wa- Nyamwanga
A-Mambwe
Wa-Fipa
Wa-Rungu
A-Wemba
A-Chewa
A-Maravi
Ba-Senga
Ba-Bisa
A-Jawa (Yaos)
Wa-Mwera
Wa-Gindo
Ma-Konde
Ma-Wia
Ma-Nganja
Ma-Kua

Arab

SOUTHERN BANTU
(South and South-East Africa)

Ba-Nyai
Ma-Kalanga,

including j-^.
Mashona
Ba-Ronga £ —

Be-Chuana, 'includ-
ing—

Ba-Tlapin

Ba-Rolong

Ba-Ratlou

Ba-Taung

Ba-Rapulana

Ba-Seleka

Ba-Hurutsi

Ba-Tlaru

Ba-Mangwato

Ba-Tauana

Ba-Ngwaketse

Ba-Kuena
&c.

HAMITO-BANTU

BUSHMAN
TRANSITIONAL

Hottentots, in-T

eluding— [_ S. W.

Ama-Zulu, including —

Ama-Swazi

Ama-Tonga

Matabele

Angoni

Ma-Gwangwara

Ma-Huhu

Ma-Viti

Ma-Situ

Ma-Henge

&c.
Ama-Xosa, including —

Ama-Gcaleka

Ama-Hahabe

Ama-Ngqika

Ama-Tembu

Ama-Pondo

&c.

Ova-Herero
Ova-Mpo

BUSHMEN

Namaqua
Koranna

| Africa .
TRIBES IN MADAGASCAR

MALA YO-INDONESIANS

Hova

Betsileo (slight Bantu admixture)

HOVA-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL

Malagasy, including —

Bestimisaraka Antanosi
Antambahoaka Antsihanaka
Antaimoro Antanala

Antaifasina Antaisara

Antaisaka &c.

BANTU-NEGROIDS

Sakalava, including —
Menabe
Milaka
Ronondra
Mahafali
&c.

(T. A. J.)

HISTORY]

AFRICA

IV. HISTORY

The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are
discussed elsewhere (see AFRICA, ROMAN). The word Africa was
applied originally to the country in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known to the
Romans, and it was subsequently extended with their increas-
ing knowledge, till it came at last to include all that they knew
of the continent. The Arabs still confine the name Ifrikia to the
territory of Tunisia.

The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest antiquity
of a civilized race. Egyptian culture had, however, remarkably
Phoenician little direct influence on the rest of the continent, a
and Greek result due in large measure to the fact that Egypt is
coiooiza- shut og landwards by immense deserts. If ancient
Egypt and Ethiopia (q.v.) be excluded, the story of
Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic and
European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the
only state which throughout historic times has maintained its
independence. The countries bordering the Mediterranean were
first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest settlements
were made before 1000 B.C. Carthage, founded about 800 B.C.,
speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean,
and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber tribes, who then as
now formed the bulk of the population, became masters of all
the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis,
and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Both
Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the un-
known parts of the continent by sea. Herodotus relates that an
expedition under Phoenician navigators, employed by Necho,
king of Egypt, c. 600 B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red
Sea to the Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accom-
plished in three years. Apart from the reported circumnaviga-
tion of the continent, the west coast was well known to the
Phoenicians as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Cartha-
ginian, explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin,
certainly as far as Sierra Leone. A vague knowledge of the
Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians.

Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves
in Africa. At the point where the continent approaches nearest
the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 631 B.C.).
Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in
on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on
inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence
in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes
its foundation (332 B.C.), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of
the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and
in this way was obtained some knowledge of Abyssinia. Neither
Cyrenaica nor Egypt was a serious rival to the Carthaginians,
but all three powers were eventually supplanted by the Romans.
After centuries of rivalry for supremacy1 the struggle was
ended by the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more
than a century from that date Egypt and Cyrene had become
incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled
portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain
was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by
them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable
barrier. Nubia and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition
sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile
ended in failure. The utmost extent of geographical knowledge
of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century
A.D.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake
reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river Niger. Still
Africa for the civilized world remained simply the countries
bordering the Mediterranean. The continual struggle between
Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity
and the glories and sufferings of the Egyptian and African
Churches; the invasion and conquest of the African provinces

1 Commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome were made
in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The first armed conflict between
the rival powers, begun in 264 B.C., was a contest for the possession
of Sicily.

by the Vandals in the sth century; the passing of the supreme
power in the following century to the Byzantine empire — all
these events are told fully elsewhere.

In the 7th century of the Christian era occurred an event
destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent.
Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers Nortll
in the new faith of Mahommed, conquered the whole Africa
country from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried conquered
the Crescent into Spain. Throughout North Africa ^*"
Christianity well-nigh disappeared, save in Egypt
(where the Coptic Church was suffered to exist), and Upper
Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the Moslems.
In the Sth, o,th and loth centuries the Arabs in Africa were
numerically weak; they held the countries they had conquered
by the sword only, but in the nth century there was a great
Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of Berber
blood. Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted
the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and
the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly stamped on
northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the
Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern
sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing
colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala, playing a r61e,
maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier
centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern sea-board. Of
these eastern cities and states both Europe and the Arabs of
North Africa were long ignorant.

The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the
caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty — founded by
Aghlab, one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the
Sth century — ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early
in the roth century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in
Egypt, where Cairo had been founded A.D. 968, and from there
ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties
such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually
the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, an« o7<Ae
and had seized Egypt in 1 5 1 7 , established the regencies Turks.
of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1519 and
1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state
under the Sharifan dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end
of the 1 3th century. Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or
Moorish culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while
the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers
of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the
continent. This was rendered more easy by their use of the
camel (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of
Egypt), .which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert. In
this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions fell under
the influence of the Arabs and Berbers, but it was not until 1591
that Timbuktu — a city founded in the nth century — became
Moslem. That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab
traveller Ibn Batuta, to whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa
(Kilwa) was due the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing
Moslem cities on the east African sea-boards. Except along this
sea-board, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress
southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest which,
stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of io°N.,
barred their advance as effectually as had the Sahara that of
their predecessors, and cut them off from knowledge of the
Guinea coast and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which
came latest under Arab control was that of Nubia, where a
Christian civilization and state existed up to the I4th century.

For a time the Moslem conquests in South Europe had virtually
made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in
the nth century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern Italy
by the Normans was followed by descents of the conquerors on
Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the
African coast-lands, and especially with Egypt, was developed
by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North Italy. By the
end of the isth century Spain had completely thrown off the
Moslem yoke, but even while the Moors were still in Granada,
Portugal was strong enough to carry the' war into Africa.

332

AFRICA

[HISTORY

In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta on the
Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly
s aiaand interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain ac-
Portugai quired many ports in Algeria and Tunisia. Portugal,
invade the however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr

al Kebir> the Moors beinS led bv Abd el Malek I. of
the then recently established Sharifan dynasty. By that
time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions.
The Barbary states, primarily from the example of the Moors
expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of
pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce
declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the
i6th century to the third decade of the ipth century is largely
made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual
reprisals on the other. In Algiers, Tunis and other cities were
thousands of Christian slaves.

But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely
to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was
one, Prince Henry " the Navigator," son of King
Jonn !•> wh° was fired with the ambition to acquire
for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his
Coast— inspiration and direction was begun that series of
^e slave vovaSes °f exploration which resulted in the circum-
trade. navigation of Africa and the establishment of Portu-
guese sovereignty over large areas of the coast-lands.
Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by
1480 the whole Guinea coast was known. In 1482 Diogo Cam
or Cao discovered the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good
Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and in 1498
Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east
coast, touched at Sofala and Malindi, and went thence to India.
Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal
claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the ex-
treme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the first dis-
covered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous
forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao
Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482. The chief commodities
dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The discovery of
America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave
trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland
trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan Africa. The
lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial
gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea
coast. English mariners went thither as early as 1553, and they
were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other
adventurers. Much of Senegambia was made known as a result
of quests during the i6th century for the " hills of gold " in
Bambuk and the fabled wealth of Timbuktu, but the middle
Niger was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in
the 1 7th century from Portugal to Holland and from Holland
in the i8th and igth centuries to France and England. The
whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and
" factories " of rival powers, and this international patchwork
persists though all the hinterland has become either French or
British territory.

Southward from the mouth of the Congo1 to the inhospit-
able region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward,
acquired influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the
early part of the i6th century through their efforts Christianity
was largely adopted in the native kingdom of Congo. An irrup-
tion of cannibals from the interior later in the same century broke
the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity
was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao Paulo de
Loanda being founded in 1 576. The sovereignty of Portugal over
this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, has been
once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640-
1648, when the Dutch held the seaports.

Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited
regions of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered

1 This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire. They appear
to have made no attempt to trace its course beyond the rapids which
stop navigation from the sea.

than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples
between Sofala and Cape Guardafui. By 15 20 all these Moslem
sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique The
being chosen as the chief city of her East African Portuguese
possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to in
the coast-lands. The lower and middle Zambezi valley
was explored (i6th and i7th centuries), and here the
Portuguese found semi-civilized Bantu-Negro tribes, who had
been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous
efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modem
Rhodesia) known to them as the kingdom or empire of Monomo-
tapa, where gold had been worked by the natives from about the
1 2th century A.D., and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese
dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the i6th century.
Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward
and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's
hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the
I7th century, and in the middle of the i8th century ceased with
the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district.

At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a
strong influence in Abyssinia also. In the ruler of Abyssinia (to
whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before
Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined
they had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and
when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the
Christian religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan
invaders, the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christo-
pher da Gama during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favour of
Abyssinia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-
East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted
to Abyssinia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the
Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive
knowledge of the country. Pedro Paez in 1615, and, ten years
later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue Nile.
In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were
expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portu-
guese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before the
power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1 730 no point on the east
coast north of Cape Delgado was held by Portugal.

It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the
southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of
Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to
India, and mariners of other nations who followed in ^ Dutch
their wake used Table Bay only as a convenient spot at Table
wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the Bay— Cape
beginning of the i7th century the bay was much re- /J^^d
sorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch
vessels. In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two
officers of the East India Contpany, on their own initiative,
took possession of Table Bay in the name of King James, fearing
otherwise that English ships would be " frustrated of watering
but by license." Their action was not approved in London
and the proclamation they issued remained without effect.
The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the English. On the
advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the
Netherlands East India Company, in 1651, sent out a fleet of three
small vessels under Jan van Riebeek which reached Table Bay on
the 6th of April 1652, when, 164 years after its discovery, the
first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa. The
Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not
in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was
content to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to
the East.2 In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not
intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the
most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. Nevertheless,
despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers,
the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of European
trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and Holland,
and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually spread northward,

1 France acquired, as stations for her ships on the voyage to and
from India, settlements in Madagascar and the neighbouring islands.
The first settlement was made in 1642.

HISTORY]

AFRICA

333

Waning
and

revival of
Interest
in Africa.

stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South
Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow.

During the i8th century there is little to record in the history
of Africa. The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the
century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for
supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent
lost their interest in the continent. Only on the west
coast was there keen rivalry, and here the motive was
the securance of trade rather than territorial acqui-
sitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest de-
velopment, the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small
in comparison. In the interior of the continent — Portugal's
energy being expended — no interest was shown, the nations with
establishments on the coast " taking no further notice of the
inhabitants or their land than to obtain at the easiest rate what
they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to carry them off
for slaves to their plantations in America " (Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica, 3rd ed., 1797). Even the scanty knowledge acquired by the
ancients and the Arabs was in the main forgotten or disbelieved.
It was the period when —

Geographers, in Afric maps,
With savage pictures filled their gaps,
And o'er unhabitable downs
Placed elephants for want of towns.

(Poetry, a Rhapsody. By Jonathan Swift.)

The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in the
third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that " the Gambia
and Senega] rivers are only branches of the Niger." But the
closing years of the i8th century, which witnessed the partial
awakening of the public conscience of Europe to the iniquities
of the slave trade, weie also notable for the revival of interest
in inner Africa. A society, the African Association,1 was formed
in London in 1788 for the exploration of the interior of the
continent. The era of great discoveries had begun a little earlier
in the famous journey (1770-1772) of James Bruce through
Abyssinia and Sennar, during which he determined the course
of the Blue Nile. But it was through the agents of the African
Association that knowledge was gained of the Niger regions.
The Niger itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled
by way of the Gambia, in 1795. Park, on a second journey in
1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where
he lost his life, having just failed to solve the question as to where
the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately
solved by Richard Lander and his brother in 1830.) The first
scientific explorer of South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de Lacerda,
a Portuguese, also lost his life in that country. Lacerda travelled
up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards Lake Mweru, near
which he died in 1798. The first recorded crossing of Africa was
accomplished between the years 1802 and 1811 by two half-caste
Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptista and A. Jose, who passed from
Angola eastward to the Zambezi.

Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of
Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless
Effects exercised great influence on the future of the con-
ofthe tinent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupa-
Napoieoaic tion of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then
BriMn by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to
seizes the reSain direct control over that country,2 followed in
Cape. 1811 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an
almost independent state, and the extension of Egyp-
tian rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward). In South
Africa the struggle with Napoleon caused Great Britain to
take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814
Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British
troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.

The close of the European conflicts with the battle of Waterloo
was followed by vigorous efforts on the part of the British govern-
ment to become better acquainted with Africa, and to substitute
olonization and legitimate trade for the slave traffic, declared
SocieT6 Association' in I83T' was merged in the Royal Geographical

T
u

The Mamelukes whom the Turks had overthrown in the l6th
ury, had regained practically independent power.

illegal for British subjects in 1807 and abolished by all other
European powers by 1836. To West Africa Britain devoted
much attention. The slave trade abolitionists had already,
in 1788, formed a settlement at Sierra Leone, on the Guinea
coast, for freed slaves, and from this establishment grew the
colony of Sierra Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly
climate, as " The White Man's Grave."3 Farther east the
establishments on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the
politics of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi,
despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate
over the maritime tribes heretofore governed by the Ashanti.

An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its
mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar
the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better
results were obtained. In 1823 three English travellers, Walter
Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached Lake
Chad from Tripoli — the first white men to reach that lake. The
partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states by Clapperton,
which followed, revealed the existence of large and nourishing
cities and a semi-civilized people in a region hitherto unknown.
The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's
servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded by the
journeys of Major A. G. Laing (1826) and Rene Caillie (1827) to
Timbuktu, and was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of
the Benue affluent of the Niger by MacGregor Laird. In 1841
a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white colony on the
lower Niger, an expedition (largely philanthropic and anti-
slavery in its inception) which ended in utter failure. Never-
theless from that time British traders remained on the lower
Niger, their continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisi-
tion of political rights over the delta and the Hausa states by
Great Britain.4 Another endeavour by the British government
to open up commercial relations with the Niger countries resulted
in the addition of a vast amount of information concerning the
countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours
of Heinrich Earth (1850-1855), originally a subordinate, but the
only surviving member of the expedition sent out.

Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts
of the continent, the most notable being — the occupation of
Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the
piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued
expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent
additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment
of independent states (Orange Free State and the Transvaal)
by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape
Colony. Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made
a British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to acquire it
being frustrated. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that
name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, rapidly attained
importance, and Arabs began to penetrate to the great lakes of
East Africa,6 concerning which little more was known (and less
believed) than in the time of Ptolemy. Accounts of a vast inland
sea, and the discovery in 1848-1849, by the missionaries Ludwig
Krapf and J. Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kili-
manjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further
inowledge.

At this period, the middle of the ipth century, Protestant
missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea
coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions.
Their work, largely beneficent, was being conducted Theera
n regions and among peoples little known, and in explorers.
nany instances missionaries turned explorers and
secame pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to
ittempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was
David Livingstone, who had been engaged since 1 840 in missionary
work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the
Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami.

3 In imitation of the British example, an American society
ounded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia.

4 The first territorial acquisition made by Great Britain in this
•egion was in 1851, when Lagos Island was annexed.

6 As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzibar journeying across the
continent had arrived at Benguella.

334

AFRICA

[HISTORY

and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from
west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper
Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered,
November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the
queen of England. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire
and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having
been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva
Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who
crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from Benguella to the mouth of
the Rovuma. While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the
more northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by
Richard Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted
Victoria Nyanza. Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant,
Speke reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria
Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the
distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the Nile.
In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered the
Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the river. In 1866
Livingstone began his last great journey, in which he made known
Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered the Lualaba (the
upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) before he had been
able to demonstrate its ultimate course, believing indeed that
the Lualaba belonged to the Nile system. Livingstone's lonely
death in the heart of Africa evoked a keener desire than ever
to complete the work he left undone. H. M. Stanley, who had
in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started
again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in the most memorable of all
exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza
and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba,
followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean — reached in
August 1877 — and proved it to be the Congo. Stanley had been
preceded, in 1874, at Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on
the Lualaba, by Lovett Cameron, who was, however, unable
farther to explore its course, making his way to the west coast
by a route south of the Congo.

While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved
explorers were also active in other parts of the continent.
Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed
in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs,
Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers
not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but
obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages
and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned.1
Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed
the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a pygmy
race. But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central
Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district
of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first
meeting with the Pygmies; du Chaillu having previously, as
the result of journeys in the Gabun country between 1855 and
1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence
of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Cartha-
ginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the ipth century,
was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.

In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded apace.
The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in the valley of the
Vaal river, near its confluence with the Orange, caused a rush
of emigrants to that district, and led to conflicts between the
Dutch and British authorities and the extension of British
authority northward. In 1871 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe
in Mashonaland, the chief fortress and distributing centre of
the race which in medieval times worked the goldfields of South-
East Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch. In the following
year F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa,
which continued for more than twenty years and extended over
every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.)

V. PARTITION AMONG EUROPEAN POWERS

In the last quarter of the igth century the map of Africa was
transformed. After the discovery of the Congo the story of

1 Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who
spentthegreaterpartof the period 1875-1886 in theeastcentralSudan.

exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the
theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often
through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of
Germany, France, Great Britain and other powers. Railways
penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to civilized
occupation, and from ancient Egypt to the Zambezi the continent
was startled into new life.

Before 1875 the only powers with any considerable interest
in Africa were Britain, Portugal and France. Between 1815
and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government
devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, to
western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain
had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, disease,
death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes
had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant
Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless trouble. The
visions once entertained of vigorous negro communities at once
civilized and Christian faded away; to the hot fit of philan-
thropy succeeded the cold fit of indifference and a disinclination
to bear the burden of empire. The low-water mark of British
interest in South Africa was reached in 1854 when independence
was forced on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind
of the nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution
of a representative House of Commons committee:2 "that all
further extension of territory or assumption of government, or
new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would be
inexpedient." For nearly twenty years the spirit of that resolu-
tion paralysed British action in Africa, although many circum-
stances— the absence of any serious European rival, the in-
evitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the activity
of missionary and trader — conspired to make British influence
dominant in large areas of the continent over which the govern-
ment exercised no definite authority. «The freedom with which
blood and treasure were spent to enforce respect for the British
flag or to succour British subjects in distress, as in the Abyssinian
campaign of 1867-68 and the Ashanti war of 1873, tended further
to enhance the reputation of Great Britain among African races,
while, as an inevitable result of the possession of India, British
officials exercised considerable power at the court of Zanzibar,
which indeed owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord
Canning, the governor-general of India, in 1861 recognizing the
division of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of
Muscat.

It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival.
On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and
acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in
Sumatra. But Portugal still held, both in the east and west
of Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and
it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration
of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa Bay,
to the southern part of which England also laid claim by virtue
of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 1823. The
only other European power which at the period under considera-
tion had considerable possessions in Africa was France. Besides
Algeria, France had settlements on the Senegal, where in 1854
the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor marked the
beginning of a policy of expansion; she had also various posts
on the upper Guinea coast, had taken the estuary of the Gabun
as a station for her navy, and had acquired (1862) Obok at the
southern entrance to the Red Sea.

In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct
control of Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay
though retaining its independence. The most remarkable
change was in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced
a somewhat fantastic imitation of European civilization. In
addition Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the
Somali ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power
southward to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reach-
ing the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a
great influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt
the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route.
! Specially appointed to consider West African affairs.

HISTORY]

AFRICA

335

Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European
nations in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly

Tbedlvl- as tne cornpiler of statistics rejects or accepts the
sionotthe vague claims of Portugal to sovereignty over the
continent hinterland of her coast possessions. At that period
wiS7a. Other European nations — with the occasional excep-
tion of Great Britain — were indifferent to Portugal's preten-
sions, and her estimate of her African empire as covering
over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged.1 But the area under
effective control of Portugal at that time did not exceed 40,000
sq. m. Great Britain then held some 250,000 sq. m., France
about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. m. The area of the
independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal and Orange Free
State) was some 150,000 sq. m., so that the total area of Africa
ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 sq. m.; roughly
one-tenth of the continent. This estimate, as it admits the full
extent of Portuguese claims and does not include Madagascar,
in reality considerably overstates the case.

Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were
subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan of
Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of organized
governments, the three principal independent states, Morocco,
Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of Liberia.
There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one half of
Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited by a multitude
of tribes and peoples living under various forms of govern-
ment and subject to frequent changes in respect of political
organization. In this region were the negro states of Ashanti,
Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the Mahommedan
sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number of negro kingdoms
in the east central and south central regions. Of these Uganda
on the north-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and
Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be mentioned. The two last-
named kingdoms occupied respectively the south-eastern and
south-western parts of the Congo basin. In all this vast region
the Negro and Negro-Bantu races predominated, for the most
part untouched by Mahommedanism or Christian influences.
They lacked political cohesion, and possessed neither the means
nor the inclination to extend their influence beyond their own
borders. The exploitation of Africa continued to be entirely
the work of alien races.

The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be
considered. They are to be found in the economic and political
Causes state of western Europe at the time. Germany,
which led strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian
to par- War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies
— new markets for her growing industries, and with
the markets, colonies. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was
of slow growth in Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at length
acted Africa was the only field left to exploit, South America
being protected from interference by the known determination
of the United States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain
already held most of the other regions of the world where coloniza-
tion was possible. For different reasons the war of 1870 was
also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new
colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost
in that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two
causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and
Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred
themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become
an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action
too late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly
hers was the only European influence. She had to contend not
only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action,
but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every
European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy
alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Great
Britain.

It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers

'See the tables in Behm and Wagner's Bevolkerung der Erde
(Gotha, 1872).

of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought
about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II., king of the
Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others
had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in
western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class,
which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial develop-
ment, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which
beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of savages to
Christianize and civilize. The possibility of utilizing both these
classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the
chief, formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley
had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it
proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project
understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France
and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun.

Scale, 1 185, 000,000

English Miles
9 500

Portuguest
P.iH Italian
Spanish

EmtryW.lktric.

At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent events,
to set forth the designs then entertained by the European powers
that participated in the struggle for Africa. Portugal

... .. i * .111* Conflict^

was striving to retain as large a share as possible of lag ambl.
her shadowy empire, and particularly to establish her tions of
claims to the Zambezi region, so as to secure a belt of ihe
territory across Africa from Mozambique to Angola, fowe
Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of danger,
put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the Niger, but
her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an unbroken
line of British possessions and spheres of influence from south to
north of the continent, from Cape Colony to Egypt. Germany's
ambition can be easily described. It was to secure as much as
possible, so as to make up for lost opportunities. Italy coveted
Tripoli, but that province could not be seized without risking
war. For the rest Italy's territorial ambitions were confined
to North-East Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating
influence over Abyssinia. French ambitions, apart from Mada-
gascar, were confined to the northern and central portions of
the continent. To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean
littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa,
the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her in-
fluence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first
ambition. But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and the
impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley of the
upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to the French
government — none other than the establishment of French

AFRICA

[HISTORY

influence over a broad belt of territory stretching across the
continent from west to east, from Senegal on the Atlantic coast
to the Gulf of Aden. The fact that France possessed a small
part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this design. But these
conflicting ambitions could not all be realized, and Germany
succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous
band of British territory from south to north, while Great Britain,
by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the
French dream of an empire from west to east.

King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The
part of the continent to which from the first he directed his
energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took
what may be described as the first definite step in the modern
partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference
at Brussels representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France,
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate
on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and
civilization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the
continent to commerce and industry. The conference was
entirely unofficial. The delegates who attended neither repre-
sented nor pledged their respective governments. Their
deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation
of " The International African Association," with its head-
quarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish
national committees in the various countries represented, which
should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International
Association. The central idea appears to have been to put the
exploration and development of Africa upon an international
footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an
unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working
independently of the International Association, and the Associa-
tion itself passed through a succession of stages until it became
purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the Congo
Free State, under the personal sovereignty of King Leopold.
At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions
to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more
or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it
was not until the return of Stanley, in January 1878, from his
great journey down the Congo, that its ruling spirit, King
Leopold, definitely turned his thoughts towards the Congo. In
June of that year, Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in
the following November a private conference was held, and a
committee was appointed for the investigation of the upper
Congo.

Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other
capitals than Brussels. France had always taken a keen interest
The in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan

itmggie de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of
for the tjje Qgow6 river to the south of the Gabun. De Brazza
determined that the Ogow6 did not offer that great
waterway into the interior of which he was in search, and he
returned to Europe without having heard of the discoveries
of Stanley farther south. Naturally, however, Stanley's dis-
coveries were keenly followed in France. In Portugal, too, the
discovery of the Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway
of more than a thousand miles into the heart of the continent,
served to revive the languid energies of the Portuguese, who
promptly began to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse
ratio to their validity. Claims, annexations and occupations
were in the air, and when in January 1879 Stanley left Europe
as the accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo com-
mittee, the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and
intentions. The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding up
the Congo to assist the Belgian expedition which had entered
from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to Zanzibar.
But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at Banana
Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has written,
" the novel mission of sowing along its .banks civilized settlements
to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould it in harmony
with modern ideas into national states, within whose limits the
European merchant shall go hand in hand with the dark African
trader, and justice and law and order shall prevail, and murder

and lawlessness and the cruel barter of slaves shall be overcome."
The irony of human aspirations was never perhaps more plainly
demonstrated than in the contrast between the ideal thus set
before themselves by those who employed Stanley, and the actual
results of their intervention in Africa. Stanley founded his first
station at Vivi, between the mouth of the Congo and the rapids
that obstruct its course where it breaks over the western edge
of the central continental plateau. Above the rapids he estab-
lished a station on Stanley Pool and named it Leopoldville,
founding other stations on the main stream in the direction of
the falls that bear his name.

Meanwhile de Brazza was far from idle. He had returned to
Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King
Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the
southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents
were equally busy on the northern bank. De Brazza was sent
out to Africa by the French committee of the International
African Association, which provided him with the funds for the
expedition. His avowed object was to explore the region
between the Gabun and Lake Chad. But his real object was to
anticipate Stanley on the Congo. The international character of
the association founded by King Leopold was never more than
a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and the
Belgians on the Congo was soon open, if not avowed. In October
1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on the north
bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority extended
over a large area, including territory on the southern bank of
the river. As soon as this chief had accepted French protection,
de Brazza crossed over to the south of the river, and founded
a station close to the present site of Leopoldville. The discovery
by Stanley of the French station annoyed King Leopold's agent,
and he promptly challenged the rights of the chief who purported
to have placed the country under French protection, and him-
self founded a Belgian station close to the site selected by
de Brazza. In the result, the French station was withdrawn
to the northern side of Stanley Pool, where it is now known
as Brazzaville.

The activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had
not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government
saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never ceased
to put forward on the west coast were not to go by default.
At varying periods during the igth century Portugal had put
forward claims to the whole of the West African coast, between
5° 12' and 8° south. North of the Congo mouth she claimed the
territories of Kabinda and Molemba, alleging that they had been
in her possession since 1484. Great Britain had never, however,
admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to
recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz.
In 1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by force
any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that place.
But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their claims,
and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the British
government for recognition of Portuguese rights over both
banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance inland.
Into the details of the negotiations, which were conducted for
Great Britain by the and Earl Granville, who was then secretary
for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; they resulted
in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a treaty, by which
Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of the king of Portugal
" over that part of the west coast of Africa, situated between
8° and 5° 12' south latitude," and inland as far as Noki, on the
south bank of the Congo, below Vivi. The navigation of the
Congo was to be controlled by an Anglo-Portuguese commission.
The publication of this treaty evoked immediate protests, not
only on the continent but in Great Britain. In face of the
disapproval aroused by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself
unable to ratify it. The protests had not been confined to France
and the king of the Belgians. Germany had not yet acquired
formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the spring
prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince Bismarck
had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections entertained
by Germany to the Anglo-Portuguese treaty.

HISTORY]

AFRICA

337

British
Influence

consoli-
dated In
South
Africa.

For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general
conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were
interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement
as to " the rules of the game," and to define their respective
interests so far as that was practicable. Lord Granville's ill-
fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed
to hold an international conference on African affairs. But
before discussing the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be
well to see what was the position, on the eve of the conference,
in other parts of the African continent. In the southern section
of Africa, south of the Zambezi, important events had been
happening. In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement
with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of
frontiers, the result of which was to leave the Kimberley
diamond fields in British territory, in exchange for
a payment of £90,000 to the Orange Free State. On
the 1 2th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone had
issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal — the
South African Republic, as it was officially designated — to be
British territory (see TRANSVAAL). In December 1880 war
broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace
was signed. This treaty of peace was followed by a convention,
signed in August of the same year, under which complete self-
government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the Transvaal,
subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon certain terms
and conditions and'subject to certain reservations and limitations.
No sooner was the convention signed than it became the object
of the Boers to obtain a modification of the conditions and limita-
tions imposed, and in February 1884 a fresh convention was
signed, amending the convention of 1881. Article IV. of the new
convention provided that " The South African Republic will
conclude no treaty or engagement with any state or nation
other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to
the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has
been approved by Her Majesty the Queen." The precise effect
of the two conventions has been the occasion for interminable
discussions, but as the subject is now one of merely academic
interest, it is sufficient to say that when the Berlin conference
held its first meeting in 1884 the Transvaal was practically
independent, so far as its internal administration was con-
cerned, while its foreign relations were subject to the control
just quoted.

But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 1875
and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British
influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi had
been steadily extended. To the west of the Orange Free State,
Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, while to the
east the territories beyond the Kei river were included in Cape
Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the latter year, with
the exception of Pondoland, the whole of South-East Africa was
in one form or another under British control. North of Natal,
Zululand was not actually annexed until 1887, although since
1879, when the military power of the Zulus was broken up,
British influence had been admittedly supreme. In December
1884 St Lucia Bay — upon which Germany was casting covetous
eyes — had been taken possession of in virtue of its cession to
Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, an<^ three years later
an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers made by Great
Britain with the regent and paramount chief of Tongaland
completed the chain of British possessions on the coast of South
Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river on the west to Kosi
Bay and the Portuguese -frontier on the east. In the interior
of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that
final stage of the British advance towards the north which was
to extend British influence from the Cape to the southern shores
of Lake Tanganyika. The activity of the Germans on the west,
and of the Boer republic on the east, had brought home to both
the imperial and colonial authorities the impossibility of relying
on vague traditional claims. In May 1884 treaties were made
with native chiefs by which the whole of the country north
of Cape Colony, west of the Transvaal, south of 22° S. and
east of 20° E., was placed under British protection, though

a protectorate was not formally declared until the following
January.

Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place
on the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the
Portuguese province of Mossamedes. It must be sufficient here
to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation
of the colony of German South- West Africa. For many years
before 1884 German missionaries had settled among the Damaras
(Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading opera-
tions with their missionary work. From time to time trouble
arose between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals
were made to the German government for protection.
The German government in its turn begged the British
government to say whether it assumed responsibility
for the protection of Europeans in Damaraland and
Namaqualand. The position of the British government was
intelligible, if not very intelligent. It did not desire to see any
other European power in these countries, and it did not want to
assume the responsibility and incur the expense of protecting the
few Europeans settled there. Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of
the Cape (1877-1880), had foreseen that this attitude portended
trouble, and had urged that the whole of the unoccupied coast-
line, up to the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under
British protection. But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as
something of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British
flag was hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent
land declared to be British. The fact appears to be that British
statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over
Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never
give his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to the
German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed in
Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were
sent. Meanwhile the various colonial societies established in
Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, and, more
important still, they had convinced the great chancellor.
Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. Liideritz, a
Bremen merchant, informed the German government of his
intention to establish a factory on the coast between the Orange
river and the Little Fash river, and asked if he might rely on the
protection of his government in case of need, he met with no
discouragement from Prince Bismarck. In February 1883 the
German ambassador in London informed Lord Granville of
Luderitz's design, and asked " whether Her Majesty's government
exercise any authority in that locality." It was intimated that
if Her Majesty's government did not, the German government
would extend to Luderitz's factory " the same measure of pro-
tection which they give to their subjects in remote parts of the
world, but without having the least design to establish any foot-
ing in South Africa." An inconclusive reply was sent, and on
the gth of April Luderitz's agent landed at Angra Pequena, and
after a short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by
which some 215 square miles around Angra Pequena were ceded
to Liideritz. In England and at the Cape irritation at the news
was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated that
Liideritz would be disavowed by his government. But for this
belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of the unoccupied
coast-line would have been promptly declared under British
protection. Still Prince Bismarck was slow to act. In November
the German ambassador again inquired if Great Britain made
any claim over this coast, and Lord Granville replied that Her
Majesty exercised sovereignty only over certain parts of the
coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested that arrangements might
be made by which Germany might assist in the settlement of
Angra Pequena. By this time Liideritz had extended his acquisi-
tions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared
by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape
Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized
that Germany had broken away from her former purely con-
tinental policy, and, when too late, the Cape parliament showed
great eagerness to acquire the territory which had lain so long at
its very doors, to be had for the taking. It is not necessary to
follow the course of the subsequent negotiations. On the 1 5th

338

AFRICA

[HISTORY

of August 1884 an official note was addressed by the German
consul at Capetown to the high commissioner, intimating that
the German emperor had by proclamation taken " the territory
belonging to Mr A. Luderitz on the west coast of Africa under the
direct protection of His Majesty." This proclamation covered
the coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26° S.
latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including " the
islands belonging thereto by the law of nations." On the 8th
of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her
Majesty's government " that the west coast of Africa from 26°
S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had been placed
under the protection of the German emperor." Thus, before the
end of the year 1884, the foundations of Germany's colonial
empire had been laid in South- West Africa.

In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British
government, through the German charge d'affaires in London,
Nachtigai's that " the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has
mission to been commissioned by my government to visit the west
coast of Africa in the course of the next few months,
in order to complete the information now in the posses-
sion of the Foreign Office at Berlin, on the state of German com-
merce on that coast. With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly
embark at Lisbon, on board the gunboat ' Mowe.' He will put
himself into communication with the authorities in the British
possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on
behalf of the imperial government, negotiations connected with
certain questions. I venture," the official communication proceeds,
" in accordance with my instructions, to beg your excellency to be
so good as to cause the authorities in the British possessions in
West Africa to be furnished with suitable recommendations."
Although at the date of this communication it must have been
apparent, from what was happening in South Africa, that
Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of colonial expansion,
and although the wording of the letter was studiously vague, it
does not seem to have occurred to the British government that
the real object of Gustav Nachtigai's journey was to make other
annexations on the west coast. Yet such was indeed his mission.
German traders and missionaries had been particularly active of
late years on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. German factories
were dotted all along the coast in districts under British protec-
tion, under French protection and under the definite protection
of no European power at all. It was to these latter places that
Nachtigal turned his attention. The net result of his operations
was that on the 5th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the
king of Togo, placing his country under German protection, and
that just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed
over the Cameroon district. Before either of these events had
occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that she could
no longer dally with the subject, if she desired to consolidate her
possessions in West Africa. The British government had again
and again refused to accord native chiefs the protection they
demanded. The Cameroon chiefs had several times asked for
British protection, and always in vain. But at last it became
apparent, even to the official mind, that rapid changes were being
effected in Africa, and on the i6th of May Edward Hyde Hewett,
British consul, received instructions to return to the west coast
and to make arrangements for extending British protection over
certain regions. He arrived too late to save either Togoland or
Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King Bell and
the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with Nachtigal.
But the British consul was in time to secure the delta of the river
Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending from Rio del Rey
to the Lagos frontier, where for a long period British traders
had held almost a monopoly of the trade.

Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making. While
the British government still remained under the spell of the
prenc/I afl</ fatal resolution of 1865, the French government was
British strenuously endeavouring to extend France's influence
rivalry la jn West Africa, in the countries lying behind the coast-
AMca. line- During the year 1884 no fewer than forty-two
treaties were concluded with native chiefs, an even
larger number having been concluded in the previous twelve

months. In this fashion France was pushing on towards
Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the policy which resulted in
surrounding all the old British possessions in West Africa with
a continuous band of French territory. There was, however,
one region on the west coast where, notwithstanding the lethargy
of the British government, British interests were being vigorously
pushed, protected and consolidated. This was on the lower
Niger, and the leading spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie
Taubman (afterwards Sir George Taubman Goldie). In 1877
Sir George Goldie visited the Niger and conceived the idea of
establishing a settled government in that region. Through
his efforts the various trading firms en the lower Niger formed
themselves in 1879 into the " United African Company," and
the foundations were laid of something like settled administra-
tion. An application was made to the British government for a
charter in 1881, and the capital of the company increased to a
million sterling. Henceforth the company was known as the
" National African Company," and it was acknowledged that
its object was not only to develop the trade of the lower Niger,
but to extend its operations to the middle reaches of the river,
and to open up direct relations with the great Fula empire of
Sokoto and the smaller states associated with Sokoto under a
somewhat loosely defined suzerainty. The great development
of trade which followed the combination of British interests
carried out under Goldie's skilful guidance did not pass unnoticed
in France, and, encouraged by Gambetta, French traders made a
bold bid for a position on the river. Two French companies,
with ample capital, were formed, and various stations were
established on the lower Niger. Goldie realized at once the
seriousness of the situation, and lost no time in declaring com-
mercial war on the newcomers. His bold tactics were entirely
successful, and a few days before the meeting of the Berlin
conference he had the satisfaction of announcing that he had
bought out the whole of the French interests on the river, and
that Great Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower
Niger.

To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at
the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to
refer briefly to the course of events in North and East The posi-
Africa since 1875. In 1881 a French army entered tloa la
Tunisia, and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing
that country under French protection. The sultan of
Turkey formally protested against this invasion of Ottoman
rights, but the great powers took no action, and France was
left in undisturbed possession of her newly acquired territory.
In Egypt the extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to 'ie
establishment in 1879, in the interests of European bond-
holders, of a Dual Control exercised by France and Great Britain.
France had, however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppres-
sion of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished
unaided. As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished
in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army
quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position
in Egyptian affairs (see EGYPT). In East Africa, north of the
Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was the
most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly
preparing the foundations of her present colony of German
East Africa. But no overt act had warned Europe of what
was impending. The story of the foundation of German East
Africa is one of the romances of the continent. Early in 1884
the Society for German Colonization was founded, with the
avowed object of furthering the newly awakened colonial
aspirations of the German people.1 It was a society inspired
and controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884,
eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three
young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar. They
were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters,
the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count Pfeil,
and Dr Jiihlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of a number

1 In 1887 this society united with the German Colonial Society,
an organization founded in 1882. The united society took the title
of the German Colonial Company.

HISTORY]

AFRICA

339

Inter-
national
Associa-
tion.

of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms. They
proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and
to conclude treaties in the back country with native
German chiefs placing their territories under German pro-
fiag raised tection. The enterprise was frowned upon by the
In Bast German government; but, encouraged by German
Africa. residents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed
to the mainland, and on the igth of November, while the diplo-
matists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules
which were to govern the game of partition, the first " treaty "
was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first
time in East Africa.

Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent
before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino
Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of
Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that it was
declared an Italian colony. This was followed by the conclusion
of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the Danakil, signed
on the 1 5th of March 1883, and subsequently approved by the
king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the cession of part of Ablis
(Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy undertaking to protect with her
fleet the Danakil littoral.

One other event must be recorded as happening before the
meeting of the Berlin conference. The king of the Belgians had
been driven to the conclusion that, if his African
«on°o/<Ae enterprise was to obtain any measure of permanent
success, its international status must be recognized.
To this end negotiations were opened with various
governments. The first government to " recognize
the flag of the International Association of the Congo
as the flag of a friendly government " was that of the United
States, its declaration to that effect bearing date the 22nd of
April 1884. There were, however, difficulties in the way of
obtaining the recognition of the European powers, and in order
to obtain that of France, King Leopold, on the 23rd of April
1884, while labouring under tha feelings of annoyance which
had been aroused by the Anglo-Portuguese treaty concluded by
Lord Granville in February, authorized Colonel Strauch, presi-
dent of the International Association, to engage to give France
" the right of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances,
the Association were compelled to sell its possessions." France's
formal recognition of the Association as a government was,
however, delayed by the discussion of boundary questions until
the following February, and in the meantime Germany, Great
Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Holland and Spain had all recog-
nized the Association; though Germany alone had done so — on
the 8th of November — before the assembling of the conference.

The conference assembled at Berlin on the i5th of November
1884, and after protracted deliberations the " General Act of
the Berlin Conference " was signed by the representa-
tives of all the powers attending the conference, on
the 26th of February 1885. The powers represented
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark,
Spain, the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy,
Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey,
to name them in the alphabetical order adopted in the preamble
to the French text of the General Act. Ratifications were
deposited by all the signatory powers with the exception of the
United States. It is unnecessary to examine in detail the
results of the labours of the conference. The General Act dealt
with six specific subjects: (i) freedom of trade in the basin of
the Congo, (2) the slave trade, (3) neutrality of territories in the
basin of the Congo, (4) navigation of the Congo, (5) navigation
of the Niger, (6) rules for future occupation on the coasts of the
African continent. It will be seen that the act dealt with other
matters than the political partition of Africa; but, so far as
they concern the present purpose, the results effected by the
Berlin Act may be summed up as follows. The signatory powers
undertook that any fresh act of taking possession on any portion
of the African coast must be notified by the power taking posses-
sion, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory powers.
It was further provided that any such occupation to be valid

The
Berlin
Confer-
ence of
1884-85.

must be effective. It is also noteworthy that the first reference
in an international act to the obligations attaching to " spheres
of influence " is contained in the Berlin Act.

It will be remembered that when the conference assembled,
the International Association of the Congo had only been recog-
nized as a sovereign state by the United States and
Germany. But King Leopold and his agents had tioifofthe
taken full advantage of the opportunity which the cg$l£
conference afforded, and before the General Act was
signed the Association had been recognized by all the signatory
powers, with the not very important exception of Turkey, and
the fact communicated to the conference by Colonel Strauch.
It was not, however, until two months later, in April 1885, that
King Leopold, with the sanction of the Belgian legislature,
formally assumed the headship of the new state; and on the
ist of August in the same year His Majesty notified the powers
that from that date the " Independent State of the Congo "
declared that " it shall be perpetually neutral " in conformity
with the provisions of the Berlin Act. Thus was finally consti-
tuted the Congo Free State, under the sovereignty of King
Leopold, though the boundaries claimed for it. at that time were
considerably modified by subsequent agreements.

From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with
renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the
century the work of partition, so far as international The
agreements were concerned, was practically completed. cnief
To attempt to follow the process of acquisition year partition
by year would involve a constant shifting of attention treaties.
from one part of the continent to another, inasmuch as the
scramble was proceeding simultaneously all over Africa. It will
therefore be the most convenient plan to deal with the continent
in sections. Before doing so, however, the international agree-
ments which determined in the main the limits of the possessions
of the various powers may be set forth. They are : —

I. The agreement of the ist of July 1890 between Great
Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in East,
West and South-West Africa. This agreement was the most
comprehensive of all the " deals " in African territory, and in-
cluded in return for the recognition of a British protectorate
over Zanzibar the cession of Heligoland to Germany.

II. The Anglo-French declaration of the 5th of August 1890,
which recognized a French protectorate over Madagascar,
French influence in the Sahara, and British influence between
the Niger and Lake Chad.

III. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of the nth of June 1891,
whereby the Portuguese possessions on the west and east coasts
were separated by a broad belt of British territory, extending
north to Lake Tanganyika.

IV. The Franco-German convention of the isth of March
1894, by which the Central Sudan was left to France (this region
by an Anglo-German agreement of the isth of November 1893
having been recognized as in the German sphere). By this
convention France was able to effect a territorial junction of
her possessions in North and West Africa with those in the Congo
region.

V. Protocols of the 24th of March and the isth of April 1891,
for the demarcation of the Anglo-Italian spheres in East Africa.

VI. The Anglo-French convention of the i4th of June 1898,
for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries west
of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration of the 2 ist
of March 1899 whereby France recognized the upper Nile valley
as in the British sphere of influence.

Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations
of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free State, which occu-
pied, geographically, a central position, may serve as The
the starting-point for the story of the partition after growth of
the Berlin conference. In the notification to the taeCoago
powers of the ist of August 1885, the boundaries of the
Free State were set out in considerable detail. The limits thus
determined resulted partly from agreements made with France,
Germany and Portugal, and partly from treaties with native
chiefs. The state acquired the north bank of the Congo from

340

AFRICA

[HISTORY

its mouth to a point in the unnavigable reaches, and in the
interior the major part of the Congo basin. In the north-east
the northern limit was 4° N. up to 30° E., which formed the
eastern boundary of the state. The south-eastern frontier
claimed by King Leopold extended to Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru
and Bangweulu, but it was not until some years later that it
was recognized and defined by the agreement of May 1894 with
Great Britain. The international character of King Leopold's
enterprise had not long been maintained, and his recognition as
sovereign of the Free State confirmed the distinctive character
which the Association had assumed, even before that event.

In April 1887 France was informed that the right of pre-
emption accorded to her in 1884 had not been intended by King
Leopold to prejudice Belgium's right to acquire the Congo State,
and in reply the French minister at Brussels took note of the
explanation, " in so far as this interpretation is not contrary to
pre-existing international engagements." By his will, dated the
2nd of August 1889, King Leopold made Belgium formally heir to
the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. In 1895 an annexa-
tion bill was introduced into the Belgian parliament, but at that
time Belgium had no desire to assume responsibility for the
Congo State, and the bill was withdrawn. In 1901, by the terms
of a loan granted in 1890, Belgium had again an opportunity of
annexing the Congo State, but a bill in favour of annexation was
opposed by the government and was withdrawn after King
Leopold had declared that the time was not ripe for the transfer.
Concessionaire companies and a Domaine de la Couronne had been
created in the state, from which the sovereign derived consider-
able revenues — facts which helped to explain the altered attitude
of Leopold II. The agitation in Great Britain and America
against the Congo system of government, and the admissions of
an official commission of inquiry concerning its maladministra-
tion, strengthened, however, the movement in favour of transfer.
Nevertheless in June 1906 the king again declared himself
opposed to immediate annexation. But under pressure of public
opinion the Congo government concluded, 2§th of November
1907, a new annexation treaty. As it stipulated for the continued
existence of the crown domain the treaty provoked vehement
opposition. Leopold II. was forced to yield, and an additional
act was signed, sth of March 1908, providing for the suppression
of the domain in return for financial subsidies. The treaty, as
amended, was approved by the Belgian parliament in the session
of 1908. Thus the Congo state, after an existence of 24 years
as an independent power, became a Belgian colony. (See
CONGO FREE STATE.)

The area of the Free State, vast as it was, did not suffice to
satisfy the ambition of its sovereign. King Leopold maintained
that the Free State enjoyed equally with any other state the
right to extend its frontiers. His ambition involved the state in
the struggle between Great Britain and France for the upper
Nile. To understand the situation it is necessary to remember
the condition of the Egyptian Sudan at that time. The mahdi,
Mahommed Ahmed, had preached a holy war against the
Egyptians, and, after the capture of Khartum and the death of
General C. G. Gordon, the Sudan was abandoned to the dervishes.
The Egyptian frontier was withdrawn to Wadi Haifa, and the
vast provinces of Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were
given over to dervish tyranny and misrule. It was obvious that
Egypt would sooner or later seek to recover her position in the
Sudan, as the command of the upper Nile was recognized as
essential to her continued prosperity. But the international
position of the abandoned provinces was by no means clear.
The British government, by the Anglo-German agreement of
July 1890, had secured the assent of Germany to the statement
that the British sphere of influence in East Africa was bounded
on the west by the Congo Free State and by " the western water-
shed of the basin of the upper Nile "; but this claim was not
recognized either by France or by the Congo Free State. From
her base on the Congo, France was busily engaged pushing
forward along the northern tributaries of the great river. On
the 27th of April 1887 an agreement was signed with the Congo
Free State by which the right bank of the Ubangi river was

secured to French influence, and the left bank to the Congo Free
State. The desire of France to secure a footing in the upper
Nile valley was partly due, as has been seen, to her anxiety to
extend a French zone across Africa, but it was also and to a large
extent attributable to the belief, widely entertained The
in France, that by establishing herself on the upper contest
Nile France could regain the position in Egyptian *°r"'<!
affairs which she had sacrificed in 1882. With these "pper
strong inducements France set steadily to work to consolidate
her position on the tributary streams of the upper Congo basin,
preparatory to crossing into the valley of ^he upper Nile. Mean-
while a similar advance was being made from the Congo Free
State northwards and eastwards. King Leopold had two objects
in view — to obtain control of the rich province of the Bahr-el-
Ghazal and to secure an outlet on the Nile. Stations were
established on the Welle river, and in February 1891 Captain
van Kerckhoven left Leopoldville for the upper Welle with the
most powerful expedition which had, up to that time, been
organized by the Free State. After some heavy fighting the
expedition reached the Nile in September 1892, and opened up
communications with the remains of the old Egyptian garrison
at Wadelai. Other expeditions under Belgian officers penetrated
into the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and it was apparent that King Leopold
proposed to rely on effective occupation as an answer to any
claims which might be advanced by either Great Britain or
France. The news of what was happening in this remote region
of Africa filtered through to Europe very slowly, but King
Leopold was warned on several occasions that Great Britain
would not recognize any claims by the Congo Free State on the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. The difficulty was, however, that neither from
Egypt, whence the road was barred by the khalifa (the successor
of the mahdi), nor from Uganda, which was far too remote from
the coast to serve as the base of a large expedition, could a
British force be despatched to take effective occupation of the
upper Nile valley. There was, therefore, danger lest the French
should succeed in establishing themselves on the upper Nile
before the preparations which were being made in Egypt for
" smashing " the khalifa were completed.

In these circumstances Lord Rosebery, who was then British
foreign minister, began, and his successor, the ist earl of
Kimberley, completed, negotiations with King Leopold The Aagi0.
which resulted in the conclusion of the Anglo- Congolese Congolese
agreement of 1 2th May 1894. By this agreement King agreement
Leopold recognized the British sphere of influence otl894-
as laid down in the Anglo-German agreement of July 1890,
and Great Britain granted a lease to King Leopold of certain
territories in the western basin of the upper Nile, extending on
the Nile from a point on Lake Albert to Fashoda, and westwards
to the Congo-Nile watershed. The practical effect of this agree -
ment was to give the Congo Free State a lease, during its
sovereign's lifetime, of the old Bahr-el-Ghazal province, and to
secure after His Majesty's death as much of that territory as
lay west of the 3oth meridian, together with access to a port on
Lake Albert, to his successor. At the same time the Congo Free
State leased to Great Britain a strip of territory, is|m. in
breadth, between the north end of Lake Tanganyika and the
south end of Lake Albert Edward. This agreement was hailed
as a notable triumph for British diplomacy. But the triumph
was short-lived. By the agreement of July 1890 with Germany,
Great Britain had been reluctantly compelled to abandon her
hopes of through communication between the British spheres
in the northern and southern parts of the continent, and to
consent to the boundary of German East Africa marching with
the eastern frontier of the Congo Free State. Germany frankly
avowed that she did not wish to have a powerful neighbour
interposed between herself and the Congo Free State. It was
obvious that the new agreement would effect precisely what
Germany had declined to agree to in 1890. Accordingly Germany
protested in such vigorous terms that, on the 22nd of June 1894,
the offending article was withdrawn by an exchange of notes
between Great Britain and the Congo Free State. Opinion in
France was equally excited by the new agreement. It was

HISTORY]

AFRICA

341

obvious that the lease to the Congo Free State was intended
to exclude France from the Nile by placing the Congo Free State .
as a barrier across her path. Pressure was brought to bear on
King Leopold, from Paris, to renounce the rights acquired under
the agreement, and on the I4th of August 1894 King Leopold
signed an agreement with France by which, in exchange for
France's acknowledgment of the Mbomu river as his northern
frontier, His Majesty renounced all occupation and all exercise
of political influence west of 30° E., and north of a line drawn
from that meridian to the Nile along 5° 30' N.

This left the way still open for France to the Nile, and in
June i8g6 Captain J. Marchand left France with secret instruc-
tions to lead an expedition into the Nile valley. On the ist of
March in the following year he left Brazzaville, and began a
journey which all but plunged Great Britain and France into
war. The difficulties which Captain Marchand had to overcome
were mainly those connected with transport. In October 1897
the expedition.reached the banks of the Sue, the waters of which
eventually flow into the Nile. Here a post was established and
the " Faidherbe," a steamer which had been carried across the
Congo-Nile watershed in sections, was put together and launched.
On the ist of May 1898 Marchand started on the final stage of
his journey, and reached Fashoda on the loth of July, having
established a chain of posts en route. At Fashoda the French
flag was at once raised, and a " treaty " made with the local
chief. Meanwhile other expeditions had been concentrating on
Fashoda — a mud-flat situated in a swamp, round
wnich for many months raged the angry passions of
Fashoda. two great peoples. French expeditions, with a certain
amount of assistance from the emperor Menelek of
Abyssinia, had been striving to reach the Nile from the east, so
as to join hands with Marchand and complete the line of posts
into the Abyssinian frontier. In this, however, they were un-
successful. No better success attended the expedition under
Colonel (afterwards Sir) Ronald Macdonald, R.E., sent by the
British government from Uganda to anticipate the French in the
occupation of the upper Nile. It was from the north that
claimants arrived to dispute with the French their right to
Fashoda, and all that the occupation of that dismal post implied.
In 1896 an Anglo-Egyptian army, under the direction of Sir
Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, had begun to advance
southwards for the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan. On the
2nd of September 1898 Khartum was captured, and the khalifa's
army dispersed. It was then that news reached the Anglo-
Egyptian commander, from native sources, that there were
white men flying a strange flag at Fashoda. The sirdar at once
proceeded in a steamer up the Nile, and courteously but firmly
requested Captain Marchand to remove the French flag. On
his refusal the Egyptian flag was raised close to the French flag,
and the dispute was referred to Europe for adjustment between
the British and French governments. A critical situation ensued.
Neither government was inclined to give way, and for a time
war seemed imminent. Happily Lord Salisbury was able to
announce, on the 4th of November, that France was willing to
recognize the British claims, and the incident was finally closed
on the 2 ist of March 1899, when an Anglo-French declaration
was signed, by the terms of which France withdrew from the
Nile valley and accepted a boundary line which satisfied her
earlier ambition by uniting the whole of her territories in North,
West and Central Africa into a homogeneous whole, while effectu-
ally preventing the realization of her dream of a transcontinental
empire from west to east. By this declaration it was agreed
that the dividing line between the British and French spheres,
north of the Congo Free State, should follow the Congo-Nile
water-parting up to its intersection with the nth parallel of
north latitude, from which point it was to be " drawn as far
as the 1 5th parallel in such a manner as to separate in principle
the kingdom of Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the province
of Darfur," but in no case was it to be drawn west of the 2 ist
degree of east longitude, or east of the 23rd degree. From the
1 5th parallel the line was continued north and north-west to the
intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with 16° E. French influence

was to prevail west of this line, British influence to the east.
Wadai was thus definitely assigned to France.

When, by the declaration of the 2 ist of March 1899, France
renounced all territorial ambitioHS in the upper Nile basin, King
Leopold revived his claims to the Bahr-el-Ghazal
province under the terms of the lease granted by
Article 2 of the Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894. el-ohazal.
This step he was encouraged to take by the assertion
of Lord Salisbury, in his capacity as secretary of state for foreign
affairs during the negotiations with France concerning Fashoda,
that the lease to King Leopold was still in full force. But the
assertion was made simply as a declaration of British right to
dispose of the territory, and the sovereign of the Congo State
found that there was no disposition in Great Britain to allow
the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall into his hands. Long and fruitless
negotiations ensued. The king at length (1904) sought to force
a settlement by sending armed forces into the province. Diplo-
matic representations having failed to secure the withdrawal of
these forces, the Sudan government issued a proclamation
which had the effect of cutting off the Congo stations from
communication with the Nile, and finally King Leopold con-
sented to an agreement, signed in London on the gih of May
1906, whereby the 1894 lease was formally annulled. The
Bahr-el-Ghazal thenceforth became undisputedly an integral
part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. King Leopold had, however,
by virtue of the 1894 agreement administered the comparatively
small portion of the leased area in which his presence was not
resented by France. This territory, including part of the west
bank of the Nile and known as the Lado Enclave, the 1906
agreement allowed King Leopold to " continue during his reign
to occupy." Provision was made that within six months of
the termination of His Majesty's reign the enclave should be
handed over to the Sudan government (see CONGO FKEE STATE).
In this manner ended the long struggle for supremacy on the
upper Nile, Great Britain securing the withdrawal of all European
rivals.

The course of events in the southern half of the continent
may now be traced. By the convention of the i4th of February
1885, in which Portugal recognized the sovereignty of portugaFs
the Congo Free State, and by a further convention trans-
concluded with France in 1886, Portugal secured Atf^
recognition of her claim to the territory known as
the Kabinda enclave, lying north of the Congo, but not to the
northern bank of the river. By the same convention of 1885
Portugal's claim to the southern bank of the river as far as Noki
(the limit of navigation from the sea) had been admitted. Thus
Portuguese possessions on the west coast extended from the
Congo to the mouth of the Kunene river. In the interior the
boundary with the Free -State was settled as far as the Kwango
river, but disputes arose as to the right to the country of Lunda,
otherwise known as the territory of the Muato Yanvo. On the
25th of May 1891 a treaty was signed at Lisbon, by which this
large territory was divided between Portugal and the Free State.
The interior limits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa south
of the equator gave rise, however, to much more serious discus-
sions than were involved in the dispute as to the Muato Yanvo's
kingdom. Portugal, as has been stated, claimed all the territories
between Angola and Mozambique, and she succeeded in inducing
both France and Germany, in 1886, to recognize the king of
Portugal's " right to exercise his sovereign and civilizing influence
in the territories which separate the Portuguese possessions of
Angola and Mozambique." The publication of the treaties
containing this declaration, together with a map showing
Portuguese claims extending over the whole of the Zambezi
valley, and over Matabeleland to the south and the greater part
of Lake Nyasa to the north, immediately provoked a formal
protest from the British government. On the i3th of August
1887 the British charge d'affaires at Lisbon transmitted to the
Portuguese minister for foreign affairs a memorandum from
Lord Salisbury, in which the latter formally protested " against
any claims not founded on occupation," and contended that the
doctrine of effective occupation had been admitted in principle

342

AFRICA

[HISTORY

by all the parties to the Act of Berlin. Lord Salisbury further
stated that " Her Majesty's government cannot recognize
Portuguese sovereignty in territory not occupied by her in
sufficient strength to enable her to maintain order, protect
foreigners and control the natives." To this Portugal replied
that the doctrine of effective occupation was expressly confined
by the Berlin Act to the African coast, but at the same time
expeditions were hastily despatched up the Zambezi and some
of its tributaries to discover traces of former Portuguese occu-
pation. Matabeleland and the districts of Lake Nyasa were
specially mentioned in the British protest as countries in which
Her Majesty's government took a special interest. As a matter
of fact the extension of British influence northwards to the
Zambezi had engaged the attention of the British authorities
ever since the appearance of Germany in South- West Africa
and the declaration of a British protectorate over Bechuanaland.
There were rumours of German activity in Matabeleland, and
Rhodesia °f a Boer trek north of the Limpopo. Hunters and
secured for explorers had reported in eulogistic terms on the rich
Britain goldfields and healthy plateau lands of Matabeleland
and Mashonaland, over both of which countries a
powerful chief, Lobengula, claimed authority. There were many
suitors for Lobengula's favours; but on the nth of February
1888 he signed a treaty with J. S. Moffat, the assistant commis-
sioner in Bechuanaland, the effect of which was to place all his
territory under British protection. Both the Portuguese and
the Transvaal Boers were chagrined at this extension of British
influence. A number of Boers attempted unsuccessfully to
trek into the country, and Portugal opposed her ancient claims
to the new treaty. She contended that Lobengula's authority
did not extend over Mashonaland, which she claimed as part of
the Portuguese province of Sofala.

Meanwhile preparations were being actively made by British
capitalists for the exploitation of the mineral and other resources
of Lobengula's territories. Two rival syndicates obtained, or
claimed to have obtained, concessions from Lobengula; but in
the summer of 1889 Cecil Rhodes succeeded in amalgamating
the conflicting interests, and on the zgth of October of that year
the British government granted a charter to the British South
Africa Company (see RHODESIA) . The first article of the charter
declared that " the principal field of the operations " of the
company " shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately
to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west
of the South African Republic, and to the west of the Portuguese
dominions." No time was lost in making preparations for
effective occupation. On the advice of F. C. Selous it was deter-
mined to despatch an expedition to eastern Mashonaland by a
new route, which would avoid the Matabele country. This plan
was carried out in the summer of 1890, and, thanks to the rapidity
with which the column moved and Selous's intimate knowledge
of the country, the British flag was, on the i ith of September,
hoisted at a spot on the Makubusi river, where the town of
Salisbury now stands, and the country taken possession of in
the name of Queen Victoria. Disputes with the Portuguese
ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for a
time embittered the relations between the two countries.

Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were
making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect
An lo- °^ centur'es by hastily organized expeditions and the
Portu- hoisting of flags. In 1888 an attempt to close the
guete dis- Zambezi to British vessels was frustrated by the firm-

"central ness °f Lord Salisbury- In a despatch to the British
AM™. minister at Lisbon, dated the 25th of June 1888, Lord
Salisbury, after brushing aside the Portuguese claims
founded on doubtful discoveries three centuries old, stated the
British case in a few sentences: —

It is (he wrote) an undisputed point that the recent discoveries
of the English traveller, Livingstone, were followed by organized
attempts on the part of English religious and commercial bodies to
open up and civilize the districts surrounding and adjoining the lake.
Many British settlements have been established, the access to which
from the sea is by the rivers Zambesi and Shir£. Her Majesty's
government and the British public are much interested in the welfare

of these settlements. Portugal does not occupy, and has never occu-
pied, any portion of the lake, nor of the Shir6; she has neither
authority nor influence beyond the confluence of the Shire and
Zambesi, where her interior custom-house, now withdrawn, was
placed by the terms of the Mozambique Tariff of 1877.

In 1889 it became known to the British government that a
considerable Portuguese expedition was being organized under
the command of Major Serpa Pinto, for operating in the Zambezi
region. In answer to inquiries addressed to the Portuguese
government, the foreign minister stated that the object of the
expedition was to visit the Portuguese settlements on the upper
Zambezi. The British government was, even so late as 1889,
averse from declaring a formal protectorate over the Nyasa
region; but early in that year H. H. (afterwards Sir Harry)
Johnston was sent out to Mozambique as British consul, with
instructions to travel in the interior and report on the troubles
that had arisen with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa and with the
Portuguese. The discovery by D. J. Rankin in 1889 of a navi-
gable mouth of the Zambezi — the Chinde — and the offer by
Cecil Rhodes of a subsidy of £10,000 a year from the British
South Africa Company, removed some of the objections to
a protectorate entertained by the British government; but
Johnston's instructions were not to proclaim a protectorate
unless circumstances compelled him to take that course. To
his surprise Johnston learnt on his arrival at the Zambezi that
Major Serpa Pinto's expedition had been suddenly deflected to
the north. Hurrying forward, Johnston overtook the Portu-
guese expedition and warned its leader that any attempt to
establish political influence north of the Ruo river would compel
him to take steps to protect British interests. On arrival at the
Ruo, Major Serpa Pinto returned to Mozambique for instruc-
tions, and in his absence Lieutenant Coutinho crossed the river,
attacked the Makololo chiefs and sought to obtain possession of
the Shire highlands by a coup de main. John Buchanan, the
British vice-consul, lost no time in declaring the country under
British protection, and his action was subsequently confirmed
by Johnston on his return from a treaty-making expedition on
Lake Nyasa. On the news of these events reaching Europe the
British government addressed an ultimatum to Portugal, as the
result of which Lieutenant Coutinho's action was disavowed,
and he was ordered to withdraw the Portuguese forces south
of the Ruo. After prolonged negotiations, a convention was
signed between Great Britain and Portugal on the zoth of August
1890, by which Great Britain obtained a broad belt of territory
north of the Zambezi, stretching from Lake Nyasa on the east,
the southern end of Tanganyika on the north, and the Kabompo
tributary of the Zambezi on the west; while south of the Zambezi
Portugal retained the right bank of the river from a point ten
miles above Zumbo, and the western boundary of her territory
south of the river was made to coincide roughly with the 33rd
degree of east longitude. The publication of the convention
aroused deep resentment in Portugal, and the government,
unable to obtain its ratification by the chamber of deputies,
resigned. In October the abandonment of the convention was
accepted by the new Portuguese ministry as a fait accompli ;
but on the i4th of November the two governments signed an
agreement for a modus vivendi, by which they engaged to recog-
nize the territorial limits indicated in the convention of .zoth
August " in so far that from the date of the present agreement
to the termination thereof neither Power will make BrlUsh

treaties, accept protectorates, nor exercise any act of
sovereignty within the spheres of influence assigned
to the other party by the said convention." The
breathing-space thus gained enabled feeling inPortugal
to cool down, and on the nth of June 1891 another treaty was
signed, the ratifications being exchanged on the 3rd of July.
As already stated, this is the main treaty defining the British
and Portuguese spheres both south and north of the Zambezi.
It contained many other provisions relating to trade and naviga-
tion, providing, inter alia, a maximum transit duty of 3%
on imports and exports crossing Portuguese territories on the
east coast to the British sphere, freedom of navigation of the

HISTORY]

AFRICA

343

Zambezi and Shire for the ships of all nations, and stipula-
tions as to the making of railways, roads and telegraphs. The
territorial readjustment effected was slightly more favourable
to Portugal than that agreed upon by the 1890 convention.
Portugal was given both banks of the Zambezi to a point ten
miles west of Zumbo — the farthest settlement of the Portuguese
on the river. South of the Zambezi the frontier takes a south
and then an east course till it reaches the edge of the continental
plateau, thence running, roughly, along the line of 33° E. south-
ward to the north-eastern frontier of the Transvaal. Thus by
this treaty Portugal was left in the possession of the coast-lands,
while Great Britain maintained her right to Matabele and
Mashona lands. The boundary between the Portuguese sphere
of influence on the west coast and the British sphere of influence
north of the Zambezi was only vaguely indicated; but it was
to be drawn in such a manner as to leave the Barotse country
within the British sphere, Lewanika, the paramount chief of
the Marotse, claiming that his territory extended much farther
to the west than was admitted by the Portuguese. In August
1903 the question what were the limits of the Barotse kingdom
was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy. By his
award, delivered in June 1905, the western limit of the British
sphere runs from the northern frontier of German South-West
Africa up the Kwando river to 22° E., follows that meridian north
to 13° S., then runs due east to 24° E., and then north again to
the frontier of the Congo State.

Before the conclusion of the treaty of June 1891 with Portugal,
the British government had made certain arrangements for the
administration of the large area north of the Zambezi reserved
to British influence. On the ist of February Sir Harry Johnston
was appointed imperial commissioner in Nyasaland, and a fort-
night later the British South Africa Company intimated a
desire to extend its operations north of the Zambezi. Negotia-
tions followed, and the field of operations of the Chartered
Company was, on the 2nd of April 1891, extended so as to cover
(with the exception of Nyasaland) the whole of the British
sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (now known as Northern
Rhodesia). On the i4th of May a formal protectorate was
declared over Nyasaland, including the Shire highlands and a
belt of territory extending along the whole of the western shore
of Lake Nyasa. The name was changed in 1893 to that of the
British Central Africa Protectorate, for which designation was
substituted in 1907 the more appropriate title of Nyasaland
Protectorate.

At the date of the assembling of the Berlin conference the
German government had notified that the coast-line on the
Germany's south-west of the continent, from the Orange river to
share of Cape Frio, had been placed under German protection.
South On the i3th of April 1885 the German South-West
Africa Company was constituted under an order of the
imperial cabinet with the rights of state sovereignty, including
mining royalties and rights, and a railway and telegraph mono-
poly. In that and the following years the Germans vigorously
pursued the business of treaty-making with the native chiefs in
the interior; and when, in July 1890, the British and German
governments came to an agreement as to the limits of their
respective spheres of influence in various parts of Africa, the
boundaries of German South-West Africa were fixed in their
present position. By Article III. of this agreement the north
bank of the Orange river up to the point of its intersection by the
2oth degree of east longitude was made the southern boundary
of the German sphere of influence. The eastern boundary fol-
lowed the 20th degree of east longitude to its intersection by the
22nd parallel of south latitude, then ran eastwards along that
parallel to the point of its intersection by the 2ist degree of east
longitude. From that point it ran northwards along the last-
named meridian to the point of its intersection by the i8th
parallel of south latitude, thence eastwards along that parallel to
the river Chobe or Kwando, and along the main channel of that
river to its junction with the Zambezi, where it terminated. The
northern frontier marched with the southern boundary of Portu-
guese West Africa. The object of deflecting the eastern boundary

near its northern termination was to give Germany access by her
own territory to the upper waters of the Zambezi, and it was
declared that this strip of territory was at no part to be less than
20 English miles in width.

To complete the survey of the political partition of Africa south
of the Zambezi, it is necessary briefly to refer to the events con-
nected with the South African Republic and the Orange
Free State. In October 1886 the British government
made an agreement with the New Republic, a small Republics.
community of Boer farmers who had in 1884-85 seized
part of Zululand and set up a government of their own, defining
the frontier between the New Republic and Zululand; but in
July 1888 the New Republic was incorporated in the South
African Republic. In a convention of July- August 1890 the
British government and the government of the South African
Republic confirmed the independence of Swaziland, and on the
8th of November 1893 another convention was signed with the
same object; but on the igth of December 1894 the British
government agreed to the South African Republic exercising
"all rights and powers of protection, legislation, jurisdiction
and administration over Swaziland and the inhabitants thereof,"
subject to certain conditions and provisions, and to the non-
incorporation of Swaziland in the Republic. In the previous
September Pondoland had been annexed to Cape Colony; on the
23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to
be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria, and in December
1897 Zululand and Tongaland, or Amatongaland, were incor-
porated with the colony of Natal. The history of the events that
led up to the Boer War of 1 899-1 902 cannot be recounted here (see
TRANSVAAL, History), but in October 1899 the South African
Republic and the Orange Free State addressed an ultimatum to
Great Britain and invaded Natal and Cape Colony. As a result
of the military operations that followed, the Orange Free State
was, on the 28th of May 1900, proclaimed by Lord Roberts a
British colony under the name " Orange River Colony," and the
South African Republic was on the 25th of October 1900 incor-
porated in the British empire as the " Transvaal Colony." In
January 1903 the districts of Vryheid (formerly the New Re-
public), Utrecht and part of the Wakkerstroom district, a tract
of territory comprising in all about 7000 sq. m., were transferred
from the Transvaal colony to Natal. In 1907 both the Transvaal
and Orange River Colony were granted responsible government.

On the east coast the two great rivals were Germany and Great
Britain. Germany on the 3oth of December 1886, and Great
Britain on the nth of June 1891, formally recognized Aaxi0.
the Rovuma river as the northern boundary of the German
Portuguese sphere of influence on that coast; but it rivalry la
was to the north of that river, over the vast area of ^^M
East or East Central Africa in which the sultan of
Zanzibar claimed to exercise suzerainty, that the struggle be-
tween the two rival powers was most acute. The independence
of the sultans of Zanzibar had been recognized by the govern-
ments of Great Britain and France in 1862, and the sultan's
authority extended almost uninterruptedly along the coast of the
mainland, from Cape Delgado in the south to Warsheik on the
north — a stretch of coast more than a thousand miles long —
though to the north the sultan's authority was confined to certain
ports. In Zanzibar itself, where Sir John Kirk, Livingstone's
companion in his second expedition, was British consul-general,
British influence was, when the Berlin conference met, practically
supreme, though German traders had established themselves on
the island and created considerable commercial interests. Away
from the coasts the limits and extent of the sultan's authority
were far from being clearly defined. The sultan himself claimed
that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but the claim did not
rest on any very solid ground of effective occupation. The little-
known region of the Great Lakes had for some time attracted the
attention of the men who were directing the colonial movement
in Germany; and, as has been stated, a small band of pioneers
actually landed on the mainland opposite Zanzibar in November
1884, and made their first " treaty " with the chief of Mbuzini
on the igth of that month. Pushing up the Wami river the three

344

AFRICA

[HISTORY

adventurers reached the Usagara country, and concluded more
" treaties," the net result being that when, in the middle of
December, Karl Peters returned to the coast he brought back
with him documents which were claimed to concede some 60,000
sq. m. of country to the German Colonization Society. Peters
hurried back to Berlin, and on the zyth of February 1885 the
German emperor issued a " Charter of Protection " by which
His Majesty accepted the suzerainty of the newly-acquired
territory, and " placed under our Imperial protection the
territories in question." The conclusion of these treaties was,
on the 6th of March, notified to the British government and to
the sultan of Zanzibar. Immediately on receipt of the notifica-
tion the sultan telegraphed an energetic protest to Berlin, alleging
that the places placed under German protection had belonged to
the sultanate of Zanzibar from the time of his fathers. The
German consul-general refused to admit the sultan's claims, and
meanwhile agents of the German society were energetically
pursuing the task of treaty-making. The sultan (Seyyid Bargash)
despatched a small force to the disputed territory, which was
subsequently withdrawn, and in May sent a more imposing
expedition under the command of General Lloyd Mathews, the
commander-in-chief of the Zanzibar army, to the Kilimanjaro
district, in order to anticipate the action of German agents.
Meanwhile Lord Granville, then at the British Foreign Office, had
taken up an extremely friendly attitude towards the
a°aa- German claims. Before these events the sultan of
vine's Zanzibar had, on more than one occasion, practically
compials- invited Great Britain to assume a protectorate over
"towards *"s dominions. But the invitations had been declined.
Germany. Egyptian affairs were, in the year 1885, causing con-
siderable anxiety to the British government, and the
fact was not without influence on the attitude of the British
foreign secretary. On the 2$th of May 1885, in a despatch to the
British ambassador at Berlin, Lord Granville instructed Sir E.
Malet to communicate the' views of the British cabinet to Prince
Bismarck: —

I have to request your Excellency to state that the supposition
that Her Majesty's Government have no intention of opposing the
German scheme of colonization in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar
is absolutely correct. Her Majesty's Government, on the contrary,
view with favour these schemes, the realization of which will entail
the civilization of large tracts over which hitherto no European
influence has been exercised, the co-operation of Germany with
Great Britain in the work of the suppression of the slave gangs, and
the encouragement of the efforts of the Sultan both in the extinc-
tion of the slave trade and in the commercial development of his
dominions.

In the same despatch Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet
to intimate to the German government that some prominent
capitalists had originated a plan for a British settlement in the
country between the coast and the lakes, which are the sources
of the White Nile, " and for its connexion with the coast by a
railway." But Her Majesty's government would not accord
to these prominent capitalists the support they had called for,
" unless they were fully satisfied that every precaution was
taken to ensure that it should in no way conflict with the interests
of the territory that has been taken under German protectorate,"
and Prince Bismarck was practically invited to say whether
British capitalists were or were not to receive the protection of
the British government. The reference in Lord Granville's des-
patch was to a proposal made by a number of British merchants
and others who had long been interested in Zanzibar, and who
saw in the rapid advance of Germany a menace to the interests
which had hitherto been regarded as paramount in the sultanate.
In 1884 H. H. Johnston had concluded treaties with the chief
of Taveta in the Kilimanjaro district, and had transferred these
treaties to John Hutton of Manchester. Hutton, with Mr (after-
wards Sir William) Mackinnon, was one of the founders of what
subsequently became the Imperial British East Africa Company.
But in the early stages the champions of British interests in East
Africa received no support from their own government, while
Germany was pushing her advantage with the energy of a recent
convert to colonial expansion, and had even, on the coast, opened
negotiations with the sultan of Witu, a small territory situated

north of the Tana river, whose ruler claimed to be independent
of Zanzibar. On the sth of May 1885 the sultan of Witu executed
a deed of sale and cession to a German subject of certain tracts
of land on the coast, and later in the same year other treaties
or sales of territory were effected, by which German subjects
acquired rights on the coast-line claimed by the sultan. Inland,
treaties had been concluded on behalf of Germany with the chiefs
of the Kilimanjaro region, and an intimation to that effect made
to the British government. But before this occurred the German
government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgment
of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of Zanzibar.
Early in August a powerful German squadron appeared off
Zanzibar, and on the I4th of that month the sultan yielded to
the inevitable, acknowledged the German protectorate over
Usagara and Witu, and undertook to withdraw his soldiers.

Meanwhile negotiations had been opened for the appointment
of an international commission, " for the purpose of inquiring
into the claims of the sultans of Zanzibar to sovereignty partition
over certain territories on the east coast of Africa, of the
and of ascertaining their precise limits." The govern- sultanate
ments to be represented were Great Britain, France °J

, _, . Zanzibar,

and Germany, and towards the end of 1885 commis-
sioners were appointed. The commissioners reported on the
gth of June 1886, and assigned to the sultan the islands of Zan-
zibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mafia and a number of other small islands.
On the mainland they recognized as belonging to the sultan a
continuous strip of territory, 10 sea-miles in depth, from the
south bank of the Minengani river, a stream a short distance
south of the Rovuma, to Kipini, at the mouth of the Tana river,
some 600 m. in length. North of Kipini the commissioners
recognized as belonging to the sultan the stations of Kismayu,
Brava, Marka and Mukdishu, with radii landwards of 10 sea-
miles, and of Warsheik with a radius of 5 sea-miles. By an
exchange of notes in October-November 1886 the governments
of Great Britain and Germany accepted the reports of the de-
limitation commissioners, to which the sultan adhered on the
4th of the following December. But the British and German
governments did more than determine what territories were to
be assigned to the sultanate of Zanzibar. They agreed to a
delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in East
Africa. The territory to be affected by this arrangement was
to be bounded on the south by the Rovuma river, " and on the
north by a line which, starting from the mouth of the Tana river,
follows the course of that river or its affluents to the point of
intersection of the equator and the 38th degree of east longitude,
thence strikes direct to the point of intersection of the ist degree
of north latitude with the 37th degree of east longitude, where
the line terminates." The line of demarcation between the
British and the German spheres of influence was to start from
the mouth of the river Wanga or Umba (which enters the ocean
opposite Pemba Island to the north of Zanzibar), and running
north-west was to skirt the northern base of the Kilimanjaro
range, and thence to be drawn direct to the point on the eastern
side of Victoria Nyanza intersected by the ist degree of south
latitude. South of this line German influence was to prevail;
north of the line was the British sphere. The sultan's dominions
having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with
the recognition of the " independence " of Zanzibar in which
France and Great Britain had joined in 1862. The effect of
this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two
countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided no limit
westwards, and left the country north of the Tana river, in which
Germany had already acquired some interests near the coast,
open for fresh annexations. The conclusion of the agreement
immediately stimulated the enterprise both of the German East
African Company, to which Peters's earlier treaties had been
transferred, and of the British capitalists to whom reference
had been made in Lord Granville's despatch. The German East
African Company was incorporated by imperial charter in March
1887, and the British capitalists formed themselves into the
British East Africa Association, and on the 24th of May 1887
obtained, through the good offices of Sir William Mackinnon,

HISTORY]

AFRICA

345

Africa.

a concession of the 10- miles strip of coast from the Umba river
in the south to Kipini in the north. The British association
further sought to extend its rights in the sphere reserved to
British influence by making treaties with the native chiefs be-
hind the coast strip, and for this purpose various expeditions
were sent into the interior. When they had obtained conces-
sions over the country for some 200 m. inland the associated
Formation capitalists applied to the British government for a
of British charter, which was granted on the 3rd of September
1888, and the association became the Imperial British
East Africa Company (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA).
The example set by the British company in obtaining a lease
of the coast strip between the British sphere of influence and the
sea was quickly followed by the German association, which, on
the 28th of April 1888, concluded an agreement with the sultan
Khalifa, who had succeeded his brother Bargash, by which the
association leased the strip of Zanzibar territory between the
German sphere and the sea. It was not, however, until August
that the German officials took over the administration, and their
want of tact and ignorance of native administration almost
immediately provoked a rebellion of so serious a character that
it was not suppressed until the imperial authorities had taken
the matter in hand. Shortly after its suppression the administra-
tion was entrusted to an imperial officer, and the sultan's rights
on the mainland strip were bought outright by Germany for
four millions of marks (£200,000).

Events of great importance had been happening, meanwhile,
in the country to the west and north of the British sphere of
influence. The British company had sent caravans into the
interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the native
chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural possi-
bilities. One of these had gone up the Tana river. But another
and a rival expedition was proceeding along the northern bank
of this same river. Karl Peters, whose energy cannot be denied,
whatever may be thought of his methods, set out with an armed
caravan up the Tana on the pretext of leading an expedition to
the relief of Emin Pasha, the governor of the equatorial province
of the Egyptian Sudan, then reported to be hemmed in by the
dervishes at Wadelai. His expedition was not sanctioned by
the German government, and the British naval commander had
orders to prevent his landing. But Peters succeeded in evading
the British vessels and proceeded up the river, planting German
flags and fighting the natives who opposed his progress. Early
in 1890 he reached Kavirondo, and there found letters from
Mwanga, king of Uganda, addressed to F. J. Jackson, the
leader of an expedition sent out by the British East Africa
Uganda Company, imploring the company's representative
secured by to come to his assistance and offering to accept the
British flag. To previous letters, less plainly couched,
from the king, Jackson had returned the answer that
his instructions were not to enter Uganda, but that he would
do so in case of need. The letters that fell into Peters's hands
were in reply to those from Jackson. Peters did not hesitate
to open the letters, and on reading them he at once proceeded
to Uganda, where, with the assistance of the French Roman
Catholic priests, he succeeded in inducing Mwanga to sign a
loosely worded treaty intended to place him under German
protection. On hearing of this Jackson at once set out for
Uganda, but Peters did not wait for his arrival, leaving for the
south of Victoria Nyanza some days before Jackson arrived
at Mengo, Mwanga's capital. As Mwanga would not agree to
Jackson's proposals, Jackson returned to the coast, leaving a
representative at Mengo to protect the company's interests.
Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D. Lugard, who had recently entered
the company's employment, was at once ordered to proceed to
Uganda. But in the meantime an event of great importance
had taken place, the conclusion of the agreement between Great
Britain and Germany with reference to their different spheres of
influence in various parts of Africa.

The Anglo-German agreement -of the ist of July 1890 has
already been referred to and its importance insisted upon.
Here we have to deal with the provisions in reference to East

Great
Britain.

Africa. In return for the cession of Heligoland, Lord Salisbury
obtained from Germany the recognition of a British protectorate
over the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, including the
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, but excluding the strip leased to
Germany, which was subsequently ceded absolutely to Germany.
Germany further agreed to withdraw the protectorate declared
over Witu and the adjoining coast up to Kismayu in favour of
Great Britain, and to recognize as within the British sphere of
influence the vast area bounded, on the south by the frontier
line laid down in the agreement of 1886, which was to be extended
along the first parallel of south latitude across Victoria Nyanza
to the frontiers of the Congo Free State, on the west by the
Congo Free State and the western watershed of the Nile, and on
the north by a line commencing on the coast at the north bank of
the mouth of the river Juba, then ascending that bank of the
river until it reached the territory at that time regarded as
reserved to the influence of Italy1 in Gallaland and Abyssinia,
when it followed the frontier of the Italian sphere to the confines
of Egypt. To the south-west of the German sphere in East
Africa the boundary was formed by the eastern and northern
shore of Lake Nyasa, and round the western shore to the mouth
of the Songwe river, from which point it crossed the Nyasa-
Tanganyika plateau to the southern end of the last-named lake,
leaving the Stevenson Road on the British side of the £_/mfts of
boundary. The effect of this treaty was to remove German
all serious causes of dispute about territory between Bast
Germany and Great Britain in East Africa. It ren- ^Serf
dered quite valueless Peters's treaty with Mwanga
and his promenade along the Tana; it freed Great Britain from
any fear of German competition to the northwards, and recog-
nized that her influence extended to the western limits of the
Nile valley. But, on the other hand, Great Britain had to relin-
quish the ambition of connecting her sphere of influence in the
Nile valley with her possessions in Central and South Africa. On
this point Germany was quite obdurate; and, as already stated,
an attempt subsequently made (May 1894) to secure this object
by the lease of a strip of territory from the Congo Free State was
frustrated by German opposition.

Uganda having thus been assigned to the British sphere of
influence by the only European power in a position to contest
its possession with her, the subsequent history of that region,
and of the country between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast,
must be traced in the articles on BRITISH EAST AFRICA and
UGANDA, but it may be well briefly to record here the following
facts: — The Imperial British East Africa Company, finding the
burden of administration too heavy for its financial resources,
and not receiving the assistance it felt itself entitled to receive
from the imperial authorities, intimated that it would be com-
pelled to withdraw at the end of the year 1892. Funds were
raised to enable the company to continue its administration until
the end of March 1893, and a strong public protest against
evacuation compelled the government to determine in favour
of the retention of the country. In January 1893 Sir Gerald
Portal left the coast as a special commissioner to inquire into the
" best means of dealing with the country, whether through
Zanzibar or otherwise." On the 3ist of March the union jack
was raised, and on the 2gth of May a fresh treaty was concluded
with King Mwanga placing his country under British protection.
A formal protectorate was declared over Uganda proper on the
igth of June 1894, which was subsequently extended so as to
include the countries westwards towards the Congo Free State,
eastwards to the British East Africa protectorate and Abyssinia,
and northwards to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The British
East Africa protectorate was constituted in June 1895, when
the Imperial British East Africa Company relinquished all its
rights in exchange for a money payment, and the administration
was assumed by the imperial authorities. On the ist of April
1902 the eastern province of the Uganda protectorate was
transferred to the British East Africa protectorate, which thus
secured control of the whole length of the so-called Uganda

1 At this period negotiations between Great Britain and Italy
had begun but were not concluded.

AFRICA

[HISTORY

railway, and at the same time obtained access to the Victoria
Nyanza.

Early in the 'eighties, as already seen, Italy had obtained her
first formal footing on the African coast at the Bay of Assab
(Aussa) on the Red Sea. In 1885 the troubles in
which Egypt found herself involved compelled the
Africa. khedive and his advisers to loosen their hold on
the Red Sea littoral, and, with the tacit approval
of Great Britain, Italy took possession of Massawa and
other ports on that coast. By 1888 Italian influence had
been extended from Ras Kasar on the north to the northern
frontier of the French colony of Obok on the south, a distance
of some 650 m. The interior limits of Italian influence were
but ill defined, and the negus Johannes (King John) of Abyssinia
viewed with anything but a favourable eye the approach of the
Italians towards the Abyssinian highlands. In January 1887 an
Italian force was almost annihilated at Dogali, but the check
only served to spur on the Italian government to fresh efforts.
The Italians occupied Keren and Asmara in the highlands, and
eventually, in May 1889, concluded a treaty of peace and friend-
ship with the negus Menelek, who had seized the throne on the
death of Johannes, killed in battle with the dervishes in March
of the same year. This agreement, known as the treaty of
Uccialli, settled the frontiers between Abyssinia and the Italian
sphere, and contained the following article: —

XVII. His Majesty the King of Kings of Ethiopia consents to
avail himself of the Italian government for any negotiations which
he may enter into with the other powers or governments.

In Italy and by other European governments this article
was generally regarded as establishing an Italian protectorate
over Abyssinia; but this interpretation was never accepted by
the emperor Menelek, and at no time did Italy succeed in
establishing any very effective control over Abyssinian affairs.
North of the Italian coast sphere the Red Sea littoral was still
under Egyptian rule, while immediately to the south a small
stretch of coast on the Gulf of Tajura constituted the sole
French possession on the East African mainland (see SOMALI-
LAND). Moreover, when Egyptian claims to the Somali coast
were withdrawn, Great Britain took the opportunity to establish
her influence on the northern Somali coast, opposite Aden.
Between the ist of May 1884 and the isth of March 1886 ten
treaties were concluded, placing under British influence the
northern Somali coast from Ras Jibuti on the west to Bandar
Ziada on the east. In the meantime Italy, not content with her
acquisitions on the Red Sea, had been concluding treaties with
the Somali chiefs on the east coast. The first treaty was made
with the sultan of Obbia on the 8th of February 1889. Later
in the same year the British East Africa Company transferred
to Italy — the transference being subsequently approved by the
sultan of Zanzibar — the ports of Brava, Marka, Mukdishu and
Warsheik, leased from Zanzibar. On the 24th of March 1891
an agreement between Italy and Great Britain fixed the northern
bank of the Juba up to latitude 6° N. as the southern boundary
of Italian influence in Somaliland, the boundary being provision-
ally prolonged along lines of latitude and longitude to the inter-
section of the Blue Nile with 35° E. longitude. On the isth of
April 1891 a further agreement fixed the northern limit of the
Italian sphere from Ras Kasar on the Red Sea to the point on
the Blue Nile just mentioned. By this agreement Italy was to
have the right temporarily to occupy Kassala, which was left
in the Anglo-Egyptian sphere, in trust for Egypt — a right of
which she availed herself in 1894. To complete the work of
delimitation the British and Italian governments, on the 5th of
May 1894, fixed the boundary of the British sphere of influence
in Somaliland from the Anglo-French boundary, which had been
settled in February 1888.

But while Great Britain was thus lending her sanction to
Italy's ambitious schemes, the Abyssinian emperor was becoming
more and more incensed at Italy's pretensions to exercise a
protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1893 Menelek denounced the
treaty of Uccialli, and eventually, in a great battle, fought at
Adowa on the ist of March 1896, the Italians were disastrously

defeated. By the subsequent treaty of Adis Ababa, concluded
on the 26th of October 1896, the whole of the country to the
south of the Mareb, Belesa and Muna rivers was
restored to Abyssinia, and Italy acknowledged the
absolute independence of Abyssinia. The effect of of
this was practically to destroy the value of the Abyssinia
Anglo-Italian agreement as to the boundaries to the
south and west of Abyssinia; and negotiations were
afterwards set on foot between the emperor Menelek and his
European neighbours with the object of determining the
Abyssinian frontiers. Italian Somaliland, bordering on the
south-eastern frontier of Abyssinia, became limited to a
belt of territory with a depth inland from the Indian
Ocean of from 180 to 250 m. The negotiations concerning
the frontier lasted until 1908, being protracted over the
question as to the possession of Lugh, a town on the Juba,
which eventually fell to Italy. After the battle of Adowa the
Italian government handed over the administration of the
southern part of the country to the Benadir Company, but in
January 1905 the government resumed control and at the same
time transformed the leasehold rights it held from the sultan of
Zanzibar into sovereign rights by the payment to the sultan of
£144,000. To facilitate her communications with the interior,
Italy also secured from the British government the lease of a
small area of land immediately to the north of Kismayu. In
British Somaliland the frontier fixed by agreement with Italy in
1894 was modified, in so far as it marched with Abyssinian terri-
tory, by an agreement which Sir Rennell Rodd concluded with
the emperor Menelek in 1897. The effect of this agreement was
to reduce the area of British Somaliland from 75,000 to 68,000
sq. m. In the same year France concluded an agreement
with the emperor, which is known to have fixed the frontier of
the French Somali Coast protectorate at a distance of 90
kilometres (56 m.) from the coast. The determination of the
northern, western and southern limits of Abyssinia proved a
more difficult matter. A treaty of July 1900 followed by an
agreement of November 1901 defined the boundaries of Eritrea
on the side of Abyssinia and the Sudan respectively. In certain
details the boundaries thus laid down were modified by an Anglo-
Italian- Abyssinian treaty signed at Adis Ababa on the isth of
May 1902. On the same day another treaty was signed at the
Abyssinian capital by Sir John Harrington, the British minister
plenipotentiary, and the emperor Menelek, whereby the western,
or Sudan-Abyssinian, frontier was defined as far south as the
intersection of 6° N. and 35° E. Within the British sphere
were left the Atbara up to Gallabat, the Blue Nile up to Famaka
and the Sobat up to the junction of the Baro and Pibor. While
not satisfying Abyssinian claims to their full extent, the frontier
laid down was on the whole more favourable to Abyssinia than
was the line fixed in the Anglo-Italian agreement of 1891. On
the other hand, Menelek gave important economic guarantees
and concessions to the Sudan government.

In Egypt the result of the abolition of the Dual Control was
to make British influence virtually predominant, though theo-
retically Turkey remained the suzerain power; and after the
reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army a con-
vention between the British and Egyptian governments was
signed at Cairo on the igth of January 1899, which, inter alia,
provided for the joint use of the British and Egyptian flags in
the territories south of the 22nd parallel of north latitude.
From the international point of view the British position in
Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration of
the 8th of April 1904. For some time previously there had been
a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of nf
the settlement of a number of important questions Aagi0.
in which British and French interests were involved. French
The movement was no doubt strengthened by the
desire to reduce to their least dimensions the possible
causes of trouble between the two countries at a time
when the outbreak of hostilities between Russia (the ally of
France) and Japan (the ally of Great Britain) rendered the
European situation peculiarly delicate. On the 8th of April

HISTORY]

AFRICA

347

1904 there was signed in London by the British foreign secretary,
the marquess of Lansdowne, and the French ambassador, M. Paul
Cambon, a series of agreements relating to several parts of the
globe. Here we are concerned only with the joint declaration
respecting Egypt and Morocco and a convention relating, in part,
to British and French frontiers in West Africa. The latter we
shall have occasion to refer to later. The former, notwithstand-
ing the declarations embodied in it that there was " no intention
of altering the political status " either of Egypt or of Morocco,
cannot be ignored in any account of the partition in Africa.
With regard to Egypt the French government declared " that
they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country
by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation
or in any other manner." France also assented — as did sub-
sequently the other powers interested — to a khedivial decree
simplifying the international control exercised by the Caisse de
la Dette over the finances of Egypt.

In order to appreciate aright that portion of the declaration
relating to Morocco it is necessary to say a few words about the
course of French policy in North- West Africa. In Tunisia the
work of strengthening the protectorate established in 1881 had
gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that the extension
of French influence had been most marked. The movement of
expansion southwards was inevitable. With the progress of
exploration it became increasingly evident that the Sahara con-
stituted no insurmountable barrier between the French posses-
sions in North and West Central Africa. But France had not only
the hope of placing Algeria in touch with the Sudan to spur her
forward. To consolidate her position in North- West Africa she
desired to make French influence supreme in Morocco. The re-
lations between the two countries did not favour the realization of
that ambition. The advance southwards of the French forces of
occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government,
particularly with regard to the occupation in 1900-1901 of the
Tuat Oases. Under the Franco-Moorish treaty of 1845 the frontier
between Algeria and Morocco was defined from the Mediterranean
coast as far south as the pass of Teniet el Sassi, in about 34° N.;
beyond that came a zone in which no frontier was defined, but
in which the tribes and desert villages (ksurs) belonging to the
respective spheres of influence were named; while south of the
desert villages the treaty stated that in view of the character of
the country " the delimitation of it would be superfluous."
Though the frontier was thus left undefined, the sultan main-
tained that in her advance southwards France had trespassed
on 'territories that unmistakably belonged to Morocco. After
some negotiation, however, a protocol was signed in Paris on
France's the 2oth of July 1901, and commissioners appointed to
privileged devise measures for the co-operation of the French and
position la Moorish authorities in the maintenance of peaceful
conditions in the frontier region. It was reported that
in April 1902 the commissioners signed an agreement whereby
the Sharifan government undertook to consolidate its authority
on the Moorish side of the frontier as far south as Figig. The
agreement continued: " Le Gouvernement fraitQais, en raison de
son voisinage, lui pretera son appui, en cas de besoin. Le Gouverne-
ment franfais etablira son autorite et la paix dans les regions du
Sahara, el le Gouvernement marocain, son voisin, lui aidera de
tout son pouvoir. ' ' Meanwhile in the northern districts of Morocco
the conditions of unrest under the rule of the young sultan, Abd
el Aziz IV., were attracting an increasing amount of attention in
Europe and were calling forth demands for their suppression.
It was in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declara-
tion of April 1904 the British government recognized " that it
appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose
dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of
Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide
assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic,
financial and military reforms which it may require." Both
parties to the declaration, " inspired by their feeling of sincere
friendship for Spain, take into special consideration the interests
which that country derives from her geographical position and
from her territorial possessions on the Moorish coast of the

Mediterranean. In regard to these interests the French govern-
ment will come to an understanding with the Spanish govern-
ment." The understanding thus foreshadowed was reached
later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere of interest on the
Mediterranean coast. In pursuance of the policy marked out in
the Anglo-French declaration, France was seeking to strengthen
her influence in Morocco when in 1905 the attitude of Germany
seriously affected her position. On the 8th of July France
secured from the German government formal " recognition of
the situation created for France in Morocco by the contiguity of
a vast extent of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and
by the special relations resulting therefrom between the two
adjacent countries, as well as by the specia!4interest for France,
due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan Empire."
Finally, in January- April 1906, a conference of the powers was
held at Algeciras to devise, by invitation of the sultan, a scheme
of reforms to be introduced into Morocco (q.v.). French capital
was allotted a larger share than that of any other power in the
Moorish state bank which it was decided to institute, and French
and Spanish officers were entrusted with the organization of a
police force for the maintenance of order in the principal coast
towns. The new regime had not been fully inaugurated, however,
when a series of outrages led, in 1907, to the military occupation
by France of Udja, a town near the Algerian frontier, and of the
port of Casablanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.

It only remains to be noted, in connexion with the story of
French activity in North- West Africa, that with such energy was
the penetration of the Sahara pursued that in April 1904 flying
columns from Insalah and Timbuktu met by arrangement in
mid-desert, and in the following year it was deemed advisable to
indicate on the maps the boundary between the Algerian and
French West African territories.

Brief reference must be made to the position of Tripoli. While
Egypt was brought under British control and Tunisia became a
French protectorate, Tripoli remained a province of the Turkish
empire with undefined frontiers in the hinterland, a state of
affairs which more than once threatened to lead to trouble with
France during the expansion of the latter's influence in the
Sahara. As already stated, Italy early gave evidence that it was
her ambition to succeed to the province, and, not only by the
sultan of Turkey but in Italy also, the Anglo-French declaration
of March 1899, respecting the limits of the British and French
spheres of influence in north Central Africa, was viewed with
some concern. By means of a series of public utterances on the
part of French and Italian statesmen in the winter 1901-1902 it
was made known that the two powers had come to an
understanding with regard to their interests in North
Africa, and in May 1902 Signor Prinetti, then Italian Tripoli.
minister for foreign affairs, speaking in parliament in
reply to an interpellation on the subject of Tripoli, declared that
if " the status quo in the Mediterranean were ever disturbed, Italy
would be sure of finding no one to bar the way to her legitimate
aspirations."

At the opening of the Berlin conference Spain had established
no formal claim to any part of the coast to the south of Morocco;
but while the conference was sitting, on the gth of January 1885,
the Spanish government intimated that in view of the importance
of the Spanish settlements on the Rio de Oro, at Angra de Cintra,
and at Western Bay (Cape Blanco), and of the docu-
ments signed with the independent tribes on that
coast, the king of Spain had taken under his protection
" the territories of the western coast of Africa comprised between
the fore-mentioned Western Bay and Cape Bojador." The in-
terior limits of the Spanish sphere were defined by an agreement
concluded in 1900 with France. By this document some 70,000
sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish.

The same agreement settled a long-standing dispute between
Spain and France as to the ownership of the district around the
Muni river to be south of Cameroon, Spain securing a block of
territory with a coast-line from the Campo river on the north to
the Muni river on the south. The northern frontier is formed by
the German Cameroon colony, the eastern by 11° 20' E., and the

348

AFRICA

'HISTORY

southern by the first parallel of north latitude to its point of inter-
section with the Muni river.

Apart from this small block of Spanish territory south of
Cameroon, the stretch of coast between Cape Blanco and the

mouth of the Congo is partitioned among four European
tne'S(Mnea P°wers~~ Great Brit!»n, France, Germany and Portugal
coast. ' — and tne negro republic of Liberia. Following the

coast southwards from Cape Blanco is first the French
colony of Senegal, which is indented, along the Gambia river, by
the small British colony of that name, and then the comparatively
small territory of Portuguese Guinea, all that remains on this
coast to represent Portugal's share in the scramble in a region
where she once played so conspicuous a part. To the south of
Portuguese Guinea is the French Guinea colony, and still going
south and east are the British colony of Sierra Leone, the republic
of Liberia, the French colony of the Ivory coast, the British Gold
Coast, German Togoland, French Dahomey, the British colony
(formerly known as the Lagos colony) and protectorate of
Southern Nigeria, the German colony of Cameroon, the Spanish
settlements on the Muni river, the French Congo colony, and the
small Portuguese enclave north of the Congo to which reference
has already been made, which is administratively part of the
Angola colony. When the General Act of the Berlin conference
was signed the whole of this coast-line had not been formally
claimed; but no time was lost by the powers interested in
notifying claims to the unappropriated sections, and the con-
flicting claims put forward necessitated frequent adjustments by
international agreements. By a Franco-Portuguese agreement
of the 1 2th of May 1886 the limits of Portuguese Guinea — sur-
rounded landwards by French territory — were defined, and by
agreements with Great Britain in 1885 and France in 1892 and
1907 the Liberian republic was confined to an area of about
43,000 sq. m.

The real struggle in West Africa was between France and
Great Britain, and France played the dominant part, the ex-
haustion of Portugal, the apathy of the British government
and the late appearance of Germany in the field being all elements
that favoured the success of French policy. Before tracing the
steps in the historic contest between France and Great Britain
it is necessary, however, to deal briefly with the part played
by Germany. She naturally could not be disposed of by the
chief rivals as easily as were Portugal and Liberia. It will be
remembered that Dr Nachtigal, while the proposals for the
Berlin conference were under discussion, had planted the German
flag on the coast of Togo and in Cameroon in the month of July
1884. In Cameroon Germany found herself with Great Britain
for a neighbour to the north, and with France as her southern
neighbour on the Gabun river. The utmost activity was dis-
played in making treaties with native chiefs, and in securing
as wide a range of coast for German enterprise as was possible.
After various provisional agreements had been concluded between
Great Britain and Germany, a " provisional line of demarcation "
was adopted in the famous agreement of the ist of July 1890,
starting from the head of the Rio del Rey creek and going to
the point, about 9° 8' E., marked " rapids " on the British
Admiralty chart. By a further agreement of the i4th of April
1893, the right bank of the Rio del Rey was made the boundary
between the Oil Rivers Protectorate (now Southern Nigeria) and
Cameroon. In the following November (1893) the boundary
was continued from the " rapids " before mentioned, on the
Calabar or Cross river, in a straight line towards the centre of
the town of Yola, on the Benue river. Yola itself, with a radius
Germany °^ some 3 m-> w&s left in the British sphere, and the
la west German boundary followed the circle eastwards from
Central the point of intersection as it neared Yola until it

met the Benue river. From that point it crossed the
river to the intersection of the I3th degree of longitude with
the loth degree of north latitude, and then made direct for a
point on the southern shore of Lake Chad " situated 35 minutes
east of the meridian of Kuka." By this agreement the British
government withdrew from a considerable section of the upper
waters of the Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had

entered into relations. The limit of Germany's possible extension
eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and Darfur,
Kordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were to be excluded irom
her sphere of influence. The object of Great Britain in making
the sacrifice she did was two-fold. By satisfying Germany's
desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on French designs
on the Benue region, while by recognizing the central Sudan
(Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier was interposed
to the advance of France from the Congo to the Nile. This
last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany in coming
to terms with France as to the southern and eastern limits of
Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central Sudan. She had
already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed a protocol with
France fixing her southern frontier, where it was coterminous
with the French Congo colony. But to the east German explorers
were crossing the track of French explorers from the northern
bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an agreement was obvious.
Accordingly, on the 4th of February 1894, a protocol — which,
some weeks later, was confirmed by a convention — was signed
at Berlin, by which France accepted the presence of Germany
on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and effected the best bargain
she could by making the left bank of the Shari river, from its
outlet into Lake Chad to the loth parallel of north latitude,
the eastern limit of German extension. From this point the
boundary line went due west some 230 m., then turned south,
and with various indentations joined the south-eastern frontier,
which had been slightly extended so as to give Germany access
to the Sanga river — a tributary of the Congo. Thus, early in
1894, the German Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite
limits. In 1908 another convention, modifying the frontier,
gave Germany a larger share of the Sanga, while France, among
other advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to 10° 40' N.

The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip
of the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in
between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey. At
first France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little
Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French
government acknowledged the German protectorate over these
places, and the boundary between French and German _
territory, which runs north from the coast to the nth „/
degree of latitude, was laid down by the Franco- Germany
German convention of the izth of July 1897. The f™m the
fixing of the nth parallel as the northern boundary
of German expansion towards the interior was not accomplished
without some sacrifice of German ambitions. Having secured
an opening on Lake Chad for her Cameroon colony, Germany
was anxious to obtain a footing on the middle Niger for Togoland.
German expeditions reached Gando, one of the tributary states
of the Sokoto empire on the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding
the existence of prior treaties with Great Britain, sought to con-
clude agreements with the sultan of that country. But this
German ambition conflicted both with the British and the French
designs in West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content
with the nth parallel as her northern frontier. On the west
the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by
British and German commissioners at i° 10' E. longitude, and
its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance.
A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the
establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither power
was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence.
It was not until November 1899 that, as part of the Samoa
settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between the two
powers and the frontier extended to the nth parallel.

The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain
in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the
first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second deal- ^otto-
ing with the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake French
Chad. As regards the Coast colonies, France was rivalry la
wholly successful in her design of isolating all Great j^J,
Britain's separate possessions in that region, and of
securing for herself undisputed possession of the upper Niger
and of the countries lying within the great bend of that river.

HISTORY]

AFRICA

349

When the British government awoke to the consciousness of
what was at stake France had obtained too great a start.
French governors of the Senegal had succeeded, before the Berlin
conference, in establishing forts on the upper Niger, and the
advantage thus gained was steadily pursued. Every winter season
French posts were pushed farther and farther along the river, or
in the vast regions watered by the southern tributaries of the Sene-
gal and Niger rivers. This ceaseless activity met with its reward.
Great Britain found herself compelled to acknowledge accom-
plished facts and to conclude agreements with France, which
left her colonies mere coast patches, with a very limited extension
towards the interior. On the loth of August 1889 an agreement
was signed by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was
confined to a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river
for about 200 m. from the sea. In June 1882 and in August
1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the
western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners
were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon
by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree,
and on the 2ist of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made,
the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission.
Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of
about 1 80 m. and a maximum extension towards the interior
of some 200 m.

At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of
Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony
under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the i3th of
January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected
into two separate colonies — Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name
of the former being changed in February 1906 to the colony of
Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast
colony were declared to extend from 5° W. to 2° E., but these
limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France
and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier
of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been
stated in connexion with German Togoland. On the western
frontier it marches with the French colony of the Ivory Coast,
and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful attempt to achieve the
same end by an agreement concluded in 1889, the frontier was
defined from the neighbourhood of the Tano lagoon and river
of the same name, to the gth degree of north latitude. In
August 1896, following the destruction of the Ashanti power
and the deportation of King Prempeh, as a result of the second
Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate was declared over the
whole of the Ashanti territories and a resident was installed at
Kumasi. But no northern limit had been fixed by the 1893
agreement beyond the gth parallel, and the countries to the
north — Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and Gurma — were entered from
all sides by rival British, French and German expeditions.
The conflicting claims established by these rival expeditions
may, however, best be considered in connexion with the struggle
for supremacy on the middle Niger and in the Chad region, to
which it is now necessary to turn.

A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir
George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French interests
on the lower Niger. The British company's influence had at
that date been extended by treaties with the native chiefs up the
main Niger stream to its junction with the Benue, and some
distance along this latter river. But the great Fula states of
the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this
fact did not escape attention in Germany. German merchants
had been settled for some years on the coast; and one of them,
E. R. Flegel, had displayed great interest in, and activity on,
the river. He recognized that in the densely populated states
of the middle Niger, Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west
of Lake Chad, there was a magnificent field for Germany's new-
born colonizing zeal. The German African Company1 and the
German Colonial Society listened eagerly to Flegel's proposals,
and in April 1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states

'This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations
primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in
1891.

of Sokoto and Gando. But it was impossible to keep his inten-
tions entirely secret, and the (British) National African Company
had no desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so
much difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even
more troublesome German. Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the
young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had the
satisfaction of concluding on the ist of June 1885 a treaty with
" Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and Sultan of
Sokoto," which practically secured the whole of the trading
rights and the control of the sultan's foreign relations to the
British company. Thomson concluded a similar treaty with
the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the possibility of
its being alleged that Gando was an independent state and not
subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of Sokoto. As Thomson
descended the river with his treaties, he met Flegel going up the
river, with bundles of German flags and presents for the chiefs.
The German government continued its efforts to secure a footing
on the lower Niger until the fall of Prince Bismarck from power
in March 1890, when opposition ceased, and on the failure of the
half-hearted attempt made later to establish relations with Gando
from Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the
western Sudan and left the field to France and Great j-Ae Niger
Britain. After its first great success the National Company
African Company renewed its efforts to obtain a granted a
charter from the British government, and on the loth chttrter-
of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became
" The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June
of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed
over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos
frontier, and as already stated, on the I3th of January 1886 the
Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and
erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state
here that the western boundary of Lagos with French territory
(Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of
the loth of August 1889, " as far as the gth degree of north
latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast
hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a door was left wide open
to the north of the gth parallel.

Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance
down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego
on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu,
until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British
influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger
Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall
her. It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the
French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement
of the sth of August 1890, by which Great Britain recognized
France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article:

The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere
of influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions
up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn
in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the Niger
Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; the line
to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed.

The commissioners never were in fact appointed, and the
proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently
became a subject of bitter controversy between the two countries.
An examination of the map of West Africa will show what possi-
bilities of trouble were left open at the end of 1890 by the various
agreements concluded up to that date. From Say on the Niger
to where the Lagos frontier came to an abrupt stop in 9° N.
there was no boundary line between the French and British
spheres of influence. To the north of the Gold Coast and of the
French Ivory Coast colony the way was equally open to Great
Britain and to France, while the vagueness of the Say-Barrua
line left an opening of which France was quick to avail herself.
Captain P. L. Monteil, who was despatched by the French govern-
ment to West Africa in 1890, immediately after the conclusion of
the August agreement, did not hesitate to pass well to the south
of the Say-Barrua line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with
chiefs who were, beyond all question, within the British sphere.
Still farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions
of Lieutenant Mizon — in 1890 and 1892 — failed to do any real

350

AFRICA

[HISTORY

harm to British interests. In 1892 an event happened which
had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute.

After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of
advance to tne natiye state of Dahomey, France annexed some
Timbuktu, portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and

declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom.
Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time
prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her
possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper
Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from
all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was
occupied in the last days of 1893.

In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France
that, for the development of the vast regions which she was
placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely
desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable
portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was
excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank,
where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement.
In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the
river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically im-
possible, except in small boats and at considerable risk. Below
these rapids France had no foothold on the river, both banks
from Bussa to the sea being within the British sphere. In 1890
the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty with the emir
and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French declared that
the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the king of Bussa,
but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions were despatched
in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under French protection.
Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be baffled. While
maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty with Bussa, he
despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. D. Lugard to
Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing all his French
competitors by several days, reaching Nikki on the 5th of
November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the king and
chiefs. The French expeditions, which were in great strength,
did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute
fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession
they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of
aggression was committed. On the I3th of February 1895 a
French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank
of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence
there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested
to the British government against this invasion of their territory.
Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made
inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant
Toutee was " a private traveller." Eventually Commandant
Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied
by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee
subsequently published the official instructions from the French
government under which he had acted. It was thought that the
recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of
Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by
France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable
portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was
renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that
year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was
quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up
the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation
on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a
chartered company that for some time before these occurrences
the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region
The by the imperial authorities had been practically de-

Praaco- cided on; and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to
British the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a

o"/S9S eat local force *n PreParation for tne contemplated change.
The advance of the French forces from the south and
west was the signal for an advance of British troops from the
Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast protectorate. The
situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and
French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the
same village. Meanwhile the diplomatists were busy in London

and in Paris, and in the latter capital a commission sat for many
months to adjust the conflicting claims. Fortunately, by the tact
and forbearance of the officers on both sides, no local incident
occurred to precipitate a collision, and on the I4th of June 1898
a convention was signed by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G.
Hanotaux which practically completed the partition of this part
of the continent.

The settlement effected was in the nature of a compromise.
France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier line
west of the Niger being drawn from the gth parallel to a point
ten miles, as the crow flies, above Giri, the port of Illo. France
was thus shut out from the navigable portion of the middle and
lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes Great Britain
agreed to lease to France two small plots of land on the river —
the one on the right bank between Leaba and the mouth of the
Moshi river, the other at one of the mouths of the Niger. By
accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki and a great
part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to France. East
of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified in favour of
France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and Bornu where
they meet the southern edge of the Sahara. In the Gold Coast
hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great Britain
abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of the latter
country, together with a further extensive area in the territory
assigned to both powers, was declared to be equally free, so far
as trade and navigation were concerned, to the subjects and
protected persons of both nationalities. The western boundary
of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the Black Volta as far
as latitude 11° N., and this parallel was followed with slight de-
flexions to the Togoland frontier. In consequence of the acute
crisis which shortly afterwards occurred between France and
Great Britain on the upper Nile, the ratification of this agreement
was delayed until after the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement
of March 1899 already referred to. In 1900 the two patches on
the Niger leased to France were selected by commissioners
representing the two countries, and in the same year the Anglo-
French frontier from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was
delimited.

East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898,
failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to Lake
Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to which
reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was
agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore Further
question in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line con-
more to the south. The new boundary was described ces^lons
at some length, but provision was made for its modifica-
tion in points of detail on the return of the commissioners engaged
in surveying the frontier region. In 1906 an agreement was
reached on all points, and the frontier at last definitely settled,
sixteen years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed. This
revision of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent
the only territorial compensation received by France in West
Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland
question. By the same convention of April 1904 the British
government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal
and the Gambia colony " so as to give to France Yarbutenda
and the lands and landing-places belonging to that locality,"
and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands
off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands.

Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left
both the British and the French governments free to devote
increased attention to the subdivision and control of their West
African possessions. On the ist of January 1900 the imperial
authorities assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the
territories of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth
a purely commercial undertaking. The Lagos protectorate was
extended northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise
with extended frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the
greater part of the territories formerly administered by the
company were constituted into the protectorate of Northern
Nigeria — all three administrations being directly under the
Colonial Office. In February 1906 the administration of the

HISTORY]

AFRICA

African
Islands.

Southern Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos
at the same time as the name of the latter was changed to the
Colony of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual
amalgamation of all three dependencies under one
Organize- governor or governor-general. In French West Africa
tion of the changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous
and important. The coast colonies have all been in-
French creased in size at the expense of the French Sudan,
pro- which has vanished from the maps as an administrative

tectorates. ent;tv There are carved out of the territories com-
prised in what is officially known as French West Africa five
colonies — Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey
and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last being entirely cut off
from the sea — and the civil territory of Mauritania. To the col-
ony of the Upper Senegal and Niger is attached the military
territory of the Niger, embracing the French Sahara up to the limit
of the Algerian sphere of influence. Not only are all these divisions
of French West Africa connected territorially, but administra-
tively they are united under a governor-general. Similarly the
French Congo territories have been divided into three colonies —
the Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad — all
united administratively under a commissioner-general.

There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of
islands, which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the
Ownership African mainland. The majority of these African
of the islands were occupied by one or other of the European
powers long before the period of continental partition.
The Madeira Islands to the west of Morocco, the
Bissagos Islands, off the Guinea coast, and Prince's Island and
St Thomas' Island, in the Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese posses-
sions of old standing; while in the Canary Islands and Fernando
Po Spain possesses remnants of her ancient colonial empire which
are a more valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent
times on the mainland. St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius
and some small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean,
are British possessions acquired long before the opening of the
last quarter of the igth century. Zanzibar, Pemba and some
smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, as
has already been stated, placed under British protection in 1890,
and the island of Sokotra was placed under the " gracious favour
and protection " of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 1886.
France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the iyth century,
but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French protec-
tion until April 1886. None of these islands, with the exception
of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the
partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the
table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar
stands in a different category, both on account of its size and
because it was during the period under review that it passed
through the various stages which led to its becoming a French
colony. The first step was the placing of the foreign relations of
the island under French control, which was effected by the treaty
of the i7th of December 1885, after the Franco-Malagasy war
that had broken out in 1883. In 1890 Great Britain and Germany
recognized a French protectorate over the island, but the Hova
government declined to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895
France sent an expedition to enforce her claims. The capital was
occupied on the 3oth of September in the same year, and on the
day following Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recogniz-
ing the French protectorate. In January 1896 the island was
declared a French possession, and on the 6th of August was
declared to be a French colony. In February 1897 the last
vestige of ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of
the queen.

Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun and
ended in the short space of a quarter of a century. There are
still many finishing touches to be put to the structure. The
southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain undefined,
while the mathematical lines by which the spheres of influence
of the powers were separated one from the other are being
variously modified on the do ut des principle as they come to be
surveyed and as the effective occupation of the continent pro-

gresses. Much labour is necessary before the actual area of
Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately determined, but in
the following table the figures are at least approximately correct.
Large areas of the spheres assigned to different European
powers have still to be brought under European control; but
this work is advancing by rapid strides.

BRITISH —

Cape Colony ....
Natal and Zululand .
Basutoland ....
Bechuanaland Protectorate .
Transvaal and Swaziland
Orange River Colony

Rhodesia

Nvasaland Protectorate .
British East Africa Protectorate
Uganda Protectorate
Zanzibar Protectorate

Somaliland

Northern Nigeria
Southern Nigeria (colony and protectorate)
Gold Coast and hinterland ....
Sierre Leone (colony and protectorate)
Gambia . . . . -

Total British Africa

Egypt and Libyan Desert ....
Anglo- Egyptian Sudan

FRENCH —

Algeria and Algerian Sahara

Tunisia

French West Africa —

Senegal

French Guinea

Ivory Coast

Dahomey . . ...

Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur-
itania (including French West
African Sahara) . . . 1,581,000

French Congo

French Somaliland

Madagascar

74,000
107,000
129,000

40,000

Total French Africa

GERMAN —

East Africa
South-West Africa
Cameroon . — .
Togoland .

Total German Africa

ITALIAN —
Eritrea
Italian Somaliland

Total Italian Africa

PORTUGUESE —
Guinea
West Africa
East Africa

Total Portuguese Africa

SPANISH —

Rio de Oro

Muni River Settlements

Total Spanish Africa

BELGIAN —

Congo State

TURKISH —

Tripoli and Benghazi

SEPARATE STATES —
Liberia
Morocco .
Abyssinia .

Sq. m.

276-995
35,371
10,293

225,000

117,732
50,392

450,000
43,608

240,000

125,00*

1,020

68,000

258,000

80,000

82,000

34,000

4,000

2,101,411

650,000
950,000

i ,600,000

945,000
51,000

i ,93 1 ,000

700,000

12,000

227,950

3,866,950

364,000

322,450

190,000

33.700

910,150

60,000
140,000

200,000

14,000
480,000
293,500

787,500

Total Independent Africa

70,000
9,800

79,800

900,000

400,000

43,000
220,000
350,000

613,000

352

AFRICA

[EXPLORATION

Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the " scramble "
has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows: —

Sq. m.
2,101,411
i ,600,000
3,866,950
910,150
200,000
787,500
79,800
900,000
400,000
613,000

British Africa .
Egyptian Africa
French Africa .
German Africa
Italian Africa .
Portuguese Africa
Spanish Africa
Belgian Africa
Turkish Africa
Independent Africa

11,458,811

(J. S. K.)
VI. EXPLORATION AND SURVEY SINCE 1875

In giving the history of the partition of the continent, the later
work of exploration, except where, as in the case of de Brazza's
expeditions, it had direct political consequences, has of necessity
not been told. The results achieved during and after the period
of partition may now be indicated. Stanley's great journey down
the Congo in 1875-1876 initiated a new era in African explora-
tion. The numbers of travellers soon became so great that the
once marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea
became common. With increased knowledge and much ampler
means of communication trans-African travel now presents few
difficulties. While d' Anville and other cartographers of the i8th
century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had left a great
blank on the map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it
with authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high
accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of
exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty
became impossible — save in the eastern Sahara, where the
absence of water and boundless wastes of sand render exploration
more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe.
Within their respective spheres of influence each power undertook
detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to
knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working
colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it
is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines
record only the more obvious achievements.

The relations of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river
systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers.
In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu-
guese government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto
Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola.
The firs(. name(j ma(je his way by the head-streams of
the Kubango to the upper Zambezi, which he descended
to the Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria
and Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their attention to the
south-west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of
Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region
since the i6th century. In a later journey (i884-i885)Capello and
Ivens crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the
Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border-
lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More
important results were obtained by the German travellers Paul
Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed
through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's
kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence
Wissmann made his way to the east coast. In 1884-1885 a
German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important
geographical problem relating to the southern Congo basin by
descending the Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, con-
trary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other
streams before joining the main river. Further additions to the
knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at the same time by
the Rev. George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied
in 1885 by K. von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer
" Peace," especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be
the lower course of the Welle, discovered in 1 8 70 by Sch weinf urth.

Work la

Africa.

In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of
the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo.
The first new journey of importance on this side was
made (1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex-
ploration Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the
death of his leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from
the coast to the north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, on
both sides of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end
of Lake Rukwa on the east. In 1882-1884 the French naval
lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to
Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map.
North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route alargeareaof new ground
was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed
the whole length of the Masai country to Lake Baringo and
Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light on the great East
African rift- valley and neighbouring highlands, including Mounts
Kenya and Elgon. A great advance in the region between
Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the
Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and Lieut. Ludwig von Hohnel,
who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake
Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu.
At this time Somaliland was being opened up by English and
Italian travellers. In 1883 the brothers F. L. and W. D. James
penetrated from Berbera to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio
Bottego (afterwards murdered in the Abyssinian highlands)
started from Berbera and reached the upper Juba, which he
explored to its source. The first person, however, to cross from
the Gulf of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American,
A. Donaldson Smith, who in 1894-1895 explored the head-
streams of the Webi Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the
feeder of Lake Rudolf.

In the -region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest
additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley
in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin Pasha.
The expedition set out in 1887 by way of the Congo to carry
supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial province.
The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal tributary of the
Congo from the north-east, by which the expedition made its way,
encountering immense difficulties, through the great equatorial
forest, the character and extent of which were thus for the first
time brought to light. The return was made to the east coast,
and resulted in the discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwen-
zori or Runsoro, and the confirmation of the existence of a third
Nile lake discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the
Semliki river. A further discovery was that of a large bay,
hitherto unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the
Victoria Nyanza.

Great activity was also displayed in completing the work
of earlier explorers in North and West Africa. Morocco was in
1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by Expealm
de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, tlons /„
crossed and re-crossed the Atlas and supplied the North and
first trustworthy information as to the orography of West
many parts of the chain. In 1887-1889 Louis Gustave
Binger, a French officer, made a great journey through the coun tries
enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil
went from St Louis to Say, on the Niger, thence through Sokoto
to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence he crossed the Sahara to
Tripoli. Meantime explorers had been busy in the region
between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo. The
Sanga, one of the principal northern tributaries of the Congo,
was reached from the north by Lieut. Louis Mizon, a French
naval officer, who drew the first line of communication between
the Benue and the Congo (1890-1892). In 1890 Paul Crampel,
who in the previous year had explored north of the Ogow6,
undertook a great expedition from the Ubangi to the Shari,
but was attacked and killed, with several of his companions, on
the borders of the Bagirmi. Several other expeditions followed,
and in 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer
on its waters and pushed on to Lake Chad. Early in 1900 Lake
Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, who
had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the

EXPLORATION]

AFRICA

353

Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert from
Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder.

The last ten years of the ipth century also witnessed many
interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin
Lakes and P^ha, accompanied by Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his
mountains way south of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile
ofBqua- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and
western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also
ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over
13,000 ft. In the same year Dr 0. Baumann, who had already
done good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more
extended journey through the region of steppes between Kili-
manjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head-
streams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the Nile. In the
steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara
and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley system.
This region was again traversed in 1893-1894 by Count von
Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake Kivu, north
of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke over thirty years
before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first
time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he
ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a
new route to the Congo and the west coast. Valuable scientific
work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. Gregory, who ascended
Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft. In 1893-1894 Scott
Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of Uganda, returning by
Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the
circuit of the great mountain 'Elgon, north-east of Victoria
Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its summit
by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount
Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans Meyer, who
first directed his attention to it in 1887.

The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake
.udolf, being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile,
,s traversed by several explorers, among whom may be men-
oned Capt. M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain
small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake
.udolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the
iwer Sobat. Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the
ile by Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin com-
anded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
id Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central
rica, the Barotse country had been partly made known by the
issionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the
iddle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored
id mapped by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants
1895-1896 and 1898-1900. In the same period the Congo-
mbezi watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C.
:maire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of
e Kasai.

In the early years of the igth century the first recorded
ing of Africa took place. That crossing and all subsequent
sings had been made either from west to east or east to west.
ie first journey through the whole length of the continent
'as accomplished in the two last years of the century when a
oung Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape Town
ached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central
.e of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's
>tsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons.
Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about
onwards by the international commissions which traced
the frontiers of the protectorates of the European
powers. On several occasions the labours of the
commissions disclosed errors of importance in the
maps upon which international agreements had been
based. Among those which yielded valuable results
were the Anglo-French commission which in 1903
traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake
'had, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904
:ed the Cameroon boundary between Yola, on the Benue, and
Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same
ion during 1902-1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad
I. 12

Vorkof
iter-

ational
amis-

oas and
•veylng

artles.

had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the
century. In 1903 a French officer, Capt. E. Lenfant, succeeded
in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and
Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western
basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch
of that river.

In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed
(1901-1902) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the
lake, R. Kandt making , a special study of Kivu and the
Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of
1902-1904 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the
exact position of Albert Edward Nyanza. Much new information
concerning the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia
between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the
survey executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, Captain P.
Maud.

While political requirements led to the exact determination
of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments
concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under
their protection. Before the close of the first decade of the
2oth century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the
German colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the
Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by
military officers. A British naval officer, Commander B.
Whitehouse, mapped the entire coast-line of Victoria Nyanza.
Government and railway surveys apart, the chief points of
interest for explorers during 1904-1906 were the Ruwenzori range
and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and
Congo systems. Lieut. Boyd Alexander was the leader of a
party which during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a
considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via
the Shari, the Ubangi and the Nile. Two members of the party,
Capt. Claud Alexander and Capt. G. B. Gosling, died during the
expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source
of attraction. Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond
the snow-line to 14,800 ft. ;in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached
from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; and
in the same year Capt. T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German
Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at
16,619 ft. During 1904-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were
at work in the region. That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the
most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members
of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches
17,000 ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed.
Major Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done
good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905-
1906 in a detailed examination of the Lado enclave and the
country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes.
This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological
knowledge.

Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas
Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719-1731, by James
Bruce's exploration, 1765-1767, of the ruins in Barbary, and by
the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, has been systematically
carried out in North Africa since the middle of the igth century
(see EGYPT and AFRICA, ROMAN). In South Africa the first
thorough examination of the ruins in Rhodesia was made in
1905, when Randall-Maclver demonstrated that the great
Zimbabwe and similar buildings were of medieval or post-
medieval origin. (F. R. C.)

VII. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
The eagerness with which the nations of western Europe
partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, more
to the necessities of commerce than to mere land hunger. Yet,
except in the north and south temperate regions, the commercial
intercourse of the continent with the rest of the world had been
until the closing years of the igth century of insignificant pro-
portions. In addition to slaves, furnished by the continent from
the earliest times, a certain amount of gold and ivory was ex-
ported from the tropical regions, but no other product supplied
the material for a flourishing trade with those parts. To their

5:

354

AFRICA

[ECONOMICS

Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many
creature comforts — the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar
cane, the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and
many other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other
animals — but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led
to little development of commerce. The continent continued
in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the
world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in
natural resources, as to the special circumstances which
likewise caused so large a part of the continent to
remain so long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may
be summarized as: (i) the absence of means of communication
with the interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3)
the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the
slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these
causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove
being the third; the negro races finding the means of existence
easy have little incentive to toil. The first drawback has almost
disappeared, and the building of railways and the placing of
steamers on the rivers and lakes — a work continually progressing
— renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to
come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands
in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy,
improved sanitation and the destruction of the malarial mosquito
have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious
for their deadly climate.

At various periods since the partition of the continent began,
united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the
interests of African trade. The Berlin conference of 1884-1885
decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the
Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like
privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise
enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa — the conventional
basin of the Congo — there should be complete freedom of trade, a
freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo
State and French Congo by the granting to various companies
proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the soil. More
important in their effect on the economic condition of the con-
tinent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the
measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave
trade. The British government had for long borne the greater
part of the burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast
of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions
which resulted from the appearance of other European powers in
Africa induced Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address,
in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians
to take the initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at
Brussels to concert measures for " the gradual suppression of the
Suppres- slave trade on the continent of Africa, and the im-
sion <>f mediate closing of all the external markets which it
the slave still supplies." The conference assembled in November
1889, and on the 2nd of July 1890 a general act was
signed subject to the ratification of the various governments
represented, ratification taking place subsequently at different
dates, and in the case of France with certain reservations. The
general act began with a declaration of the means which the
powers were of opinion might be most effectually adopted for
" putting an end to the crimes and devastations engendered by
the traffic in African slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal
populations of Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the
benefits of peace and civilization." It proceeded to lay down
certain rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines
suggested. The act covers a wide field, and includes no fewer
than a hundred separate articles. It established a zone "between
the 2oth parallel of north latitude, and the 22nd parallel of south
latitude, and extending westward to the Atlantic and eastward
to the Indian Ocean and its dependencies, comprising the islands
adjacent to the coast as far as 100 nautical miles from the shore,"
within which the importation of firearms and ammunition \fas
forbidden except in certain specified cases, and within which also
the powers undertook either to prohibit altogether the importa-
tion and manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties

not below an agreed-on minimum.1 An elaborate series of rules
was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by sea, the
conditions on which European powers were to grant to natives
the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, and regulating the
procedure connected with the right of search on vessels flying a
foreign flag. The Brussels Act was in effect a joint declaration
by the signatory powers of their joint and several responsibility
towards the African native, and notwithstanding the fact that
many of its articles have proved difficult, if not impossible, of
enforcement, the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face*
of the world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on
the action of several of the powers. Moreover, with the increase
of means of communication and the extension of effective
European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largely checked
and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being thus given
security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture.

Other important factors in the economic as well as the social
conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made by the
natives in several regions and the increase of the areas found
suitable for white colonization. The advance in civilization
among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of
political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape Colony,
leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce
increases in a much greater degree when new countries — e.g.
Rhodesia and British East Africa — become the homes of Euro-
peans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the
commercial development of the continent, note must be taken of
the sparsity of the population over the greater part of Africa, and
the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in-
effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers
in various districts — of Indian coolies in Natal and elsewhere, and
of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal.

The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of:
(i) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal pro-
ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most
important are india-rubber and palm-oil, which in chlef

. economic

tropical Africa supply by far the largest items m the resources,
export list. The rubber-producing plants are found
throughout the whole tropical belt, and the most important are
creepers of the order Apocynaceae, especially various species of
Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now united). In East
Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies the largest amount,
though various other species are known. Forms.of apparently
wider distribution are L. hendelotii, which is found in the Bahr-el-
Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to Senegambia;
and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety
L. florida, has the widest distribution of all the species, occurring
in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the
east coast, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. In parts of
East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber vine. In
Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous
tree, Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various
species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East
Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of
South America, but this is largely due to careless methods of
preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by
native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some
districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and
cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. ' This has been done in
many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments
have been made in the introduction of South American rubber
plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the
plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of
soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from
a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm
is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from 10° N.
to 10° S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast
districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply,

1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were
held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In both instances conventions
were signed by the powers, raising the minimum duty on imported
spirituous liquors.

ECONOMICS]

AFRICA

355

i

*

equal to any market demand, could easily be obtained. A third
valuable product is the timber supplied by the forest regions,
principally in West Africa. It includes African teak or oak
(Oldfieldia africana), excellent for shipbuilding; the durable
odum of the Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa) ; African mahogany
(Khaya senegalensis) ; ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood
(Baphia nitida) ; and many other ornamental and dye woods.
The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but
since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of
East Africa the Podocarpus milanjianus, a conifer, is economically
important. Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including
the yellow wood (Podocarpus), stinkwood (Ocotea) , sneezewood or
Cape ebony (Ended) and ironwood.

Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arabic,
obtained from various species of acacia (especially A. Senegal),
the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the
steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c.) ; gum copal, a
valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the
best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming from the
East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also found in
a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced chiefly in the
coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae
(Kola acuminata); archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding lichen
(Rocclla tincloria and triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in
East Africa, the Congo basin, &c. ; cork, the bark of the cork oak,
which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manu-
facture (Machrochloa lenacissima) , growing in great abundance
on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which
attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin,

irived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucalli.

The cultivated products include those of the tropical and
warm temperate zones. Of the former, coffee is perhaps the
most valuable indigenous plant. It grows wild in many parts,
the home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries

uth of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian

iffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world.
!ultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results,
and attention has been given to this in various European colonies.
Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German
East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c.

Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied chiefly
Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground-
nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are
grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from
Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voand-
zeia subterranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to
Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and Pemba
ids, Pemba being the chief source of the world's supply of

ives. The chief drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations

the yield of the trees, and the risk of over-production in good
seasons.

Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is
rted in small quantities in the raw state; but the main
export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's
sources of supply of the article. It is also cultivated in West
Africa — the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been
.eveloped since the beginning of the 2oth century — and in the

glo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which
ptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the staple crop of

auritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is also produced in

atal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates
grown in Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Tafilet;

iaize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone;

•heat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia;

ice in Madagascar. Wine is largely exported from Algeria,

and in a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; fruit and

vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small

scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an

important article of export, though plantations have been

established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of

cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and

ither colonies, and in various districts the tea plant is cultivated.

Cc
expo

Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become
naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also culti-
vated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical
cultivation is the labour question, which has already been
referred to.

Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the
largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The
diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of
the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this
export. Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior
of West Africa, and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported
in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the wool and
hair of the merino sheep and Angora goat. Both hides and wool
are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from
Abyssinia and Somaliland. Ostrich feathers are produced
chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also
obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan.
Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle
from Morocco.

The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts,
the resources of the continent in this respect being largely
undeveloped. Since the discovery of gold in the
Transvaal, particularly in the district known as the wealth.
Rand (1885), the output has grown enormously, so
that in 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater
than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-Boer
War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by
1905 the output — in that year over £20,800,000 — was greater
than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa
is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding
formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold
Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and
since the close of the igth century the industry has developed
largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold
has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found
in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the
western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large
quantities in a series of beds known as the Kimberley shales,
the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds
are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest
diamond mines in the world — the Premier — is situated in
the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 80% of the world's pro-
duction of diamonds comes from South Africa. Copper is found
in the west of Cape Colony, in German South- West Africa, and
in the Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast
beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of
copper in the Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia. It
also occurs in Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich
tin deposits have been found in the southern Congo basin and
in Northern Rhodesia. Iron is found in Morocco, Algeria
(whence there is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and
worked by the natives, in the tropical zone. But the deposits
are generally not rich. Coal is worked, principally for home con-
sumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River
Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi.
Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake
Nyasa. Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia.
Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, zinc, lead
and antimony are found in Algeria, lead and manganese in Cape
Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone.

The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly
of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the
development of the different countries in civilization. In
Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the
necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured cotton
and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place,
but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and miscellaneous
articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally
where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports
consists as a rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a
constant native demand.

No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of

AFRICA

[COMMUNICATIONS

communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade
Develo - °^ tne J^tn century tnat decided steps were taken to
mea°oi remedy these defects. The African rivers, with the
means of exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and
common/- tne noddle course of the three other chief rivers, are
generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout
the tropical region almost the sole routes have been native foot-
paths, admitting the passage of a single file of porters, on whose
heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain
of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented,
and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior.
In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of
camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the advent of
railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native
trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population
or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this
rule' there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper
Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the
peoples of the Sudan from direct access to the sea, and from
Timbuktu to Darfur the great trade routes were either west to
east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan
routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco
and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano
and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from
Bengazi to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the
Great Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the
equator the principal long-established routes are those from
Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via
Bih6 to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across
the Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite
Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been
superseded by the improved communications introduced by
Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction
of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland
in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the
obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert
Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General
C. G. Gordon (1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents
to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State,
as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake
Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel
was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1896 by a British mercantile
firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in
November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the
navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close
of the ipth century. However, the shallowness of the water in
the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only
to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic
are few. The first attempt at road-making in Central Africa
on a large scale was that of Sir T. Powell Buxton and Mr (after-
wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first section of a
track leading into the interior from Dar-es-Salaam (1879). A
still more important undertaking was the " Stevenson road,"
begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of
Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James
Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes Company — a company
which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The
Stevenson road forms a link in the "Lakes route" into the
heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting
Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has
since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good
roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon
and in Madagascar.

Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the
interior of the continent, were for many years after their first
introduction to Africa almpst entirely confined to the extreme
north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal).
Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco
Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 without a railway
system. In Egypt the Alexandria and Cairo railway dates from
1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about noo miles,
and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the delta, the

Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction
of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still
incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines
open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to
Tunis had been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by
the lines to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In
Senegal the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced
and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the
Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also
constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where
in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood
of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next
decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town to
Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port
Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been
crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond
Ladysmith. The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of the
partition of the continent was followed by many projects for
the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence of
the various powers by the building of railways; several of these
schemes being carried through in a comparatively short time.
The building of railways was undertaken by the governments
concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In
the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to
build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle
Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and upper
courses of the river were linked by the opening of a line past
Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo was rendered
easily accessible to commercial enterprise. In North Africa
the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely extended, and
proposals were made for a great trunk-line from Tangier to
Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south-
ward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan line having
occupied the attention of French engineers since 1 880. In French
West Africa railway communication between the upper Senegal
and the upper Niger was completed in 1904; from the Guinea
coast at Konakry another line runs north-east to the upper
Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to the Niger at Garu.
In the British colonies on the same coast the building of railways
was begun in 1896. A line to Kumasi was completed in 1903,
and the line from Lagos to the lower Niger had reached Illorin in
1908. Thence the railway was continued to the Niger at Jebba.
From Baro, a port on the lower Niger which can be reached by
steamers all the year round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes
via Bida, Zungeru and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400
miles. A line from Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with
the Lagos railway.

But the greatest development of the railway systems was in
the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa a
survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was
made in 1892. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line
reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been
a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from Cape
Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa Bay
all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, the centre
of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project was that
identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely, the extension
northward of the railway from Kimberley with the object of
effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to
Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897.
(Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east coast by
another line, completed in 1902, which goes through Portuguese
territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north-
ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi being
bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From
this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the
Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the
completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening
in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to Khartum. A line
of greater economic importance than the last named is the
railway (completed in 1905) fro*i Port Sudan on the Red Sea
to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the Anglo-

BIBLIOGRAPHY]

AFRICA

357

Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the world.
A west to east connexion across the continent by rail and steamer,
from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was arranged in
1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and
Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on
the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway starting
from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of consider-
able importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden to Harrar,
giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia.

Besides the railways, mentioned there are several others of
less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of
Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and
Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the
great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake
Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and various lines
have been built by the French in Madagascar.

All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British
West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan a'nd in Egypt south
of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The main lines in Lower Egypt
and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 85 in. gauge. Elsewhere
as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of metre
(3-28 ft.) gauge.

The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than
that of the railways, the newer European possessions having in
most cases been provided with telegraph lines before railway
projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt and Cape
Colony the systems date back to the middle of the ipth century,
before the end of which the lines had in each country reached
some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of
French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was
begun in 1862, were the first to be fully developed, lines having
been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and
Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north-
west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey.
The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria
was surveyed in 1905. The Congo region is furnished with
several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth
of the river to Lake Tanganyika. From Ujiji on the east coast
of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with
Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town.
The last-named line is the longest link in the trans-continental
line first suggested in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and
afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from
Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganda,
while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa. At the
principal seaports the inland systems are connected with sub-
marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication
with the rest of the world.

Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany,
France and other countries to the African seaports, the journey
from any place in western Europe to any port on the African
coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three
weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Authoritative works dealing with Africa as a
whole in any of its aspects are comparatively rare. Besides such
volumes the following list includes therefore books containing
valuable information concerning large or typical sections of the
continent : —

§ 1. General Descriptions. — (o) Ancient and Medieval. Herodo-
tus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vols.1 (1880); Ptolemy's Geographia, ed.
'.. Miiller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn Haukal, " Description de
1'Afrique " (transl. McG. de Slane), Nouv. Journal asiatique, 1842;
Edrisi, " Geographic " (transl. Taubert), Rec. de voyages . . . Soc. de
Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographic (transl. Reinaud
a_nd Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883); M. A. P. d'Avezac, Description de
I'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845); L. de Marmol, Description general
de Africa (Granada, 1573) ; L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice,
1588) ; F. Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597) ;
Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (transl. J. Pory,
ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge
der afrikaensche gewesten, &c. (Amsterdam, 1668) (also English
version by Ogilvy, 1670, and French version, Amsterdam, 1686) ;

Tellez, " Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia," A New Collection
of Voyages, vol. vii. (1710); G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica

1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be under-
stood.

Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, el Angola (Milan, 1690)
(account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries and their
observations on the country and people); J. Barbot, " Description
of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of Ethiopia Inferior,"
Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. Bosman, A New . . .
Description of the Coasts of Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat,
Nouvelle relation de I'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728) ; Idem,
Relation historique de I'Ethiopie occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1732).
(b) Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire cone, les rivieres de I'interteur
de I'Afrique (Paris, n.d.) ; M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville's
fiir seine kritische Karte von Afrika ( Munich, 1904) ; C. Ritter, Die
Erdkunde, i. Theil, I. Buch, " Afrika " (Berlin, 1822); J. M'Queen,
Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa
(Edinburgh, 1821) ; Idem, Geographical Survey of Africa (1840) ;W. D.
Cooley, Inner Africa laid open (1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geo-

,

raphie universelle, vols. x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa
in Stanford's Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907) ; F. Hahn

.

and W. Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and
A. Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XX' siecle (Paris, 1906) ; Sir C. P.
Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vols. iii. and iv.
(Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J. Herbertson, Descriptive
Geographies from Original Sources: Africa (1902) ; British Africa (The
British Empire Series, vol. ii., 1899); Journal of the African Society;
Comite de I'Afrique franfaise, Bulletin, Pans ; Mitteilungen • der
afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879-1889); Mittei-
lungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten (Berlin) ; H. Schirmer,
Le Sahara (Paris, 1893); Mary H. Kingsley, West African Studies,
2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (1897);
Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol. ii. is
devoted to anthropology) ; E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa(i<)O2).

§ II. Geography (Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and Fauna. —
(For Descriptive Geogr. see § I.) — G. Giirich, " Oberblick iiber den
geolog. Bau des afr. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. Knox,
Notes on the Geology of the Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a
bibliography) ; L. von Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess,
Beitrage zur geologischen Kenntniss des ostlichen Afrika (Vienna, 1891) ;
E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika
(Munich, 1896); I. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte unserer Tage:
Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. Heidrich, " Die mittlere Hone
Afrikas," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-
Valley (1896); H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile
and its Basin (Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch
einer physischgeogr. Darstellung . . . des sudafr. Beckens (Berlin,
1904) ; Idem, " Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika," Naturw.
Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyika
Problem (1903); W. H. Hudleston, " On the Origin of the Marine
(Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika," Journ. of Trans. Victoria
Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole question of the geological
history of equatorial Africa) ; E. Stromer, " 1st der Tanganyika ein
Relikten-See?" Peterm. Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter,
" Die . . . Arbeiten der Pendelexpedition ... in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika,"
Verh. Deuts. Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet,
"La geologic du bassin du Congo," Bull. Soc. Beige geol., 1898;
E. G. Ravenstein, "The Climatology of Africa " (ten reports),
Reports Brit. Association, 1892-1901; Idem, " Climatological
Observations ... I. Tropical Africa " (1904) ; H. G. Lyons, " On
the Relations between Variations of Atmospheric Pressure . . . and
the Nile Flood," Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A, vol. Ixxvi., 1905; P.
Reichard, " Zur Frage der Austrocknung Afrikas," Geogr. Zeitschrift,
1895; J. Hoffmann, " Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hoch-
landlern," &c., Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, " Studien iiber
die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents," Peterm.
Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Flora of
Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K. Oschatz, Anordnung
der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen, 1900); A. Engler, Hochgebirgs-
flora des tropischen Afrika (Berlin, 1892) ; Idem, Die Pfllanzenwelt
Ostafrikas und der Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895); Idem,
Beitrage zur Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan. Jahrbiicher, 14
vols. &c.) ; W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr
Friedrich Welwitschin 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896^-1901) ; R. Schlechter,
Westafrikanische Kautschuk- Expedition (Berlin, 1900) ; H. Baum,
Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) (largely concerned with
botany) ; W. L. Sclater, " Geography of Mammals, No. iv. The
Ethiopian Region," Geog. Journal, March 1896; H. A. Bryden
and others, Great and Small Game of Africa (1899) ; F. C. Setous,
African Nature Notes and Reminiscences (1908); E. N. Buxton, Two
African Trips: with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation
in Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals) ; G.
Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle^ in Equatorial East Africa (1906) ;
Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking collection of photographs of
living wild animals) ; Exploration scientifique de I'Algerie: Histoire
naturelle, 14 vols. and 4 atlases, Paris (1846-1850); Annales du
Musee du Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c.). The
latest results of geographical research and a bibliography of current
literature are given in the Geographical Journal, published monthly
by the Royal Geographical Society.

§ III. Ethnology. — H. Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas (Leipzig,
1879); B. Ankermann, ". Kulturkreise in Afrika, Zeit. f. Eth.,
vol. xxxvii. p. 54; Idem," Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Ethno-
graphic der Sudhalfte Afrikas," Arch.f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Ser. i.

358

AFRICA, ROMAN

Antropologia della stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J. Deniker, " Dis-
tribution geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains," La
Geographic, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. Stow and G. M.
Theal, The Native Races of South Africa (1905) ; K. Barthel, Volker-
bewegungen auf der Sudhdlfte des afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893);
A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast (1887) ; Idem,
The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The
Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling Roth,
Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903) ; H. Frobenius, Die
Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan (Berlin, 1893) i Herbert Spencer
and D. Duncan, Descriptive Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875);
A. de Preville, Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald,
Africans; or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882) •, L. Fro-
benius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen (Der Ursprung der
Kultur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem, " Die Masken und Geheim-
bunde Afrikas," Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad.
Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Artes africanae:
Illustrations and Descriptions of . . . industrial Arts, &c. (in German
and English) (Leipzig, 1875) ; F. Ratzel, Die afrikanischen Bogen
. . . eine anthrop.-geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. Weule,
Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899) ; H. Frobenius, Afrikanische
Bautypen (Dauchau bei Miinchen, 1894); H. Schurtz, Die afrikan.
Geiverbe (Leipzig, 1900) ; E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the
Negro Race (1887); James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent,
or Africa and its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903) ; W. H. J.
Bleek, Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts
(1862-1869); Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo Marques,
&c., &c. (1900) ; R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa,
2 vols. (1883); F. W. Kolbe, A Language Study based on Bantu
(1888) ; J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalis (1885) ; J. Torrend,
Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891) ;
S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen
der Suaheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1901) (narra-
tives taken down from the mouths of natives) ; A. Vierkandt,
Volksgedichteimwestlichen Central-Afrika (Leipzig, 1895). For latest
information the following periodicals should be consulted:—
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland; Man (same publishers) ; Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie; Archiv
f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie.

§ IV. Archaeology and Art. — Publications of the Egyptian Ex-
ploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of upper Egypt
(1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. Maspero,
L' Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus
Agypten und Athwpien . . ., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A.
Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia . . . illustrating the Antiquities of the
Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being
English Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
12(1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892); D. Randall-
Maclver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) (archaeology and
ethnology of North Africa) ; G. Boissier, L' Afrique romaine: Pro-
menades archeologiques en Algerie et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901) ;
D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) ; Prisse d'Avennes,
Histoire de I'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris,
1879); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt,
2 vols. (1883); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900); C. H. Read
and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other
parts of West Africa (1899).

§ V. Travel and Exploration. — Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce
and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea (1807) ; G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest
of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1896, 1899); R. H. Major, Life of
Prince Henry the Navigator (1868) ; E. G. Ravenstein, " The Voyages
of .Diogo Cao and Earth. Diaz," Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig,
" Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas," Mitt.
Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H. Murray, Historical
Account of Discoveries, &c., 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch,
Account of the Discoveries o/ the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola
and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des
afrikan. Continents (Vienna, 1880) ; A. Supan, " Ein Jahrhundert
der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The Story of
Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); Sir Harry Johnston,
The Nile Quest (1903) ; James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of
the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the
Association for . . . Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790-
1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa
(1799) ; Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815) ; Capt. J. K. Tuckey,
Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire or Congo in
1816 (1818); D. Denham and H. Clapperton, Narrative of Travels
and Discoveries in N. and Cent. Africa (1826) ; R. Caillie, Journal d'un
voyage a Temboctu et a Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830) ; D. Livingstone,
Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last Journals
of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. Waller (1874); H.
Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols.
('857); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, &c., in Eastern Africa
(1860) ; Sir R. F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols.
(1860) ; J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile
(1863); Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); G.
Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. Cameron,
Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The Gold Regions of South-
Eastern Africa (1877) ; Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent,

2 vols. (1878) ; Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1890) ; G. Nachtigal,
Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889); P. S. de Brazza, Les
Voyages de . . . (1875-1882), Paris, 1884; J. Thomson, Through
Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann, Unter Deutscher Flagge
quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 1889); Idem, My Second Journey
through Equatorial Africa (1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa
1875-1886, 3 vols. (1890-1892); L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe
de Guinee, &c. (Paris, 1892) ; O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur
Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894); R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); C. A.
von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896) ; L. Vanu-
telli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bbttego: L'Omo (Milan, 1899) I

F. Foureau, D Alger au Congo par le Tchad (Paris, 1902) ; C. Lemaire,
Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: Journal de route, I vol., Resultats
des observations, 16 parts (Brussels, 1902) ; A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa
from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E. Lenfant,
La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; Boyd Alexander, From the
Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907).

§ VI. Historical and Political. — H. Schurtz, Africa(World' s History,
vol. 3, part 3) (1903) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization
of Africa by Alien Races (Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional
chapter " Latest Developments," 1905) ; A. H. L. Heeren, Reflec-
tions on the Politics-, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations
of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient
Egypt (1881) ; A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902) ; J. de Barros, Asia:
Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J. Strandes, Die Portu-
giesenzeitvon . . . Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) ; R. Schiick, Brandenburg-
Preussens Kolonial-Politik . . . 1641-1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1889);

G. M'Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of the
Zambesi . . . to7/p5, 3 vols.(i9o8- ),a.nd History of South Africa
since September 179$ (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, Records of
South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898—1903; Lady Lugard, A Tropical
Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, £fc. (1905);
Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909) ;
J. S. Keltic, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) ; F. Van Ortroy,
Conventions internationales definissant les limites . . . en Afrigue
(Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885;
The Surveys and Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports,
No. 500) (1906), and annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard,
The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les
colonies frangaises, 2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904) ; E. Rouard de Card,
Les Traites de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 1870—1895
(Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d' Afrique
(Lisbon, 1900) ; B.Trognitz, " Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents
Afrika," Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, "Die Be-
volkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 146 (Gotha,
1904) (deals with areas as well as population).

§ VII. Commerce and Economics. — A. Silva White, The Develop-
ment of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. Dove, " Grundziigc einer Wirt-
schaftsgeographie Afrikas," Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18;
E. Hahn, Die Stellung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels,"
Verhandl. II. Deutsch. Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896);
L. de Launay, Les Richesses minerales de I' Afrique (Paris, 1903) ;
K. Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion
(Berlin, 1894) '< P- Reichard, " Das afrikan. Elfenbcin und sein
Handel," Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir A. Moloney,
Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); Dewevre, "Les
Caoutchoucs africains," Ann. Soc. Set. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F.
Buxton, The African Slave Trade and_ its Remedy (1840); C. M. A.
Lavigerie, L'Esclavage africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les
Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905);
H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902);
G. Grenfell, " The Upper Congo as a Waterway," Geogr. Journ.,
Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, The Nile and Zambezi Systems as
Waterways," Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901; K. Lent, " Verkehrs-
mittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 1894; " Trade of
the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1898-1902,''
Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual
Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke, Guide to Health in Africa
(1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases
in Africa (1895).

The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay,
Bibliographie des ouyrages relatifs d. I Afrique, &c. (San Remo, 1875) ;
P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika- Literatur von 1500 bis 1750 (Vienne,
1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol. 3, Africa
(specially for government publications). (E. HE.)

AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya (Ai/3fo)).
It comprised the whole of the portion of the African continent
known to the ancients, except Egypt and Ethiopia. But besides
this general sense, which occurs in Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius
Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the official and administrative
language used the word Africa in a narrower sense, which is
noticed below. The term was certainly borrowed by the Romans
from the language of the natives. In Latin literature it was
employed for the first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the
interval between the First- and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.;
Sat. iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of

AFRICA, ROMAN

359

Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the
Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made
as to the etymology of the term Africa ('A<£pi/ci7) may be quoted
that which derives it from the Semitic radical ine (" separate "),
Africa being considered, in this connexion, as a Phoenician
settlement " separated " from the mother country, Asiatic
Phoenicia. It has also been held that the word Africa comes
from friqi, farikia (the country of fruit). The best hypothesis
in the writer's opinion is that maintained by Charles Tissot,
who sees in the word " Africa " the name of the great Berber tribe,
the Aourigha (whose name would have been pronounced Afarika),
the modern Aouraghen, now driven back into the Sahara, but
in ancient times the principal indigenous element of the African
empire of Carthage (Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa
was originally, in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike,
the country inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians
called Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was
then excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west.

At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Cartha-
ginians was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It
comprised the territory bounded by a vague line running from
the mouth of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of
Tabraca (Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the
mouth of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into
the hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans.

After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this territory
was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, the fossa regia,
was dug to mark the boundary of the Roman province of Africa
and the dominions of the Numidian princes. There have been
discovered (1907) the remains of this ditch protected by a low
wall or a stone dyke; some of the boundary stones which marked
its course, and inscriptions mentioning it, have also been found.
From Testur on the Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by
these indications for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid.
The ditch ran northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina.
The importance of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch
which in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the boun-
dary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, " Le fosse des fron-
tieres romaines " in M flanges Boissier, 1905, p. 227; L. Poinssot
in Comples rendus de I'Acad. des Inscript. et Belles Lettres, 1907,
p. 466; Classical Review, 1907, December, p. 255). The govern-
ment of the Roman province thus delimited was entrusted to
a praetor or propraetor, of whom several are now known,
e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor Africae, according to coins of
Hadrumetum of the year 94 B.C. The towns which had fought
on the side of the Romans during the Third Punic War were
declared civitates liberae, and became exceedingly prosperous.
They were Utica (Bu Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus
(Dimas), Leptis Minor (Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about
ii m. from Utica) and Theudalis. Those towns, however,
which had remained faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like
Carthage itself.

After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio Tripoli-
tana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata,
and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, appears to
have been annexed to the Roman province in a more or less
regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus in 46
made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the spheres
of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia -was con-
verted into a new province called " Africa Nova," and of this
province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and in-
vested with the imperium. From that time the old province of
Africa was known as " Africa Vetus " or " Africa Propria."

This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In
31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King
Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia,
which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, how-
ever, no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached
to the old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province
of Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth

of the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and
the two tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable
boundary between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east
(Tissot ii. 261). In the partition of the government of the
provinces of the Roman empire between the senate and the
emperor, Africa fell to the senate, and was henceforth ad-
ministered by a proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati
pro consule, who were placed at the head of districts called
dioceses. At first there were only three dioceses: Cartha-
giniensis, Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now
Bizerta), and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine).
At a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and perhaps
at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana.

The province of Africa was the only senatorial province whose
governor had originally been invested with military powers.
The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of the legio III.
Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in A.D. 37 Caligula de-
prived the proconsul of his military powers and gave them to the
imperial legate (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Africae),
who was nominated directly by the emperor, and whose special
duty it was to guard the frontier zone (Tacitus, Hist. iv. 48;
Dio Cass. lix. 20). The headquarters of the imperial legate were
originally at Cirta and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa).
The military posts were drawn up in echelon along the frontier
of the desert, especially along the southern slopes of the Aures,
as far as Ad Majores (Besseriani), and on the Tripoli tan frontier
as far as Cydamus (Ghadames), forming an immense arc extend-
ing from Cyrenaica to Mauretania. A network of military routes,
constructed and kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa
in all directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as Leptis
Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa) , Thenae and Tacape (Gabes).
The powers of the proconsul, however, extended scarcely beyond
the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the littoral. Towards
194 Septimius Severus completed the reform of Caligula by
detaching from the province of Africa the greater partof Numidia
to constitute a special province governed by a procurator, sub-
ordinate to the imperial legate and resident at Cirta (Tissot
ii. 34). This province was called Numidia Cirtensis, as opposed
to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia.

In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of
the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of
Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province
of Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six
provinces: Zeugitana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum,
now Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana
(Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif), and Mauretania
Caesariensis (Caesarea, now Cherchel). These provinces were
administered, according to circumstances, by a praeses of sena-
torial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or a vir clarissimus consularis.
Some changes were eventually necessitated by the wars with the
Moors and the Vandals. By a treaty concluded in 476, the
emperor Zeno recognized Genseric as master of all Africa. Re-
conquered by Belisarius in 534, Africa formed, under the name
of praefeclura Africae, one of the great administrative districts
of the Byzantine empire. It was subdivided into six provinces,
which were placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect
of Africa. These provinces were Zeugitana (the former Pro-
consularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and
Mauretania. The civil government was carried on by consulares
or praesides, while the military government was in the hands of
four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to drive out the
barbarians. The country was studded thickly with burgi(smaM
forts) and clausurae (long walls), the ruins of which still subsist.
In 647 the Arabs penetrated into Tfrikia, which was destined to
fall for ever out of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage
was taken.

The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably
composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes,
the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman
colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by
their common spoken language and by the comparatively
numerous Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore

36°

AFRICA, ROMAN

in ancient times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians
and Moors or Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number
of these tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny,
there were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the
Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of
Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of
Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcel -
linus, Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still
further names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of
Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars against
the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the Maces, the
Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani or Musulamii
(whence the name Mussulman) , the Massyli and the Massaesyli in
the E., who were neighbours of the Moors. The non-nomads of
these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts made of stakes supporting
plaited mats of rush or asphodel. These dwellings, which were
called mapalia, are the modern gourbis. African epigraphy has
revealed the names of some of their deities: deus inmctus Aulisva;
the god Motmanius, associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus;
Baldir Augustus; Kautus paler; the goddess Gilva, identified
with Tellus, and Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486). The Johannis of
Corippus mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman
and Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal
districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing
native divinities are rare, and give only very summary representa-
tions. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers in Tunisia
and the province of Constantine. Tumuli, too, are found through-
out northern Africa, thejmost celebrated being that near Cherchel,
the Kubr-er-Rumia (" tomb of the Christian lady "), which was
regarded by Pomponius Mela as the royal burying-place of the
kings of Numidia.

During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoe-
nician origin and the bastard population termed by ancient
authors Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably
formed the predominant population of the towns on the littoral,
and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the
Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of
su/etes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain towns the
Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua Punica, since
it was the only language that the people understood. Neverthe-
less, the Roman functionaries, the army and the colonists from
Italy soon brought the Latin element into Africa, where it
flourished with such vigour that, in the 3rd century, Carthage
became the centre of a Romano-African civilization of extra-
ordinary literary brilliancy, which numbered among its leaders
such men as Apuleius, Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine
and many others.

Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under Augustus,
when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the town. Utica
became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the civitates liberae,
municipia, castella, pagi and turres were peopled with Latins.
The towns of the ancient province of Africa which received
coloniae were very numerous: Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba),
Bisica Lucana (Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage,
Cuina, Curubis (Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus
or Zarytus (Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades,
Rades orGades),Neapolis(Nabel,Nebeul), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata
(Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape
(Gabes),Thaenae or Thenae (Tina), Thelepte(Medinet Kedima),
Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem),
Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median). Of the municipia may be
mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium Bure
(Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin).

The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by
the military settlements of the Romans. Cirta (Constantine) and
Bulla Regia (Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received coloniae
of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste (Tebessa) and
Thamugas (Timgad). The fine ruins which have been discovered
at the last-mentioned place have earned for it the surname of the
African Pompeii (see below).

Archaeology. — Roman Africa has been the subject of innumer-
able historical and archaeological researches, especially since the

conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The country is
covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each of these
ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have copied in-
scriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, porticos,
mausoleums and the other monuments which are still standing,
collected statues or other antiquities; and in many cases they
have actually excavated. The results of all these labours have
been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, and, indeed,
almost from day to day, in various scientific periodicals. Among
the principal of these are: — Memoires de la Socittt archeologique
de Constantine, Bulletin de la Societe geographique et archeologique
d'Oran, Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the
Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions scien-
tifiques and the Bulletin archeologique du Comite des travaux
historiques and the Melanges of the French School at Rome. In
all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia museums have been founded
for storing the antiquities of the region; the most important of
these are the museums of St Louis, Carthage and the palace of
Bardo (musee Alaoui) near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine,
Lambessa, Timgad, Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran.
Under the title of Musics et collections archeologiques de I' Algerie
et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction publishes from
time to time illustrated descriptions of all these archaeological
treasures. In this collection have already appeared descriptions
of the museums of Algiers by G. Doublet; of Constantine by
G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; of Oran by R. de La Blanchere;
of Cherchel by P. Gauckler; of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of
Philippeville by S. Gsell and Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La
Blanchere and P. Gauckler; of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of
Tebessa by S. Gsell; of Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by
R. Cagnat and A. Ballu.

The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with
the expansion of French dominion. From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre
published his Exploration archeologique de I' Algerie, in collabora-
tion with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renier was officially
instructed to collect all the inscriptions in Algeria which should
be found by the military expeditionary columns. This scholar
examined first the ruins of Lambessa, an account of which he
published in 1854 in his Melanges d'epigraphie; subsequently he
made his important collection of Inscriptions romaines de I' Algerie
(1855-1858) which formed the groundwork of the volume of the
Corpus Inscr. Lot. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman
Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his Collection
complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870). Apart from the
province of Constantine, Algeria is less rich in Roman remains
than Tunisia; mention must, however, be made of the excava-
tions of Victor Waille at Cherchel, where were found fine statues
in the Greek style of the time of King Juba II. ; of P. Gavault at
Tigzirt (Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at
Tipasa (basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif
and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum). In the depart-
ment of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains,
Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de
Villefosse. who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, a
triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the gate
of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins fade into
insignificance in comparison with the majestic grandeur of those
of Timgad which are almost entirely laid bare; they are de-
scribed in Timgad, une cite africaine sous I'empire remain, by
R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu.

In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeo-
logical investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by
Napoleon in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum
of Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins;
the Dane Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de
Sainte-Marie and others also have carried out researches; for
more than twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of
Carthage (q.v.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of
Tunisia, the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor
Guerin in 1860; his results are contained in his remarkable
Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis (1862, 2 vols.).
A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the sites of the

AFRICAN LILY— AFRIDI

361

ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus (Dimas) . But
it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881 which
really gave the impetus to modern investigations in this district
of ruined cities. They were put on a solid foundation by the
publication of the Geographic compares of Charles Tissot (1884).
Trained scholars were sent there annually by the French govern-
ment: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, La Blanchere, S. Reinach,
E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, £spe-
randieu, Gauckler, Merlin, Homo and many others, to say
nothing of German scholars, such as Willmans and Schulten,
and especially of a great number of enthusiastic officers of the
army of occupation, who explored all the ancient sites, and in
many cases excavated with great success (for their results see
the works quoted above). It would be impossible to enumerate
here all the monographs describing, for example, the ruins of
Carthage, those of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan,
the amphitheatre of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn,
the royal tomb and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the
bridge of Chemtu (Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of
Tebursuk and Medeina (Althiburus) , the rich villa of the
Laberii at Wadna (Uthina), the sanctuary of Saturn Balcara-
nensis on the hill called Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of
Enfida (Aphrodisium, Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis
minor (Lemta), of Thenae (near Sfax), those of the island of
Meninx (Jerba), of the peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla
(Sufetula), Gigthis (Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca
Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c.

From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence
as to the history and more especially the internal administration
of Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular
we know how rural life was there developed, and with what care
the water necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere
provided. Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial
and of minor importance; the only exceptions are certain
statues found at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the
Mauretanian kings.

AUTHORITIES. — Among general works on the subject may be
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa Christiana (1816); Gustave Boissiere,
L'Algerie romaine (and ed., 1883); E. Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique
septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot, Geographic comparee de la
province romaine d'Afrique (1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint-
Martin, LeNord de I'Afrique dans I'antiqulte grecque et romaine (1883) •
Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de Lessert,
Pastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulate, Nuntidie, Mauretanie)
sous la domination romaine (1896—1901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee
romaine d'Afrique (1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans
le Zeugis et le Byzacium (1869) ; Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de
I'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl,
L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches archeo-
logiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire litteraire de
I'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905) ; J. Toutain, Les Cites romaines de
la Tunisie (1895); Atlas archeologique de la Tunisie, published by
the Ministry of Public Instruction (1895 foil.); Atlas archeologique
de I'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foil.); Toulotte,
Geographie de I'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894) ; Corpus inscriptionum
latinarum, vol. viii. and Supplement (1881). Cf. also articles
CARTHAGE.NUMIDIA, &c., JuouRTHA.and articles relating to Roman
History. (E. B.*)

AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus) , a member of the
natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good Hope,
whence it was introduced at the close of the i7th century. It is
a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy in the south of
England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. It has a
short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves, \ to
2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an
umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. The plants are
easy to cultivate, and are generally grown in large pots or tubs
which can be protected from frost in winter. During the summer
they require plenty of water, and are very effective on the
margins of lakes or running streams, where they thrive admirably.
They increase by offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the
root-stock in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are
known in cultivation; such are albidtts, with white flowers,
aureus, with leaves striped with yellow, and variegalus, with
leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms.

AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and
historian of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and
may have served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians
in A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except that
he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the
emperor Heliogabalus ' to ask for the restoration of the town,
which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded, and Emmaus
was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius bar-Salibi
makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a presbyter.
He wrote a history of theworld(Xpoco7pa$i<u, in five books)from
the creation to the year A.D. 221, a period, according to his
computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the period between
the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated
the latter event by three years. This method of reckoning
became known as the Alexandrian era, and was adopted by
almost all the eastern churches. The history, which had an
apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but copious extracts from it
are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, who used it ex-
tensively in compiling the early episcopal lists. There are also
fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and the Paschale Chronicon.
Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf. vi. 31) gives some extracts from his
letter to one Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy
between Matthew and Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a
reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to marry
the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter died without
issue. His terse and pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the
authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's
wordy and uncritical answer, are both extant. The ascription
to Africanus of an encyclopaedic work entitled Keorot (em-
broidered girdles), treating of agriculture, natural history,
military science, &c., has been needlessly disputed on account
of its secular and often credulous character. Neander suggests
that it was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself
to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work see
Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff.

AUTHORITIES. — Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509;
translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 125-140.
See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus* und die byzant. Chronographie,
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885) ; G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature,
248-253; A. Harnack, Altchristl. Lift. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70.

AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the
Peshawar border of the North- West Frontier province of India.
The Afridis are the most powerful and independent tribe on the
border, and the largest with the exception of the Waziris. Their
special country is the lower and easternmost spurs of the Safed
Koh range, to the west and south of the Peshawar district, in-
cluding the Bazar and Bara valleys. On their east they are
bounded by British districts, on the north by the Mohmands,
on the west by the Shinwaris and on the south by the Orakzai
and Bangash tribes. Their origin is obscure, but they are said
to have Israelitish blood in their veins, and they have a decidedly
Semitic cast of features. They are possibly the Aparytai of
Herodotus, the names and positions being identical. If this
theory is correct, they were then a powerful people, and held
a large tract of country, but have been gradually driven back
by the encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into
the following eight clans: — Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar
Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the
most turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first
seven clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate
to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting
men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less
migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a fine,
tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, high nose and
cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own hillside he is
one of the finest skirmishers in the world, and in the Indian
army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is apt to be home-sick
when removed from the air of his native mountains. In character
the Afridi has obtained an evil name for ferocity, craft and
treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert Warburton, who lived eighteen
years in charge of the Khyber Pass and knew the Afridi better
than any other Englishman, says: — " The Afridi lad from his
1 So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus.

362

AFTERGLOW— AGA KHAN I.

earliest childhood is taught by the circumstances of his existence
and life to distrust all mankind, and very often his near relations,
heirs to his small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his
deadliest enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to
strike the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore
become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by a
great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you like
to give him except abuse." In short the Afridi has the vices
and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The fighting
strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this estimate is
excessive, judged by the number and size of their villages. They
derive their importance from their geographical position, which
gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat roads, and the
history of the British connexion with them has been almost
entirely with reference to these two passes.

There have been several British expeditions against the
separate clans: —

(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir
Colin Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam
Khel Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation
of the Peshawar and Kohat districts. Following the example
of all previous rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay
the tribe a subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand
Afridis attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road,
killing twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they
disliked the making of a road which would lay open their fast-
nesses to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops
was despatched, which traversed the country and punished them.

(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages
in 1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in
1850, the Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead;
but they turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force
of 1700 British traversed their country and destroyed their
stronghold at Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam
Khel, who inhabit the country lying between the Kohat Pass
and the river Indus.

(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel
Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding themselves
admitted to a share of the allowances of the Kohat Pass, com-
menced a series of raids on the Peshawar border and attacked a
British camp. An expedition of 1500 troops entered the country
and inflicted severe punishment on the tribe, who made their
submission and paid a fine.

(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel
Mocatta in 1877. In that year the government proposed to
reduce the Jowaki allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and
the tribesmen resented this by cutting the telegraph wire and

Taiding into British territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated
their country in three columns, and did considerable damage
by way of punishment.

(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier-
General Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the
previous expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude
of the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British
territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of 7400
British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed their
principal villages and occupied their country for some time,
until the tribe submitted and accepted government terms. The
Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed.

(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked
their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed their
country, and the tribesmen made their submission.

(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the
previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan War,
so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their country,
and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made their submission.

After this both the Khyber and Kohat Passes were put on a
stable footing, and no further trouble of any consequence occurred
in either down to the time of the frontier risings of 1897, when
the Afridis attacked the Khyber Pass, which was defended by
Afridi levies.

(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TLRAH CAMPAIGN.

(9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel
again* made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James
Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the
following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands,
the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan.

See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884) ; War-
burton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.)

AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light
appearing occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in
the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snow-
fields in mountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon
is due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions
of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the
component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa
in 1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the
world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly
fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and
then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents.

AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born
at Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher of
oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator
of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on the west coast
of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary of the Swedish
embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he founded the
Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 1812 became
professor of materia medica at the university. He died at Upsala
in 1837. In addition to various botanical writings, he published
the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823.

His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (i7S3-i837),known as ARVIDSON,
was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother,
PER AF (i 760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala
in 1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner.

AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor,
poet, historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October
1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871
he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a
collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in the
great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor fran
forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published also
translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga, and a
history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German transla-
tion was published in 1842), as well as original poems.

AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying
a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the chief
of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, cavalry
and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the seraglio. It
is also employed generally as a term of respect in addressing
wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c.

AGA1AMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers in
British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual report
for 1904 the acting administrator of British New Guinea stated
that on a visit he paid to their district he saw six males and four
females. The Agaiambo live in huts erected on piles in the lakes
and marshes. Dwarfish in stature but broadly built, they are
remarkable for the shortness of their legs. They live almost
entirely in their " dug-outs " or canoes, or actually wading in
the water. Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-
lily and fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly
numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the
raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features,
colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans.

AGA KHAN I., His HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title
accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia,
1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under the
protection of the British government. He was believed to have
descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the daughter

AGALMATOLITE— AGAMEMNON

363

of the Prophet Mahomet. All's son, Hosain, having married
a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of
Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal
house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times.
His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs of the Beni-
Fatimites for a number of years, at a period coeval with the
Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was
appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be governor-general
of the extensive and important province of Kerman. His rule
was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity,
and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and
confidence of his master the shah, although his career was beset
with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and
court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however,
1 the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him,
and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory,
preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay
his headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at
its height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the
British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help was
utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier tribes,
a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as
their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to
the British government, and when he finally settled down in
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah section of
Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the govern-
ment, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with
a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga
Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking
citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to dis-
charge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers
in India, but towards the more numerous communities which
acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as
Afghanistan, Khorasan, Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even
distant Syria and Morocco. He remained throughout unflinch-
ingly loyal to the British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned
influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of
India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times
of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of
India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the
more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, which in times
of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape
of religious or political riots.

He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that
won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him
the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the Indian Empire
and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay.

AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became the
head of the family and its devotees. He was born in 1877, and,
under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of
Persia, was given not only that religious and oriental education
which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailiahs made
indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to
his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of
education produced the happy result of fitting this Moslem chief
in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which
appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties of
a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to dis-
charge by virtue of that position. He travelled in distant parts
of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the
object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare

by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The dis-
tinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was con-
ferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received like
recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the
sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates.

See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan
(1903). (M. M. BH.)

AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. &ya\na, statue, and Xi0os,
stone), a soft species of mineral, also called pagodite, used by the
Chinese for carving, especially into grotesque figures (whence
called " figure-stone ").

AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orcho-
menus in Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother
Trophonius as a wonderful architect, the constructor of under-
ground shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure.
When building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed
one of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever
they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the
treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes was
caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his brother's
head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus, and swal-
lowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On this spot
was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; those
who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of a ram and
called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story is told of
Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121). According to Pindar (apud
Plutarch), the brothers built the temple of Apollo at Delphi;
when they asked for a reward, the god promised them one in
seven days;' on the seventh day they died.

Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ~ad Apollonium, 14;
Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 47.

AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek
heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope,
grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of
Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes
(the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's
first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus (<?.».), who
took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly
with his father Thyestes. During this period Agamemnon and
Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose
daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and
Helen they respectively married. By Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon
had three daughters, Iphigeneia (Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice),
Chrysothemis, and ason, Orestes. Menelaus succeededTyndareus,
and Agamemnon,with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus
and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended
his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince
in Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried off
his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the country and
called upon them to unite in a war of revenge against the Trojans.
He himself furnished 100 ships, and was chosen commander-in-
chief of the combined forces. The fleet, numbering 1 200 ships,
assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia. But Agamemnon had
offended the goddess Artemis by slaying a hind sacred to her, and
boasting himself a better hunter. The army was visited by a
plague, and the fleet was prevented from sailing by the total
absence of wind. Calchas announced that the wrath of the
goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia
(q.v.). The fleet then set sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon
until his quarrel with Achilles (q.v.). After the capture of Troy,
Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution
of the prizes of war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he
landed in Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval
had seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at
which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put to
death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given by
Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife
alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown
over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the sacrifice of
Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been
the motives of her crime. The murder of Agamemnon was
avenged by his son Orestes (q.v.). Although not the equal of

364

AGAPE

Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon is a dignified representative
of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summons the
princes to the council and leads the army in battle. He takes the
field himself, and performs many heroic deeds until he is wounded
and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault is his over-
weening haughtiness, due to an over-exalted opinion of his
position, which leads him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby
bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. But his family had been
marked out for misfortune from the outset. His kingly office had
come to him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of
Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality
which explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The
fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous
tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the
Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamem-
non was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and
in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon.
His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at
Amyclae.

In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the
representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king
of men. He is generally characterized by the sceptre and diadem,
the usual attributes of kings.

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopiidie and Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythoiogie.

AGAPE (Gr. &y&Tnj, " Love "), the early Christian love-
feast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the epistle of
Jude 12: " These are they who are hidden rocks in your love-
feasts when they banquet with you." But this is not certain,
for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading airarais
(" deceits ") for 6.yairais, and the oldest MSS. hesitate. The
history of the agape coincides, until the end of the 2nd century,
with that of the eucharist (q.v.), and it is doubtful whether the
following detailed account of the agape given in Tertullian's
Apology (c. 39) is to be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying
eucharist: " It is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians
that is criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its
name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love (i.e.
agape). Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear gain that it is
incurred on the score of piety, seeing that we succour the poorest
by such entertainments (refrigerio) . We do not lie down at table
until prayer has been offered to God, as it were a first taste. We
eat only to appease our hunger, we drink only so much as it is
good for temperate persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites,
we do so without forgetting that throughout the night we must
say our prayers to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge
that the Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting
the lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, either
taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So we prove
him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends, as it began,
the banquet; and we break up not in bands of brigands, nor in
groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out into debauchery. . . .
This meeting of Christians we admit deserves to be made illicit,
if it resembles illicit acts; it deserves to be condemned, if any
complain of it on the same score on which complaints are levelled
at factious meetings. But to do harm to whom do we ever thus
come together?"

The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt
about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his
Pedagogus (ii. i) condemns the " little suppers which were called,
not without presumption, agape." This word, he complains,
should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable feast alone, and
the Lord never used it of mere junketings. Clement wished the
name to be reserved for the eucharist, because the love-feasts
of the church had degenerated, as Tertullian too discovered,
as soon as he turned Motanist. For in his tract on fasting
(ch. xvii.) he complains that the young men misbehaved with the
sisters after the agape.

Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract
entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how the sisters
after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 P.M.) are to dine: " When
you sit down at a table and come to break bread, seal it thrice

with the sign of the cross and thus give thanks : ' We thank thee,
our Father, for thy holy resurrection; for through Jesus thy
servant thou hast shewn it unto us. And as this bread on this
table was scattered, but has been brought together and become
one, so may thy church be brought together into thy kingdom.
For thine is the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen.'
This prayer as you break the bread, and are about to eat, you
must say. And when you lay it on the table and desire to eat it,
repeat the ' Our Father ' entire. But after dinner (or breakfast),
and v/hen we rise from table, we use the prayer given above, viz.
' Blessed be God, who hath pity and nourished! us from our
infancy, who giveth food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy
and gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we
may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord,
&c.' " The writer then enjoins that, " if two or three other virgins
are present, they also shall give thanks over the bread set out,
and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen be found at the
table, she shall not be suffered to join with the full believers in
their prayers, nor shall the latter sit with her to eat the morsel "
(\l/uifj.bv, used specially of the sanctified bread). " Nor shall
they sit with frivolous and joking women, if they can help it,
for they are sanctified to God, and their food and drink have
been hallowed by the prayers and holy words used over them.
. . . If a rich woman sits down with them at table, and they
see a poor woman, they shall invite her also to eat with them,
and not put her to shame because of the rich one." The last
words echo i Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that
which the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic
rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century a
Lord's supper, which like the one described in i Cor. x. is agape
and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private house and not
in church, and the celebrants are holy women!

The historian Socrates (Hist. Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the
survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts
and eucharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid,
he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other
Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament). For after
holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of all kinds,
they at eventide make the offering (irpoa^opo.) and partake of it.
So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about the year 350, records
that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, celebrated the communion in
their own houses, and partook of the sacrament by themselves
whenever they chose. In the old Egyptian church order, known
as the Canons of Hippolytus, there are numerous directions for
the service of the agape, held on Sundays, saints' days or at
commemorations of the dead. The 74th canon of the council
of Trullo (A.D. 692) forbade the holding of symposia known as
agapes in church. In his 54th homily (torn. v. p. 365) Chrysos-
tom describes how after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the
faithful remained in church, while the rich brought out meats
and drink from their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished
" common tables, common banquets, common symposia in the
church itself." The council of Gangra (A.D. 355) anathematized
the over-ascetic people who despised " the agapes based on
faith." Only a few years later, however, the council of Laodicea
forbade the holding of agapes in churches. The 42nd canon of
the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise forbade them,
but these were only local councils. In the age of Chrysostom
and Augustine the agape was frequent.

In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches,
respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in
their tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under
Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of a
pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given
sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and
deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his per-
quisite. In Armenia the Greek word agape has been used ever
since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial meals, which
either began or ended with a eucharistic celebration. The
earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed in the two following
rules recorded against them by a renegade Armenian prelate
named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over to the Byzantine

AGAPEMONITES

church: " Christ did not hand down to us the teaching to
• celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread in church, but
in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common table. So then
let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in churches. It was
after supper, when his disciples were thoroughly sated, that
Christ gave them of his own body to eat. Therefore let them
first eat meats and be sated, and then let them partake of the
mysteries." These old canons are adduced by way of ridiculing
the Armenians, yet they reflect old usage. They are given in
the Historia Monothelitarum of Combefisius, col. 317. Older
MSS. of the Greek Euchologion contain numerous prayers to be
offered over animals sacrificed; and in the form of agape such
sacrifices were common in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies
of a saint, and Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his
Latin poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail. Gregory the Great
sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of sacrificing
bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th century.
In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean (xx. 4), the
latter taxes the Catholics with having turned the sacrifices of the
heathen into agapes, their idols into martyrs, whom they worship
with similar rites. " You appease," he says, " the shades of
the dead with wines and banquets, you celebrate the feast-days
of the heathen along with them . ; . in their way of living
you have certainly changed nothing." This was true enough,
but there is truth also in the remark of Prof. Sanday (" Eucha-
rist " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) that Providence even
in its revolutions is conservative. The world could only be
christianized on condition that old holy days and customs were
continued. The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation
to the older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted.
The association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with
the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the
eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the
year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an
eucharist. The 4ist canon of the council of Carthage enacted
that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting,
except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear
that at an earlier date the agape preceded the eucharist.

Pagan Analogues. — In ancient states common meals called
sussitia (o-ixrcrma.) were instituted, particularly in the Doric
states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete. Plato advocated them,
and perhaps the later Jews imitated the Spartan community.
Trade and other gilds in antiquity held subscription suppers or
Zpavoi, similar to those of the early Corinthian church, usually
to support the needs of the poorer members. These hetairiae
or clubs were forbidden (except in cities formally allied to Rome)
by Trajan and other emperors, as being likely to be centres of
disaffection; and on this ground Pliny forbade the agape of the
Bithynian churches, Christianity not being a lawful religion
licensed for such gatherings. The custom which most resembles
the eucharist and agape was that known as charistia described by
Valerius Maximus ii. 1.8. It was a solemn feast attended only
by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled
were at the sacrament of the table (apua sacra mensae) reconciled.
It was held on the zoth of February. Ovid in his Fasti, ii.
617, alludes to it —

Proxima cognati dixere charistia cari,
Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos.

AUTHORITIES. — " The Canons of Hippolytus," in Duchesne's
Origines du culte Chretien (Paris, 1898); A. Allen, Christian Insti-
tutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol, Etudes d'histoire (Paris, 1902
and 1905) ; F. X. Funk, " L' Agape," in the Revue de I'histoire ecclesi-
astique (Louvain, Jan. 1903) ; Ad. Harnack, " Brod und Wasser "
(Texte und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, The
Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901); F. X. Kraus, arts.
" Agapen " and " Mahle " in the Realencyklop. d. christl. Altertumer;
P. Ladeuze, " L'Eucharistie et les repas communs " in the Revue de
V orient Chretien, No. 3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the
Roman Empire (London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und
Litteratur (Gottingen, 1893) ; E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in altesten
Chnstianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual
of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897) ; T. Zahn, art. " Agapen "
•" Hauck's Realencyklop.; F. C. Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum
(Oxford, 1905; it contains the oldest Latin and Greek forms), The

Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898), and art. on " The Survival of Animal
Sacrifices " in the American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903) ;
F. X. Funk, Didascalia et Constitutions Apostolorum (Paderborn,
1906); V. Ermoni, L' Agape (Paris, 1904); G. Horner, The Statutes
of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and Arabic MSS. (London,
1904) ; Thefr. Drescher, Diss. de vet. Christianorum Agapis (Giesse,
1824); L. A. Muratori, Anecdota Graeca, " De agapis sublatis "
(Patavii, 1709); I. A. Fabricius, Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter,
Primord. Eccl. Afr. p. 1 1 1 ; Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles. capita
18, 19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani, xxxi. ; Paulini
Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.)

AGAPEMONITES, or COMMUNITY OF THE SON OF MAN. This
sect, based upon the theories of various German religious mystics,
and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the
matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry
James Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (1811-1899).
He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 and was
appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in Bath, his
native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon his profession,
he entered himself in 1837 as a student at St. David's Theo-
logical College, Lampeter, where he gathered about him a band
of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as the Lampeter Brethren,
and was eventually ordained to the curacy of Charlinch in
Somerset, where he had sole charge in the illness and absence
of the rector, the Rev. Samuel Starkey. By that time he had
contracted his first " spiritual marriage," and had persuaded
himself that he had been absorbed into the personality of God
and had become a visible embodiment of the Holy Spirit. D uring
his illness Mr. Starkey read one of his curate's sermons and was
not only " cured " forthwith, but embraced his strange aoctrines,
and together they procured many conversions in the countryside
and the neighbouring towns. In the end the rector was deprived
of his living and Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with
a few disciples they started the Cbarlinch Free Church, which
had a very brief existence. Prince shortly afterwards became
curate of Stoke in Suffolk, where, however, the character of
his revivalist zeal caused his .departure at the end of twelve
months. It was now decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister
Prince had married as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis
Prince should leave the Church of England and preach their
own gospel; Prince opened Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and
Starkey established himself at Weymouth. The chief success
lay in the latter town, and thither Prince soon migrated. A
number of followers, estimated by Prince at 500, but by his
critics at one-fifth of the number, were got together, and it was
given out by " Beloved " or " The Lamb " — the names by which
the Agapemonites designated their leader — that his disciples
must divest themselves of their possessions and throw them
into the common stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill-
furnished, all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the
present dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder
of this world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating
earthly ties, to treat them as purely spiritual. With the money
thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the
" Abode of Love," was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and
three sisters, who contributed £6000 each, were immediately
married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the
purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view
of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and when
the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was brought
which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's right to its
custody. The circumstance in which a fourth sister who joined
the community was abducted by her brothers led to an inquiry
in lunacy and to her final settlement at Spaxton. A few years
after the establishment of the " Abode of Love," a peculiarly
gross scandal, in which Prince and one of his female followers
were involved, led to the secession of some of his most faithful
friends, who were unable any longer to endure what they regarded
as the amazing mixture of blasphemy and immorality offered
for their acceptance. The most prominent of those who remained
received such titles as the "Anointed Ones," the "Angel of
the Last Trumpet," the " Seven Witnesses " and so forth. In
1862 " Brother Prince " sent " to the kings and people of the
earth " letters " making known to all men that flesh is saved

366

AGAPETAE— AGASSIZ

from death." At that period the Agapemonites counted their
adherents at 600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them
when their deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899,
four years after he had opened a branch church at Clapton,
London, which is said to have cost £20,000. This church,
decorated with elaborate symbolism, was styled the " Ark of
the Covenant," and in it the elect were to await the coming of
the Lord.

On the death of " Brother " Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth-
Pigott, pastor of the " Ark," became the acknowledged head
of the sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county
family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor before
the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church of England
and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted about
1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after this he was
not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7th of September
1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the Ark of the
Covenant for service, found the communion table replaced by
a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself and proclaimed
himself as the Messiah with the words, " God is no longer there,"
pointing upwards, " but here," pointing to himself. This aston-
ishing announcement was followed by an excellent sermon on
Christian love. Pigott's claim was at once admitted by the
members of his sect, including even his own wife, as the ful-
filment of the promise of Christ to appear in due time in the
"Ark." By the outside world the affair was greeted with mingled
ridicule and indignation, and the new Messiah had to be pro-
tected by the police from the violence of an angry mob. After
providing " copy " for the newspapers for a few days, however,
the whole thing was forgotten. Pigott retired to the head-
quarters of the sect, the " Abode of Love " in Somerset, and all
efforts to interview him or to obtain details of the life of the
community were abortive. At last, in August 1905, the long
and mysterious silence was broken by the announcement that
a son had been born to Pigott by his " spiritual wife," Miss Ruth
Preece, an inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means
disconcerted the believers, who saw in it only another manifesta-
tion of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as " an earnest of
the total redemption of man." The child was registered as
" Glory," and, at the christening service in the chapel of the
Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in a jewelled
cradle in the chancel. Another child by Miss Preece, christened
" Power," was born on the 2oth of August 1908. The publicity
given to this event renewed the scandal, and in November an
attempt to " tar and feather " Mr Pigott resulted in two men
being sent to prison. Later in the month proceedings were
instituted against him by the bishop of Bath and Wells under
the Clergy Discipline Act.

One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone
deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the origin of
the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes Read, a resident
at the Agapemone and director of the V. V. Bread Company, was
requested by his fellow-directors to resign, on the ground that his
connexion with the sect was damaging the business of the company.
He denied this to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious
liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the concern. On
the I3th of September 1905, a meeting of the shareholders of the
company was held, and Read " asked them to believe that it was not
in the interests of the company, but because he knew that the Lord
Jesus Christ had come again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone,
that he was thus cast out by his colleagues." The motion calling on
him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 votes to
2953- (See The Times, I4th of September 1905.)

AGAPETAE, a class of " virgins " who, in the church of the
early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks to whom
they were said to be united by spiritual love. The practice was
suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139.

AGAPETUS, the name of two popes: —

AGAPETUS I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened
pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome
a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad sent him
on an embassy to Constantinople, where he died, after having
deposed Anthimus, the monophysite bishop of that town, and
ordained Menas his successor.

AGAPETUS II., pope from 946 to 955, at the time when Alberic,

son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of
Rome under the title of " prince and senator of the Romans."*
Agapetus, a man of some force of character, did his best to put
a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had fallen,
the so-called " Pornocracy," which lasted from the accession
of Sergius III. in 904 to the deposition of John XII. in 963. His
appeal to Otto the Great to intervene in Rome remained without
immediate effect, since Alberic's position was too strong to be
attacked, but it bore fruit after his death. Agapetus died on
the 8th of November 955.

AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at Constan-
tinople. He presented to the emperor Justinian, on his ac-
cession in 527, a work entitled Scheda regia sive de officio regis,
which contained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. The
work was often reprinted and is included in Dom Anselme
~Ba.nduri'sImperium Orientate (Paris, 1711). There is an English
translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French trans-
lation, executed in 1612 from a Latin version by Louis XIII.,
with the assistance of his tutor, David Rivault.

AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was
born at Foston, Derbyshire, in 1 540. He was trained as a lawyer,
but entered the exchequer as a clerk. On the authority of
Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed by
Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in 1570,
and that he held this office for forty-five years. His patent of
appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office, proves that
he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the nth of July
1603. With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was
one of the original members of the Society of Antiquaries. He
spent much labour in cataloguing the records and state papers,
and made a special study of the Domesday Book, preparing an
explanation of its more obscure terms. Thomas Hearne, in his
Collection of Curious Discourses written by Eminent Antiquaries
(Oxford, 1720), includes six by Agarde on such subjects as the
origin of parliament, the antiquity of shires, the authority and
privileges of heralds, &c. Agarde died on the 22nd of August
1615 and was buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on
his tomb being inscribed "Recordorum regiorum hie prope
depositorum diligens scrutator." He bequeathed to the exchequer
all his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir Robert
Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty volumes,
most of which are now in the British Museum.

AGAS, RADULPH, or RALPH (c. 1540-1621), English land-
surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about 1540,
and entered upon the practice of his profession in 1566. Letters
which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the methods of
surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising prospectus of
his abilities, in which he describes himself as clever at arithmetic
and " skilled in writing smaule, after the skantelinge & pro-
portion of copiynge the Oulde & New Testamentes seven tymes
in one skinne of partchmente without anie woorde abreviate
or contracted, which maie also serve for drawinge discriptions
of contries into volumes portable in verie little cases." He is
best known for his maps of Oxford (1578), Cambridge (1592)
and London. Copies of the first two are preserved in the Bodleian
Library. Of the map of London and Westminster, which was
probably prepared about 1591, two copies have been preserved,
one by the Corporation of London and the other in the Pepysian
collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The map is over
six feet long, printed from wooden blocks, and gives a valuable
picture of the London of Elizabeth's time. Agas died on the
26th of November 1621.

AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name.
Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue
called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre. Agasias, son of
Menophilus, is the author of another striking figure of a warrior
in the museum of Athens. Both belonged to the school of
Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C.

See E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture, ii. p. 475.

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), American
man of science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchatel,
Switzerland, on the i?th of December 1835. He came to the

AGASSIZ

United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard
in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and
taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scien-
tific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became
an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. Thenceforward
he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, but devoted much
time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of
mines, being superintendent of the Calumet and Hecla copper
mines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and afterwards, as a
stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of which he gave to
Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology and other
purposes, some $500,000. In 1875 he surveyed Lake Titicaca,
Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made
a collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum, of which
he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Sir Wyville
Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections
of the " Challenger " exploring expedition, and wrote the
Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the reports. Between
1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of
the steamer " Blake," of the United States Coast Survey, and
presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888). Of his
other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the
bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology;
but he published in 1865 (with Elizabeth Gary Agassiz, his step-
mother) Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact
and stimulating, and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts
Bay.

AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (180^1873), Swiss
naturalist and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor
of the parish of Metier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake
of Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity
of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired place
on the 28th of May 1807. Educated first at home, then spending
four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed his ele-
mentary studies at the academy of Lausanne. Having adopted
medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the uni-
versities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and he availed
himself of the advantages afforded by these universities for
extending his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany.
After completing his academical course, he took in 1829 his
degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen, and in 1830 that of
doctor of medicine at Munich.

Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study
of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occu-
pation of his life. Agassiz always declared that he was led into
ichthyological pursuits through the following circumstances: —
In 1819-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged in
their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to Europe,
amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home
an important set of the freshwater fishes of Brazil, and especially
of the Amazon river. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live long
enough to work out the history of these fishes; and Agassiz,
though little more than a youth just liberated from his academic
studies, was selected by Prof. Martius for this purpose. He at
once threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit
which characterized him to the end of his busy life, and the task
of describing and figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed
and published in 1829. This was followed by an elaborate re-
search into the history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel.
Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a History
of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was only in 1839,
however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it
was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor
of natural history in the university of Neuchatel. Having
become a professed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the
fossil fishes should fail to attract his attention. The rich stores
furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte
Bolca were already well known; but very little had been accom-
plished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early
as 1829, with his wonted enthusiasm, planned the publication of
the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his
world-wide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons

fossiles appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844]. They
were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of
Joseph Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating
natural objects. In gathering materials for this great work
Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting
Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance
from him.

Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours rendered
necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils
rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fishes. They
consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones
being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He
therefore adopted his well-known classification, which divided
fishes into four groups — viz. Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and
Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal
appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on
a scientific basis, his classification has not been found to meet
the requirements of modern research. As remarked by Dr A.
Smith Woodward, he sought to interpret the past structures
by too rigorous a comparison with those of living forms. (See
Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.}

As the important descriptive wo<k of Agassiz proceeded, it
became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless
assistance could be afforded. The British Association came to
his aid, and the earl of Ellesmere — then Lord Francis Egerton —
gave him yet more efficient help. The original drawings made for
the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1 290 in number. These
were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geo-
logical Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston medal was
awarded by the council of that society to Agassiz for his work
on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign
member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile the invertebrate
animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Pro-
drome " of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata,
the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he
published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of
Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he issued his Etudes critiques sur
les mollusques fossiles.

Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of
Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable
fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of Scotland.
The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other
genera were then made known to geologists for the first time.
They naturally were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the
subject ot a special monograph by him published in 1844-1845:
Monographic des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou
Systeme Dcvonien (Old Red Sandstone) des lies Britanniques et de
Russie.

The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investiga-
tion, which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological
science. Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz, Char-
pentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects
of special study, and Charpentier had even arrived at the
conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over
the slopes and summits of the Jura mountains had been conveyed
thither by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention
of Agassiz, he not only made successive journeys to the alpine
regions in company with Charpentier, but he had a hut con-
structed upon one of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he made
his home, in order to investigate thoroughly the structure and
movements of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication
of his grand work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers,
1840. Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their
moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over
which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches
moutonnSes with which we are now so familiar. He not only
accepted Charpentier's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had
extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar
and the Rhone, and thus landed parts of their remains upon the
uplands of the jura, but he went still farther. He concluded that,
at a period geologically recent, Switzerland had been another
Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the

368

AGATE

areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher
Alps, had extended over the entire valley of north-western
Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura,
which, though they checked and deflected its further extension,
did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the
summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh
impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the
world.

Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the move-
ments of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery
which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland.
These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland together, and
found in different localities clear evidence of ancient glacial
action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society
of London in successive communications from the two distin-
guished observers. The mountainous districts of England and
Wales and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres
for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked " that
great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland,
once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel
(boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general pro-
duced by the trituration of »the sheets of ice upon the subjacent
surface, &c."

In 1 84 2- 1 846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologitus, a classified
list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera
and groups — a work of great labour and research. With the
aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz,
in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic, with the twofold
design of investigating the natural history and geology of the
United States and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by
invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute at Boston;
the tempting advantages, pecuniary and scientific, presented to
him in the New World induced him to settle in the United
States, where he remained to the end of his life. He was ap-
pointed professor of zoology and geology in Harvard University,
Cambridge, U.S., in 1847. In !&52 he accepted a medical pro-
fessorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, but this he
resigned in two years.

The transfer to a new field and the association w'th fresh objects
of interest gave his energies an increased stimulus. Volume
after volume now proceeded from his pen: some of his writings
were popular, but most of them dealt with the higher departments
of scientific research. His work on Lake Superior, and his four
volumes of Contributions to the Natural History of the United
States, 1857-1862, were of this latter character. We must not
overlook the valuable service he rendered to science by the
formation, for his own use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs —
an extraordinary work for a man whose hands were already so
full. This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late
Hugh E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the
title of Bibliographia Zoologiae el Geologiae, in 4 vols., 1848-1854.
Nor must we forget that he was building up another magnificent
monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural History,
which rose under his fostering'care, at Cambridge. But at length
the great strain on his physical powers began to tell. His early
labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused him to cast
a longing glance towards that country, and he now resolved to
combine the pursuit of health with the gratification of his long-
cherished desires. In April 1865 he started for Brazil, with
his wife and class of qualified assistants. An interesting account
of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was
published by Mrs Agassiz and himself after they returned home
in August 1866.

In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern
shores of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic
and its Pacific sea-boards. He had for many years yearned after
the establishment of a permanent school where zoological science
could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of
study. The last, and possibly the most influential, of the labours
of his life was the establishment of such an institution, which
he was enabled to effect through the liberality of Mr John
Anderson, a citizen of New York. That gentleman, in 1873, not

only handed over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzard's
Bay, on the east coast, but also presented him with $50,000
wherewith permanently to endow it as a practical school of
natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine
zoology. Unfortunately he did not long survive the establish-
ment of this institution. The disease with which he had struggled
for some years proved fatal on the i4th of December 1873.
He was buried at Mount Auburn. His monument is a boulder
selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site
of the old Hotel des Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where
his hut once stood; and the pine-trees which shelter his grave
were sent from his old home in Switzerland. His extensive
knowledge of natural history makes it somewhat remarkable
to find that from first to last he steadily rejected the doctrine
of evolution, and affirmed his belief in independent creations.
When studying the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains iii
1865, his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area,
as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier,
extending from the Andes to the sea. This view, however,
has not been generally accepted. His daring conceptions were
only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine en-
thusiasm with which he worked them out; and if in details
his labours were somewhat defective, it was only because he
had ventured to attempt what was too much for any one man
to accomplish.

It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses
written by Longfellow on " The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz "
were read by the author at a dinner given to Agassiz by the
Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857.

Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had
an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.i>.~), born in 1835; in 1850,
after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot
Gary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and
as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with
Radcliffe College (see an article on Radcliffe College, by Helen
Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895).

AUTHORITIES. — L.Agassiz,His Life and Correspondence, '2 vols., by
E. C. (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1885) ; Louis Agassiz, His Life and Work,
by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.)

AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but
to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly Chalcedony
(q.v.). According to Theophrastus the agate (dxarijs) was
named from the river Achates, now the Drillo, in Sicily, where
the stone was originally found. Most agates occur as nodules
in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where they represent cavities
originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the
molten mass, and since filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous
matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates,
when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines,
often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the
section, whence such stones are known as banded agate, riband
agate and striped agate. Certain agates also occur, to a limited
extent, in veins, of which a notable example is the beautiful
brecciated agate of Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony —
a stone mostly composed of angular fragments of agate cemented
with amethystine quartz.

In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that
waters containing silica in solution — derived, perhaps, from the
decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself— per-
colated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous coating on
the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character
of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit, may have caused
corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands
of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz,
and occasionally of opaline silica. By movement of the lava,
when originally viscous, the vesicles were in many cases drawn
out and compressed, whence the mineral matter with which
they became filled assumed an elongated form, having the longer
axis in the direction in which the magma flowed. From the fact
that these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called
amygdales, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as
an amygdaloid. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the

AGATE

369

rock is viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may become
the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode,
lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35 tons, was exhibited
at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902.

The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the " skin "
of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance,
like celadonite, delessite or " green earth," which are hydrous
silicates rich in iron, derived probably from the decomposition
of the augite in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give
rise by alteration to a brown oxide of iron (limonite), producing
a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The
outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted
and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the
original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the
cavity has been called the " priming," and upon this basis
zeolitic minerals may be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr
M. F. Heddle. Chalcedony is generally one of the earlier deposits
and crystallized quartz one of later formation. Tubular channels,
usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often visible in
sections of agate, and were formerly regarded, especially by
L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of infiltration, by which
the siliceous solutions gained access to the interior of the amyg-
daloidal cavity. It seems likely, however, that the solution
transuded through the walls generally, penetrating the chalce-
donic layers,'as Heddle maintained, by osmotic action. Much of
the chalcedony in an agate is known, from the method of arti-
ficially staining the stone, to be readily permeable. It was
argued by E. Reusch that the cavities were alternately filled
and emptied by means of intermittent hot springs carrying
silica; while G. Lange, of Idar, suggested that the tension of
the confined steam might pierce an outlet through some weak
point in the coating of gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls,
so that the tubes would be channels of egress rather than of
ingress — a view supported by Heddle, who described them as
" tubes of escape."

It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata
usually opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity
after the walls have been lined with successive layers of chalce-
dony. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not pro-
ceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last
deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethystine, having
the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space, so as
to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode.

When the deposits in an agate have been formed on a crop
of crystals, or on a rugose base, the cross-section presents a
zigzag pattern, rather like the plan of a fortress with salient
and retiring angles, whence the stone is termed fortification
agate. If the section shows concentric circles, due either to
stalactitic growth or to deposition in the form of bosses and beads
on the floor, the stone is known as ring agate or eye agate. A
Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name
of " cyclops." Included matter of a green colour, like fragments
of " green earth," embedded in the chalcedony and disposed
in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth,
gives rise to moss agate. These inorganic enclosures in the agate
have been sometimes described, even after microscopic examina-
tion, as true vegetable structures. Dendritic markings of black
or brown colour, due to infiltration of oxides of manganese and
iron, produce the variety of agate known as Mocha stone. Agates
of exceptional beauty often pass in trade under the name of
Oriental agate. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections
by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum, due to
the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are
termed rainbow agates.

On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are
embedded, they are set free, and, being by their siliceous nature
extremely resistant to the action of air and water, remain as
nodules in the soil and gravel, or become rolled as pebbles in
the streams. Such is the origin of the " Scotch pebbles," used
as ornamental stones. They are agates derived from the andesitic
lavas of Old Red Sandstone age, chiefly in the Ochils and the
Sidlaws. In like manner, the South American agates, so largely

cut and polished at the present time, are found mostly as boulders
in the beds of rivers.

An enormous trade in agate-working is carried on in a small
district in Germany, around Oberstein on the Nahe, a tributary
of the Rhine at Bingen. Here the industry was located many
centuries ago, in consequence of the abundant occurrence of
agates in the amygdaloidal melaphyre of the district, notably
in the Galgenberg, or Steinkaulenberg, overlooking the village
of Idar, on the Idar Bach, about two miles from Oberstein.
The abundant water-power in the neighbourhood had also a
share in the determination of the industrial site. At the present
time, however, steam power and even electricity are employed
in the mills of the Oberstein district. Although the agate-
industry is still carried on there, especially at Idar, the stones
operated on are not of indigenous origin, but are imported mostly
from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) and from Uruguay, where they
were discovered in 1827. Agate-working is also carried on to
a limited extent at Waldkirch in the Black Forest.

Most commercial agate is artificially stained, so that stones
naturally unattractive by their dull grey tints come to be valuable
for ornamental purposes. The art of staining the stone is believed
to be very ancient. Possibly referred to by Pliny (bk. xxxvii.
cap. 75), it was certainly practised at an early date by the Italian
cameo-workers, and from Italy a knowledge of the art — long
kept secret and practised traditionally — passed in the early
part of the igth century to the agate- workers in Germany,
by whom it has since been greatly developed. The colouring
matter is absorbed by the porosity of the stone, but different
stones and even different layers in the same stone exhibit great
variation in absorptive power. The Brazilian agates lend them-
selves readily to coloration, while the German agates are much
less receptive.

To produce a dark brown or black colour, the stone is kept
perhaps for two or three weeks in a saccharine solution, or in
olive oil, at a moderate temperature. After removal from this
medium, the agate is well washed and then digested for a short
time in sulphuric acid, which entering the pores chars or carbonizes
the absorbed sugar or oil. Certain layers of chalcedony are
practically impermeable, and these consequently remain un-
coloured, so that an alternation of dark and white bands is
obtained, thus giving rise to an onyx. If stained too dark, the
colour may be " drawn," or lightened, by the action of nitric
acid.

Agate is stained red, so as to form carnelian and sardonyx,
by means of ferric oxide. This may be derived from any iron
compound naturally present in the stone, especially from limonite
by dehydration on baking. Some stones are " burnt " by mere
exposure to the heat of the sun, whereby the brown colour
passes to red. Usually, however, an iron-salt, like ferrous
sulphate, is artificially introduced in solution and then decom-
posed by heat, so as to form in the pores a rich red pigment.

A blue colour, supposed to render the agate rather like lapis
lazuli, is produced by using first an iron salt and then a solution
of ferrocyanide or ferricyanide of potassium; a green colour,
like that of chrysoprase, is obtained by means of salts of nickel
or of chromium; and a yellow tint is developed by the action
of hydrochloric acid.

Among the uses to which agate is applied may be mentioned
the formation of knife-edges of delicate balances, small mortars
and pestles for chemical work, burnishers and writing styles,
umbrella-handles, paper-knives, seals, brooches and other
trivial ornaments. Most of these are cut and polished in the
Oberstein district, at a very cheap rate, from South American
stones.

Numerous localities in the United States and Canada yield
agates, as described by Dr G. F. Kunz. They are abundant
in the trap rocks of the Lake Superior region, some of the finest
coming from Michipicoten Island, Ontario. A locality on the
shore of the lake is called Agate Bay. Wood agate, or agatized
wood, is not infrequently found in Colorado, California and
elsewhere in the West, the most notable locality being the famous
" silicified forest " known as Chalcedony Park, in Apache county,

370

AGATHA— AGATHOCLES

Arizona. Here there are vast numbers of water-rolled logs of
silicified wood, in rocks of Triassic age, but only a small quantity
of the wood is fine enough for ornamental purposes. The cellular
tissue of the vegetable matter is filled, or even replaced, by
various siliceous minerals like chalcedony, jasper, crystalline
quartz and semi-opal, the silica having probably been introduced
by thermal waters. Some of the agate shows the microscopic
structure of araucarian wood. The agatized wood is sometimes
known by the Indian name of shinarump.

In India agates occur abundantly in the amygdaloidal varieties
of the Deccan and Rajmahal traps, and as pebbles in the detritus
derived from these rocks. Some of the finest are found in the
agate-gravels near Ratanpur, in Rajpipla. The trade in agates
has been carried on from early times at Cambay, where the stones
are cut and polished. Agates are also worked at Jubbulpore.

In many parts of New South Wales, agates, resulting from
the disintegration of trap rocks, are common in the river-beds
and old drifts. They occur also in Queensland, as at Agate Creek,
running into the Gilbert river. South Africa likewise yields
numerous agates, especially in the gravels of the Orange and
Vaal rivers.

It should be noted that in England agates are found not only
in old lavas, like the andesites of the Cheviots, but also to a
limited extent in the Dolomitic Conglomerate, an old beach-
deposit of Triassic age in the Mendips and the neighbourhood
of Bristol. They are also found as weathered pebbles in the
drift of Lichfield in Staffordshire.

For Scottish agates see M. F. Heddle, " On the Structure of
Agates," Trans. Geolog. Soc. Glasgow, vol. xi. part ii., 1900, p. 153;
and Mineralogy of Scotland (1901), vol. i. p. 58; J. G. Good-
child, Proc, Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xiv., 1899, p. 191. For the
agate-industry see G. Lange, Die Halbedelsteine (Kreuznach, 1868).
For American agates, G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones
of North America (1890), p. 128. For agates in general see
Max Bauer's Precious Stones, translated by L. J. Spencer (London,
1904). (F. W. R.*)

AGATHA, SAINT, the patron saint of Catania, Sicily, where
her festival is celebrated on the sth of February. The legend
is that she was a native of Sicily (probably of Catania, though
Palermo also claims her), of noble birth and great beauty. She
repelled the advances of the Roman prefect sent by the emperor
Decius to govern Sicily, and was by his orders. brutally tortured
and finally sent to the stake. As soon as the fire was lighted,
an earthquake occurred, and the people insisted on her release.
She died in prison on the 5th of February 251. The rescue of
Catania from fire during an eruption of Mount Etna was later
attributed to St Agatha's veil.

AGATHANGELUS, AGATHANGE or AKATHANKELOS, Armenian
historian, lived during the 4th century, and wrote a History
of the Reign of Dertad, or Tiridates, and of the Preaching of
Si Gregory the Illuminator. The text of this history has been
considerably altered, but it has always been in high favour with
the Armenians. It has been translated into several languages,
and Greek and Latin translations are found in thereto Sanctorum
Bollandistarum, tome viii. As known to us the history consists of
three parts, a history of St Gregory and his companions, the doc-
trine of Gregory, and the conversion of Armenia to Christianity.

See V. Langlois, Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de
I'Armenie (Paris, 1868).

AGATHARCHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, of Cnidus, Greek his-
torian and geographer, lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor
(181-146 B.C.) and his successors. Amongst other works, he
wrote treatises on Asia, Europe and The Red Sea. Interesting
extracts from the last, of some length, are preserved in Photius
(cod. 213), who praises the style of the author, which was
modelled on that of Thucydides.

See H. Leopold!, De Agatharchide Cnidio Dissertatio (1892) ; C. W.
M tiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii., and Geographi Graeci
Minores, i. ; E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, ii. (1879).

AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian painter of the sth century B.C.
He is said by Vitruvius to have been the first to paint a scene for
the acting of tragedies. Hence some writers, such as Karl
Woermann, have supposed that he introduced perspective and
illusion into painting. This is a mistaken view, for ancient

writers know nothing of canvas scenes; the background painted
by Agatharchus was the wooden front of the stage building, and
it was painted, not with reference to any particular play, but as
a permanent decorative background, representing no doubt a
palace or temple. Agatharchus is said to have been seized by
Alcibiades and compelled by him to paint the interior of his
house, which shows that at the time (about 435 B.C.) decorative
painting of rooms was the fashion.

AGATHIAS (c. A.D. 536-582), of Myrina in Aeolis, Greek poet
and historian. He studied law at Alexandria, completed his
training at Constantinople and practised as an advocate (scholas-
ticus) in the courts. Literature, however, was his favourite
pursuit. He wrote a number of short love-poems in epic metre,
called Daphniaca. He next put together a kind of anthology,
containing epigrams by earlier and contemporary poets and him-
self, under the title of a Cycle of New Epigrams. About a hundred
epigrams by Agathias have been preserved in the Greek Antho-
logy and show considerable taste and elegance. After the death
of Justinian (565), some of Agathias's friends persuaded him to
write the history of his own times. This work, in five books,
begins where Procopius ends, and is the chief authority for the
period 552-558. It deals chiefly with the struggles of the Byzan-
tine army, under the command of the eunuch Narses, against
the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Persians. The author prides
himself on his honesty and impartiality, but he is lacking in
judgment and knowledge of facts; the work, however, is valuable
from the importance of the events of which it treats. Gibbon
contrasts Agathias as " a poet and rhetorician " with Procopius
" a statesman and soldier."

AUTHORITIES. — Editio princeps, by B. Vulcanius (1594); in the
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Byz. Hist., by B. G. Niebuhr (1828); in
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxviii.; L. Dindorf, Historici Graeci
Minores (1871); W. S. Teuffel, " Agathias von Myrine," in Philo-
logus (i. 1846); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897).

AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily. He is
noteworthy as the pope who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored to
his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease payment
of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the emperor at Con-
stantinople. It was during his pontificate that the 6th oecumenical
council was held at Constantinople, to which he sent his legates
and those from a Roman council held in 679. Agatho died on
the zoth of January 68 1.

AGATHOCLES (361-289 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, was born at
Thermae Himeraeae (mod. Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son
of a potter who had removed to Syracuse, he learned his father's
trade, but afterwards entered the army. In 333 he married the
widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen.
He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligar-
chical party in Syracuse (?.?'.); in 317 he returned with an army
of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic
constitution which was then set up. Having banished or
murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master
of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the
greater part of Sicily. War with Carthage followed. In 310
Agathocles, defeated and besieged in Syracuse, took the desperate
resolve of breaking through the blockade and attacking the
nemy in Africa. After several victories he was at last completely
defeated (306) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace
with Carthage, Agathocles styled, himself king of Sicily, and
established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly
:han ever. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless
:nergy, and is said to have been meditating a fresh attack on
Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were harassed
ay ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at
whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to
others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercen-
aries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his
ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant."
See Justin xxii., xxiii.; Diodorus Siculus xix., xxi., xxii. (follows
jenerally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles) ;
3olybius ix. 23; Schubert, Geschichte des Agathokles (1887) ; Grote,
History of Greece, ch. 97 ; also SICILY, History.

AGATHODAEMON— AGDE

AGATHODAEMON, in Greek mythology, the " good spirit "
of cornfields and vineyards. It was the custom of the Greeks to
drink a cup of pure wine in his honour at the end of each meal
(Aristophanes, Equites,io6). He was also regarded as the protect-
ing spirit of the state and of individuals. He was often accom-
panied by 'A70.01J Tuxi (good fortune), and in this aspect may be
compared with the Roman Bonus Eventus (Pliny, Nat Hist.
xxxvi. 23), and Genius. He is represented in works of art in the
form of a serpent, or of a young man with a cornucopia and a
bowl in one hand, and a poppy and ears of corn in the other.

See Gerhard, Uber Agathodamon und Bona Dea (Berlin, 1849).

AGATHODAEMON, of Alexandria, map designer, probably
lived in the 2nd century A.D. Some MSS. of the Geography of
Ptolemy contain twenty-seven maps, which are stated to have
been drawn by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who " delineated
the whole world according to the eight books of Ptolemy's
geography." As Ptolemy speaks of Iliwuces to accompany his
treatise, these maps were probably the work of a contemporary
acting under his instructions. About 1470 Nicolaus Doris, a
Benedictine monk, brought out a revised edition of them, the
names being inserted in Latin instead of Greek.

See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, ii.

AGATHON (c. 448-400 B.C.), Athenian tragic poet, friend of
Euripides and Plato, best known from his mention by Aristo-
phanes (Thesmophoriazusae) and in Plato's Symposium, which
describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for
a tragedy (416). He probably died at the court of Archelaus,
king of Macedonia. He introduced certain innovations, and
Aristotle (Poetica, 9) tells us that the plot of his "Ai/0os was
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects.

See Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100; Plato, Symp.
198 c; Plutarch, Symp. 3; Aelian, For. Hist. xiv. 13; Kitsch,
Opuscula, i. ; fragments in Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta.

AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin, who in the earliest
historical times occupied the plain of the Maris (Maros), in the
region now known as Transylvania. Thyrsi is supposed to be a
Scythian form of Tpavaoi (Trausi), a Thracian tribe mentioned
by Stephanus of Byzantium. They are described by Herodotus
(iv. 104) as of luxurious habits, wearing gold ornaments (the
district is still auriferous) and having wives in common. They
tattooed their bodies (picti, Aeneid iv. 136), degrees of rank
being indicated by the manner in which this was done, and
coloured their hair dark blue. Like the Gallic Druids, they
recited their laws in a kind of sing-song to prevent their being
forgotten, a practice still in existence in the days of Aristotle
(Problemata, xix. 28). Valerius Flaccus (Argonautica, vi. 135)
calls them Thyrsagetae, probably in reference to their cele-
bration of orgiastic rites in honour of some divinity akin to the
Thracian Dionysus. In later times the Agathyrsi were driven
farther north, and their name was unknown to the Romans in
their original home.

See Ammianus Marcellinus xxxi. 2. 17; Pliny, Nat. Hist. iv. \2
[26]. 88; Ppmponius Mela ii. I. 10; W. Tomaschek, " Die alten
Thraker," in Sitzungsber. der philosophisch-hislorischen Klasse der
kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss. cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893).

AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amarylli-
daceae, chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and
western United States and in central and tropical South America.
The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally
ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem
is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root.
They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of years,
when a tall stem or " mast " grows from the centre of the leaf-
rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers.
Vfter development of fruit the plant dies down, but suckers are
frequently produced from the base of the stem which become
new plants. The most familiar species is Agave americana (see
fig.), a native of tropical America, the so-called century plant
or American aloe (the maguey of Mexico). The number of years
before flowering occurs depends on the vigour of the individual,
the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the
plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for
the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflor-

escence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flower-
stalk. In the case of A. americana and other species this is used
by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the
flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently
fermented. By distillation a spirit called mescal is prepared.
The leaves of several species yield fibre, as for instance, A . rigida
var. sisalana, sisal hemp (q.v.), A. decipiens, false sisal hemp;
A. americana is the source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre
plant in Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe. The
flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms

Agave americana, Century plant or American aloe. About 4r0 nat.
size. I, Flower; 2, same flower split open above the ovary; 3, ovary
cut across; I, 2, and 3, about i'nat. size.

From the Botanical Magazine, by permission of Lovcll Reeve and Co.

natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will
lather in water like soap. In the Madras Presidency the plant
is extensively used for hedges along railroads. Agave americana,
century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of
the 1 6th century and is now widely cultivated for its handsome
appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or
yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the
leaves unfold from the centre of the rosette the impression of the
marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger
leaves. The plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in
the summer months, but in the winter require to be protected
from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering,
but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the
stem.

AGDE, a town of southern France, in the department of
Herault, on the left bank of the river of that name, 25 m. from
the Mediterranean Sea and 32 m. S.W. of Montpellier on the
Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 7146. The town lies at the foot
of an extinct volcano, the Montagne St Loup, and is built of
black volcanic basalt, which gives it a gloomy appearance.
Overlooking the river is the church of St Andrd, which dates
partly from the i2th century, and, till the Revolution, was a
cathedral. It is a plain and massive structure with crenelated
walls, and has the aspect of a fortress rather than of a church.
The exterior is diversified by arched recesses forming machicola-
tions, and the same architectural feature is reproduced in the
square tower which rises like a donjon above the building.
The Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne
with the Mediterranean, passes under the walls of the town,

372

AGE

and the mouth of the Herault forms a harbour which- is protected
by a fort. The maritime commerce of the town has declined,
owing partly to the neighbourhood of Cette, partly to the shallow-
ness of the Herault. The fishing industry is, however, still
active. The chief public institutions are the tribunal of
commerce and the communal college.

Agde is a place of great antiquity and is said to have been
founded under the name of ayadri iroXis (Good City) by the
Phocaeans. The bishopric was established about the year 400
and was suppressed in 1 790.

SYNOD OF AGDE (Concilium Agathense). — With the permission
of the West Goth Alaric II. thirty-five bishops of southern Gaul
assembled in person or sent deputies to Agde on the nth of
September 506. Caesarius, bishop of Aries, presided. The
forty-seven genuine canons of the synod deal with discipline,
church life, the alienation of ecclesiastical property and the
treatment of Jews. While favouring sacerdotal celibacy the
council laid rather rigid restrictions on monasticism. It com-
manded that the laity communicate at Christmas, Easter and
Whitsuntide. The canons of Agde are based in part on earlier
Gallic, African and Spanish legislation; and some of them were
re-enacted by later councils, and found their way into collections
such as the Hispana,' Pseudo-Isidore and Gratian.

See Mansi viii. 319 ff. ; Hefe'.e, Conciliengeschichte, and edition,
ii. 649 ff. (English translation, iv. 76 ff.); Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie, i. 242.

AGE (Fr. Age, through late Lat. aetalicum, from aetas), a term
used (i) of the divisions into which it is suggested that human
history may be divided, whether regarded from the geological,
cultural or moral aspects, e.g. the palaeolithic age, the bronze
age, the dark ages; (2) of an historic epoch or generation; (3) of
any period or stage in the physical life of a person, animal or
thing; (4) of that time of life at which the law attributes full
responsibility for his or her acts to the individual.

(1) From the earliest times there would appear to have been the
belief that the history of the earth and of mankind falls naturally
into periods or ages. Classical mythology popularized the idea.
Hesiod, for example, in his poem Works and Days, describes
minutely five successive ages, during each of which the earth was
peopled by an entirely distinct race. The first or golden race
lived in perfect happiness on the fruits of the untilled earth,
suffered from no bodily infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep,
and became after death guardian daemons of this world. The
second or silver race was degenerate, and refusing to worship the
immortal gods, was buried by Jove in the earth. The third or
brazen race, still more degraded, was warlike and cruel, and
perished at last by internal violence. The fourth or heroic race
was a marked advance upon the preceding, its members being the
heroes or demi-gods who fought at Troy and Thebes, and who
were rewarded after death by being permitted to reap thrice a
year the free produce of the earth. The fifth or iron race, to
which the poet supposes himself to belong, is the most degenerate
of all, sunk so low in every vice that any new change must be for
the better. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, follows Hesiod exactly
as to nomenclature and very closely as to substance. He makes
the degeneracy continuous, however, by omitting the heroic race
or age, which, as Grote points out, was probably introduced by
Hesiod, not as part of his didactic plan, but from a desire to
conciliate popular feeling by including in his poem the chief myths
that were already current among the Greeks. Varro recognized
three ages: (i) from the beginning of mankind to the Deluge, a
quite indefinite period; (2) from the Deluge to the First Olym-
piad, called the Mythical Period; (3) from the First Olympiad to
his own time, called the Historic Period. Lucretius divided man's
history into three cultural periods: (i) the Age of Stone; (2) the
Age of Bronze; (3) the Age of Iron. He thus anticipated the
conclusions of some of the greatest of modern archaeologists.

(2) A definite period in history, distinguished by some special
characteristic, such as great literary activity, is generally styled,
with some appropriate epithet, an age. It is usual, for example,
to speak of the Age of Pericles, the Augustan, the Elizabethan or
the Victorian Ages; of the Age of the Crusades, the Dark Ages,

the Middle Ages, the Age of Steam. Such isolated periods, with
no continuity or necessary connexion of any kind, are obviously
quite distinct from the ages or organically related periods into
which philosophers have divided the whole course of human
history. Auguste Comte, for instance, distinguishes three ages
according to the state of knowledge in each, and he supposes that
we are now entering upon the third of these. In the first age of
his scheme knowledge is supernatural or fictitious; in the second
it is metaphysical or abstract; in the third it is positive or
scientific. Schemes somewhat similar have been proposed by
other philosophers, chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to
be regarded by them as essential to any complete science of
history.

. (3) The subject of the duration of human and animal life does
not fall within the scope of this article, and the reader is referred
to LONGEVITY. But the word " age " has been used by physio-
logists tp express certain natural divisions in human development
and decay. These are usually regarded as numbering five, viz.
infancy, lasting to the seventh year; childhood to the fourteenth;
youth to the twenty-first; adult life till fifty; and old age.

(4) The division of human life into periods for legal purposes is
naturally more sharp and definite than in physiology. It would
be unscientific in the physiologist to name any precise year for
the transition from one of his stages to another, inasmuch as that
differs very considerably among different nations, and even to
some extent among different individuals of the same nation. But
the law must necessarily be fixed and uniform, and even where it
professes to proceed according to nature, must be more precise
than nature. The Roman law divided human life for its purposes
into four chief periods, which had their subdivisions — (i) in-
fanlia, lasting till the close of the seventh year; (2) the period
between infantia and pubertas, males becoming puberes at four-
teen and females at twelve; (3) adolescentia, the period between
puberty and majority; and (4) the period after the twenty-fifth
year, when males became majores. The first period was one of
total legal incapacity; in the second period a person could
lawfully do certain specified acts, but only with the sanction of
his tutor or guardian; in the third the restrictions were fewer,
males being permitted to manage their own property, contract
marriage and make a will; but majority was not reached until
the age of twenty-five. By English law there are two great
periods into which life is divided — infancy, which lasts in both
sexes until the twenty-first year, and manhood or womanhood The
period of infancy, again, is divided into several stages, marked by
the growing development both of rights and obligations. Thus
at twelve years of age a male may take the oath of allegiance; at
fourteen both sexes are held to have arrived at years of discretion,
and may therefore choose guardians, give evidence and consent
or disagree to a marriage. A female has the last privilege from
the twelfth year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until the
majority of the parties without the consent of parents or
guardians. At fourteen, too, both sexes are fully responsible to
the criminal law. Between seven and fourteen there is responsi-
bility only if the accused be proved doli capax, capable of discern-
ing between right and wrong, the principle in that case being that
malitia supplet aetatem. At twenty-one both males and females
obtain their full legal rights, and become liable to all legal
obligations. A seat in the British parliament may be taken at
twenty-one. Certain professions, however, demand as a qualifi-
cation in entrants a more advanced age than that of legal man-
hood. In the Church of England a candidate for deacon's orders
must be twenty-three (in the Roman Catholic Church, twenty-
two) and for priest's orders twenty-four years of age; and no
clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under thirty. In Scotland
infancy is not a legal term. The time previous to majority,
which, as in England, is reached by both sexes at twenty-one, is
divided into two stages: pupilage lasts until the attainment of
puberty, which the law fixes at fourteen in males and twelve in
females; minority lasts from these ages respectively until twenty-
one. Minority obviously corresponds in some degree to the
English years of discretion, but a Scottish minor has more personal
rights than an English infant in the last stage of his infancy, e.g.

AGELADAS— AGENT

373

he may dispose by will of movable property, make contracts,
carry on trade, and, as a necessary consequence, is liable to be
declared a bankrupt. In France the year of majority is twenty-
one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and fifteen for females,
with a restriction as to the consent of guardians. Age qualifica-
tion for the chamber of deputies is twenty-five and for the senate
forty years. In Germany, majority is reached at twenty-one, the
nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females, subject to
the consent of parents. Without the consent of parents, the age
is twenty-five for males and twenty-four for females. The age
qualification for the Reichstag is twenty-five. In Austria the age
of majority is twenty-four, and the nubile age fourteen for either
sex, subject to the consent of the parents. In Denmark, qualified
majority is reached at eighteen and full majority at twenty-five.
The nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females. In
Spain, majority is reached at twenty-three; the nubile age is
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In Greece the age
of majority is twenty-one, and the nubile age sixteen for males
and fourteen for females. In Holland the age of majority is
twenty-one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and sixteen
for females. In Italy, majority is reached at twenty-one; the
nubile age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females. In
Switzerland the age of majority is twenty, and the nubile age is
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In the United States
the age qualification for a president is thirty-five, for a senator
thirty and for a representative twenty-five.

AGELADAS, or (as the name is spelt in an inscription)

AGELAIDAS, a great Argive sculptor, who flourished in the latter
part of the 6th and the early part of the sth century B.C. He
was specially noted for his statues of Olympic victors (of 520,
516, 508 B.C.); also for a statue at Messene of Zeus, copied on
the coins of that city. Ageladas was said to have been the
teacher of Myron, Phidias and Polyclitus; this tradition is a
testimony to his wide fame, though, historically doubtful. We
have no work of Ageladas surviving; but we have an inscription
•hich contains the name of his son Argeiadas.

AGEN, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Lot-et-Garonne, 84 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the Southern
railway between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) 18,640.
It is skirted on the west by the Garonne itself, and on the north
by its lateral canal. The river is crossed by a stone bridge, by
a suspension bridge for foot-passengers, and by a fine canal-
bridge, carrying the lateral. canal. Pleasant promenades stretch
for some distance along the right bank. The town is a medley
of old narrow streets contrasting with the wide modern boule-
vards which cross it at intervals. The chief building in Agen
is the cathedral of St Caprais, the most interesting portion of
which is the apse of the I2th century with its three apse-chapels;
the transept dates from the I2th and I3th centuries, the nave
from the I4th to the i6th centuries; the tower flanking the
south facade is modern. The interior is decorated with modern
tings and frescoes. There are several other churches, among

.em the church of the Jacobins, a brick building of the i3th
tury, and the church of St Hilaire of the i6th century, which
has a modern tower. In the prefecture, a building of the i8th
century, once the bishop's palace, is a collection of historical
portraits. The h&tel de ville occupies the former Hotel du
Presidial, an obsolete tribunal, and contains the municipal
library. Two houses of the i6th century, the H6tel d'Estrades
and the Hotel de Vaurs, are used as the museum, which has a rich
collection of fossils, prehistoric and Roman remains, and other

tiquities and curiosities. The poet Jacques Jasmin was a

tive of the town, which has erected a statue to him. Through
excellent water communication it affords an outlet for the

icultural produce of the district, and forms an entrepdt of
trade between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Agen is the seat of a
bishop. It is the seat of a cour.t of appeal and a court of assizes,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a
chamber of commerce. There are also ecclesiastical seminaries,
lycees for boys and girls, training-colleges, a school of commerce
and industry, and a branch of the Bank of France. Agen is
the market for a rich agricultural region. The chief articles of

commerce are fattened poultry, prunes (pruneaux d'Agen) and
other fruit, cork, wine, vegetables and cattle. Manufactures
include flour, dried plums, pale de foie gras and other delicacies,
hardware, manures, brooms, drugs, woven goods tiles.

Agen (Aginnum) was the capital of the Celtic tribe of the
Nitiobroges, and the discovery of extensive ruins attests its
importance under the Romans. In later times it was the capital
of the Agenais. Its bishopric was founded in the 4th century.
Agen changed hands more than once in the course of the Albi-
gensian wars, and at their close a tribunal of inquisition was
established in the town and inflicted cruel persecution on the
heretics. During the religious wars of the i6th century Agen
took the part of the Catholics and openly joined the League in
1589.

See Labenazie, Histoire de la mile d'Agen et pays d'Agenois, ed. by
A.-G. de Dampierre (1888) ; A. Ducom, La Commune d'Agen: essai
sur son histoire et son organisation depuis son origins jusqu'au traite
de Bretigny (1892).

AGENAIS, or AGENOIS, a former province of France. In
ancient Gaul it was the country of the Nitiobroges with Aginnum
for its capital, and in the 4th century it was the Citiitas Agennen-
sium which was a part of Aquitania Secunda and which formed
the diocese of Agen. Having in general shared the fortunes of
Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Carolingian periods,
Agenais next became an hereditary countship in the part of the
country now called Gascony (Vasconia). In 1038 this count-
ship was purchased by the dukes of Aquitaine and counts of
Poitiers. The marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry
Plantagenet in 1152 brought it under the sway of England;
but when Richard Cceur-de-Lion married his sister Joan to
Raymund VI., count of Toulouse, in 1196, Agenais formed part
of the princess's dowry; and with the other estates of the last
independent count of Toulouse it lapsed to the crown of France
in 1271. This, however, was not for long; the king of France
had to recognize the prior rights of the king of England to the
possession of the countship, and restored it to him in 1279.
During the wars between the English and the French in the I4th
and i5th centuries, Agenais was frequently taken and retaken,
the final retreat of the English in 1453 at last leaving the king
of France in peaceable possession. Thenceforth Agenais was
no more than an administrative term. At the end of the ancien
regime it formed part of the " Gouvernement " of Guienne, and
at the Revolution it was incorporated in the department of Lot-
et-Garonne, of which it constitutes nearly the whole. The title
of count of Agenais, which the kings of England had allowed
to fall into desuetude, was revived by the kings of France, and
in 1789 was held by the family of the dukes of Richelieu.

There is no good history of Agenais; that published by Jules
Andrieu in 1893 (Histoire de I' Agenais, 2 vols.) being quite inade-
quate. The Bibliographie generate de I' Agenais, by the same author
(1886-1891, 3 vols.), may be found useful. (C. B.*)

AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act), a name applied generally to
any person who acts for another. It has probably been adopted
from France, as its function in modern civil law was otherwise
expressed in Roman jurisprudence. Ducange (s.v. Agentes)
tells us that in the later Roman empire the officers who collected
the grain in the provinces for the troops and the household, and
afterwards extended their functions so as to include those of
government postmasters or spies, came to be called agentes in
rebus, their earlier name having been frumentarii. In law an
agent is a person authorized, expressedly or impliedly, to act
for another, who is thence called the principal, and who is, in
consequence of, and to the extent of, the authority delegated
by him, bound by the acts of his agent. (See PRINCIPAL AND
AGENT; FACTOR, &c.)

In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in the pre-
paration of cases in the various law-courts are called agents.
(See SOLICITOR.)

In France the agents de change were formerly the class gener-
ally'licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they were termed,
whether in commerce or the money market. The term has,
however, become practically limited to those who conduct
transactions in public stock. The laws and regulations as to

374

AGENT-GENERAL—AGGLOMERATE

courtiers, or those whose functions were more distinctly confined
to transactions in merchandise, have been mixed up with those
applicable to agents de change. Down to the year 1572 both
functions were free; but at that period, partly for financial
reasons, a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion
of the chancellor, 1'Hdpital. Among the other revolutionary
measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and courtier
were again opened to the public. Many of the financial con-
.vulsions of the ensuing years, which were due to more serious
causes, were attributed to this indiscriminate removal of re-
strictions, and they were reimposed in 1801. From that period
regulations have been made from time to time as to the quali-
fications of agents, the security to be found by them and the
like. They are now regarded as public officers, appointed, with
certain privileges and duties, by the government to act as
intermediaries in negotiating transfers of public funds and com-
mercial stocks and for dealing in metallic currency. (See STOCK
EXCHANGE: France.)

In diplomacy the term " agent " was originally applied to all
" diplomatic agents," including ambassadors. With the evolu-
tion of the diplomatic hierarchy, however, the term gradually
sank until it was technically applied only to the lowest class
of " diplomatic agents," without a representative character and
of a status and character so dubious that, by the regulation
of the congress of Vienna, they were wholly excluded from the
immunities of the diplomatic service. (See DIPLOMACY.)

AGENT-GENERAL, the term given to a representative in
England of one of the self-governing British colonies. Agents-
general may be said to hold a position mid-way between agents
of provinces and ambassadors of foreign countries. They are
appointed, and their expenses and salaries provided, by the
governments of the colonies they represent, viz. Cape of Good
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, New South Wales, Queensland,
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, New
Zealand and Canada (whose representatives are termed high
commissioners). Their duties are to look after the political and
economic interests of their colonies in London, to assist in all
financial and commercial matters in which their colonies may be
concerned, such as shipping arrangements and rates of freight,
cable communications and rates, tenders for public works, &c.,
and to make known the products of their colonies. Those colonies
which are not under responsible government are represented
in London by crown agents.

AGESANDER, a Rhodian sculptor, whose title to fame is
that he is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 37) as author
(with Polydorus and Athenodorus) of the group of the Laocoon.
Inscriptions recently found at Lindus in Rhodes date Agesander
and Athenodorus to the period 42-21 B.C. The date of the
Laocoon seems thus finally settled, after long controversy. It
represents the culmination of a sentimental or pathetic tendency
in art, which is prominent in the somewhat earlier sculpture of
Pergamum. (See GREEK ART.)

AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family,
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger step-
brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C. Agis had,
indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as illegitimate,
current rumour representing him as the son of Alcibiades.
Agesilaus' success was largely due to Lysander, who hoped to
find in him a willing tool for .the furtherance of his political
designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed,
and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall.
In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neoda-
modes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the Greek
cities against a Persian attack. On the eve of sailing from Aulis
he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before
the Trojan expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent
it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival
at Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissa-
phernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations con-
ducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Caria. After

spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he made a
successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395. Tithraustes
was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his
life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded
between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy
and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged until the following
spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap Pharna-
bazus and once more turned southward. It was said that he
was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on
Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled to Greece owing to
the war between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens,
Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. A rapid march
through Thrace and Macedonia brought him to Thessaly, where
he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him.
Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian troops and a Spartan
army, he met the confederate forces at Coronea in Boeotia,
and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but
the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of
Delphi to the Peloponnese. Shortly before this battle the
Spartan navy, of which he had received the supreme command,
was totally defeated off Cnidus by a powerful Persian fleet under
Conon and Pharnabazus.

Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the
Corinthian war, making several successful expeditions into
Corinthian territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum.
The loss, however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates,
neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta.
In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years
later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly supported by
Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh
with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia (378, 377), and it
was on his advice that Cleombrotus was ordered to march against
Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the
Spartan supremacy overthrown. In 370 Agesilaus tried to
restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of Mantinean territory,
and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies,
led by Epaminondas, penetrated Laconia that same year, and
again in 362 when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by
a rapid and unexpected march. The battle of Man tinea (362),
in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace:
Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her
supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war
Agesilaus had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he
went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos
against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's
cousin and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave
him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died
at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years.

A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was
somewhat lame from birth, a fact w"hich was used as an argument
against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against
a " lame reign." He was a successful leader in guerilla warfare,
alert and quick, yet cautious — a man, moreover, whose personal
bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself
both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his
patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal
style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns
were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to
enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had
set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable
hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle of Leuctra and
Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy.

See lives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend),
Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch ; Xenophon's Hellenica and Diodorus
xiv., xv. Among modern authorities, besides the general histories of
Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ff. ; G. F. Hertzberg, Das Leben
des Konigs Agesilaos II. von Sparta (1856); Buttmann, Agesilaus
Sohn des Archidamus (1872); C. Haupt, Agesilaus in Asien (1874);
E. von Stern, Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen Hege-
monie (1884). (M. N. T.)

AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat. agglomerare, to form into a
ball, glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded
in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to the

AGGLUTINATION— AGINCOURT

375

accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently
occur near extinct or active volcanoes. Agglomerates in the
geological sense, with which this article is concerned, consist
typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed often with
nore or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded in a
Sner-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser fragments.
Vs distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs, they are
ssentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded;' they are less
persistent and tend to occur locally, but may attain a very great
tiickness. Showers of fine ash may be distributed over a wide
rea of country and will form thin layers of great extent,
hoarser accumulations gather only near the actual foci of
ruption (craters, fissures, &c.). When the activity of a volcanic
vent comes to an end, the orifice is often choked by masses of
ebris, which will in time become compacted into firm agglomer-
ates. Hence rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites
of necks, the remains of once-active volcanic craters. In this
onnexion they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always
nportant to be able to locate the exact points at which volcanic
products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted.
The blocks in agglomerates vary greatly in size. Some are
dirty or forty feet in diameter, and , weigh many tons; these
re usually pieces of the strata through which the volcano has
orced an outlet. They are never far from the crater; most of
hem, in fact, lie within its boundaries, and cases are known in
vhich enormous masses of this kind (half an acre in area) have
en found in such situations. They are masses which have
een dislodged, by fissures and landslides, from the crater's
vails and have tumbled into the cavity. Pieces of sandstone,
nestone and shale occur in the agglomerates mixed with
olcanic materials, and very often have been baked and partly
ecrystallized by contact with the hot igneous rocks and the
ases discharged by the volcano. At Vesuvius such blocks of
Itered limestone are rich in new minerals and are well known
i collectors.

Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs. These
re spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from
he crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in it,
nd was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of steam.
These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of ejection
nd by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal form. They
ire commonly one or two feet in diameter, but specimens as
arge as nine or twelve feet have been observed. There is less
variety in their composition at any volcanic centre than in the
se of the foreign blocks above described. They correspond in
iture to the lava which at the time fills the crater of the volcano,
ad as this varies only very slowly the bombs belong mostly
i only a few kinds of rock and are similar in composition to the
ava flows.

Crystalline masses of a different kind occur in some numbers
certain agglomerates. They consist of volcanic minerals
very much the same as those formed in the lavas, but exhibiting
ertain peculiarities which indicate that they have formed slowly
under pressure at considerable depths. Hence they bear a
esemblance to plutonic igneous rocks, but are more correctly
be regarded as agglomerations of crystals formed within the
liquid lava as it slowly rose towards the surface, and at a sub-
equent period cast out by violent steam explosions. The
inidinites of the Eifel belong to this group. At Vesuvius,
Vscension, St Vincent and many other volcanoes, they form
not inconsiderable part -of the coarser ash-beds. Their
commonest minerals are olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite,
biotite and leucite.

Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known. In many
arts of Britain they attain a great development either in beds
Iternating with lavas or as the material occupying necks. In the
alter case they are often penetrated by dikes. They also show a
steep, angular, funnel-shaped dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh),
and may contain thin layers of clay or ashy sand-stone, which
ithered in the crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.)
AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to
fasten together with glue), a term used technically in philology

for the method of word-formation by which two significant
words or roots are joined together in a single word to express
a combination of the two meanings each of which retains its
force. This juxtaposition or conjoining of roots is characteristic
of languages such as the Turkish and Japanese, which are there-
fore known as agglutinative, as opposed to others, known
generically as inflexional, in which differences of termination or
combinations in which all separate identity disappears are
predominant.

The term was also formerly used by associationist philosophers
for those mental associations which were regarded as peculiarly
close. Combination in its simplest form has been called
Agglutination by W. Wundt.

AGGRAVATION (from Lat. ad, increasing, and gravis,
heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially
of offences; also used as synonymous with " irritation." In
the canon law " aggravation " was a form 01 ecclesiastical
censure, threatening excommunication after three disregarded
admonitions.

AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect
together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or states
in which matter exists. Three primary " states of aggregation "
are recognized — gaseous, liquid and solid. Generally, if a solid
be heated to a certain temperature, it melts or fuses, assuming
the liquid condition (see FUSION); if the heating be continued
the liquid boils and becomes a vapour (see VAPORIZATION). On
the other hand, if a gas be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it
liquefies; this transition is treated theoretically in the article
CONDENSATION OF GASES, and experimentally in the article
LIQUID GASES.

AGGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Gomor,
situated to the south of Rozsnyo, on the road from Budapest
to Dobsina. Pop. (1900) 557. In the neighbourhood is the
celebrated Aggtelek or Baradla cavern, one of the largest and
most remarkable stalactite grottos in Europe. It has a length,
together with its ramifications, of over 5 miles, and is formed
of two caverns — one known for several centuries, and another
discovered by the naturalist Adolf Schmidl in 1856. Two
entrances give access to the grotto, an old one extremely narrow,
and a new one, made in 1890, through which the exploration
of the cavern can be made in about 8 hours, half the time it took
before. The cavern is composed of a labyrinth of passages
and large and small halls, and is traversed by a stream. In these
caverns there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from
their curious and fantastic shapes, have received such names as
the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, &c. The principal
parts are the . Paradies with the finest stalactites, the Astro-
nomical Tower and the Beinhaus. Rats, frogs and bats form
actually the only animal life in the caves, but a great number
of antediluvian animal bones have been found here, as well
as human bones and numerous remains of prehistoric human
settlements.

AGINCOURT (AZINCOURT), a village of northern France in the
department of Pas de Calais, 14 m. N.W. of St Pol by road,
famous on account of the victory, on the 2sth of October 1415, of
Henry V. of England over the French. The battle was fought in
the defile formed by the wood of Agincourt and that of Trame-
court, at the northern exit of which the army under d'Albret,
constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to
Calais against the English forces which had been campaigning on
the Somme. The night of the 24th of October was spent by the
two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter
from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, St Crispin's
day, Henry arrayed his little army (about 1000 men-at-arms,
6000 archers, and a few thousands of other foot). It is probable
that the usual three " battles " were drawn up in line, each with
its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the
centre; the archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped
salients, almost exactly as at Crecy (q.v.). The French, on the
other hand, were drawn up in three lines, each line formed in deep
masses. They were at least four times more numerous than the
English, but restricted by the nature of the ground to the same

AGIO— AGIS

extent of front, they were unable to use their full weight (cf.
Bannockburn) ; further, the deep mud prevented their artillery
from taking part, and the crossbowmen were as usual relegated to
the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. All were dismounted
save a few knights and men-at-arms on the flanks, who were
intended to charge the archers of the enemy. For three hours
after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the
French would not advance, moved his army farther into the
defile. The archers fixed the pointed stakes, which they carried
to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with
flights of arrows. The chivalry of France, undisciplined and
careless of the lesson of Crecy and Poitiers, was quickly stung
into action, and the French mounted men charged, only to be
driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the
leading line of dismounted men-at-arms; weighted with their
armour, and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they yet
reached and engaged the English men-at-arms; for a time the
fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was borne
back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at
this moment the archers, taking their hatchets, swords or other
weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who
could not move to cope with their unarrnoured assailants, and
were slaughtered or taken prisoners to a man. The second line
of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the melee; its
leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or taken, and the
commanders of the third sought and found their death in the
battle, while their men rode off to safety. The closing scene of
the battle was a half-hearted attack made by a body of fugitives,
which led merely to the slaughter of the French prisoners, which
was ordered by Henry because he had not enough men both to
guard them and to meet the attack. The slaughter ceased when
the assailants drew off. The total loss of the English is stated at
thirteen men-at-arms (including the duke of York, grandson of
Edward III.) and about 100 of the foot. The French lost 5000 of
noble birth killed, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts and
90 barons; 1000 more were taken prisoners, amongst them the
duke of Orleans (the Charles d'Orleans of literature).
. See Sir Harris Nicolas, Battle of Agincourt; Fortescue, History of
the British Army, vol. i.; and H. B. George, Battles of English
History.

AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount, premium), a term used
in commerce in three slightly different connexions, (a) The
variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange in the currencies
of different countries. For example, in most of the gold-standard
countries, the standard coin is kept up to a uniform point of
fineness, so that an English sovereign fresh from the mint will
bear the following constant relation to coins of other countries in
a similar condition: — £i=frcs. 25-221 =mks. 20-429 = $4-867,
&c. This is what is known as the mint par of exchange. But
the mint par of exchange, say, between France and England is
not necessarily the market value of French currency in England,
or English currency in France. The balance of trade between the
various countries is the factor determining the rate of exchange.
Should the balance of trade (q.v.) be against England, money must
be remitted to France in payment of the indebtedness, but owing
to the cost for, the transmission of specie there will be a demand
for bills drawn on Paris as a cheaper and more expeditious
method of sending money, and it therefore will be necessary, in
order to procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a
premium for it, called the agio. (6) The term is also used to
denote the difference in exchange between two currencies in the
same country; where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is
sometimes allowed for payment in the more convenient form of
gold, or where the paper currency of a country is reduced below
the bullion which it professes to represent, an agio is payable on
the appreciated currency, (c) Lastly, in some states the coinage
is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the real is
greatly reduced below the nominal value. Supposing that this
reduction amounts to 5%, then if 100 sovereigns were offered as
payment of a debt in England while such sovereigns were current
there at their nominal value, they would be received as just
payment; but if they were offered as payment of the same

amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be received only at
their intrinsic value of £95, the additional £5 constituting the
agio. Where the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value
no agio is required.

AGIRA (formerly SAN FILIPPO D'ARGIRO), a town of the
province of Catania, Sicily, with a railway station 4^ m. to the
south of the town, 35 m. W. of Catania. Pop. (1901) 17,738. It
occupies the site of Agyrion, an ancient Sicel city which was ruled
by tyrants, one of whom, Agyris, was the most powerful ruler in
the centre of Sicily. He was a contemporary of Dionysius I. , and
with him successfully resisted the Carthaginians when they
invaded the territory of Agyrium in 392 B.C. Agira was not
colonized by the Greeks until Timoleon drove out the last tyrant
in 339 B.C. and erected various splendid buildings of which no
traces remain. Agyrion was the birthplace of the historian
Diodorus Siculus.

AGIS, the name of four Spartan kings: —

(1) Son of Eurysthenes, founder of the royal house of the
Agiadae (Pausanias iii. 2.1). His genealogy was traced through
Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus and Hyllus to Heracles
(Herodotus vii. 204), and he belongs rather to mythology than
to history. Tradition ascribed to him the capture of the maritime
town of Helos, which resisted his attempt to curtail its guaranteed
rights, and the institution of the class of serfs called Helots (q.v.).

Ephorus ap. Strabo, viii. p. 365.

(2) Son of Archidamus II., Eurypontid, commonly called
Agis I. He succeeded his father, probably in 427 B.C., and from
his first invasion of Attica in 425 down to the close of the Pelopon-
nesian war was the chief leader of the Spartan operations on
land. After the conclusion of the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.)
he marched against the Argives in defence of Epidaurus, and
after skilful manoeuvring surrounded the Argive army, and
seemed to have victory within his grasp when he unaccountably
concluded a four months' truce and withdrew his forces. The
Spartans were indignant, and when the Argives and their allies,
in flagrant disregard of the truce, took Arcadian Orchomenus
and prepared to march on Tegea, their fury* knew no bounds,
and Agis escaped having his house razed and a fine of 100,000
drachmae imposed only by promising to atone for his error by
a signal victory. This promise he brilliantly fulfilled by routing
the forces of the Argive confederacy at the battle of Mantinea
(418), the moral effect of which was out of all proportion to the
losses inflicted on the enemy. In the winter 417-416 a further
expedition to Argos resulted in the destruction of the half-
finished Long Walls and the capture of Hysiae. In 413, on the
suggestion of Alcibiades, he fortified Decelea in Attica, where he
remained directing operations until, after the battle of Aegospo-
tami (405), he took the leading part in the blockade of Athens,
which was ended in spring 404 by the surrender of the city.
Subsequently he invaded and ravaged Elis, forcing the Eleans
to acknowledge the freedom of their perioeci and to allow
Spartans to take part in the Olympic games and sacrifices. He
fell ill on his return from Delphi, where he had gone to dedicate
a tithe of the spoils, and, probably in 401, died at Sparta, where
he was buried with unparalleled solemnity and pomp.

Thuc. iii. 89, iv. 2. 6, v., vii. 19. 27, viii.; Xenophon, Hettenica,
i. I, ii. 2. 3, iii. 2. 3; Diodorus xh. 35, xiii. 72, 73, 107; Pausanias
iii. 8. 3-8; Plutarch, Lysander ix. 14. 22, Alcibiades 23-25, Lycurgus
12, Agesilaus i. 3, de Tranquill.Anim.6. (See PELOPONNESIAN WAR.)

(3) Son of Archidamus III., of the Eurypontid line, commonly
called Agis II. He succeeded his father in 338 B.C., on the very
day of the battle of Chaeronea. During Alexander's Asiatic
campaign he revolted against Macedonia (333 B.C.) and, with
theTaid of Persian money and ships and a force of 8000 Greek
mercenaries, gained considerable successes in Crete. In the
Peloponnese he routed a force under Corragus and, although
Athens held aloof, he was joined by Elis, Achaea (except Pellene)
and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, which the allies
besieged. Antipater marched rapidly to its relief at the head
of a large army, and the allied force was defeated after a desperate
struggle (331) and Agis was slain.

Pausanias iii. 10. 5; Diodorus xvii. 48, 62, 63; Justin xii. i;
2uintus Curtius iv. I, 39, vi. i; Arrian, Anabasis, ii. 13.

AGISTMENT— AGNES, SAINT

377

(4) Son of Eudamidas II., of the Eurypontid family, commonly
called Agis III. He succeeded his father probably in 245 B.C.,
in his twentieth year. At this time the state had been brought
to the brink of ruin by the growth of avarice and luxury; there
was a glaring inequality in the distribution of land and wealth,
and the number of full citizens had sunk to 700, of whom about
100 practically monopolized the land. Though reared in the
height of luxury he at once determined to restore the traditional
institutions of Lycurgus, with the aid of Lysander, a descendant
of the victor of Aegospotami, and Mandrocleidas, a man of noted
prudence and courage; even his mother, the wealthy Agesistrata,
threw herself heartily into the cause. A powerful but not
disinterested ally was found in the king's uncle, Agesilaus,
vho hoped to rid himself of his debts without losing his vast
estates. Lysander as ephor proposed on behalf of Agis that all
debts sbould be cancelled and that Laconia should be divided
into 19,500 lots, of which 4500 should be given to Spartiates,
whose number was to be recruited from the best of the perioeci
and foreigners, and the remaining 15,000 to perioeci who could
bear arms. The Agiad king Leonidas having prevailed on the
council to reject this measure, though by a majority of only one,
was deposed in favour of his son-in-law Cleombrotus, who assisted
Agis in bearing down opposition by the threat of force. The
abolition of debts was carried into effect, but the land distribu-
tion was put off by Agesilaus on various pretexts. At this point
Vratus appealed to Sparta to help the Achaeans in repelling
in expected Aetolian attack, and Agis was sent to the Isthmus
it the head of an army. In his absence the open violence and
xtortion of Agesilaus, combined with the popular disappoint-
nent at the failure of the agrarian scheme, brought about the
restoration of Leonidas and the deposition of Cleombrotus, who
ook refuge at the temple of Apollo at Taenarum and escaped
leath only at the entreaty of his wife, Leonidas's daughter
Thilonis. On his return Agis fled to the temple of Athene
Chalcioecus at Sparta, but soon afterwards he was treacherously
nduced to leave his asylum and, after a mockery of a trial, was
strangled in prison, his mother and grandmother sharing the
ime fate (241). Though too weak and good-natured to cope
vith the problem which confronted him, Agis was characterized
by a sincerity of purpose and a blend of youthful modesty with
oyal dignity, which render him perhaps the most attractive

ure in the whole of Spartan history.

See Plutarch's biography. Pausanias" accounts (ii. 8. 5, vii. 7. 3,
viii. 10. 5-8, 27. 13) of his attack on Megalopolis, his seizure of
Pellene and his death at Mantinea fighting against the Arcadians,
\chaeans and Sicyonians are without foundation (J. C. F. Manso,
Sparta, iii. 2. 123-127). See also Manso, op. cit. iii. I. 276-302;
B. Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, ii.
299-303- (M. N. T.)

AGISTMENT. To " agist " (from O. Fr. agister, derived from
gesir — Lat. jacere — to lie) is, in law, to take cattle to graze,
for a remuneration. " Agistment," in the first instance, referred
nore particularly to the proceeds of pasturage in the king's
forests, but now means either (a) the contract for taking in and

iing horses or other cattle on pasture land, for the considera-
tion of a weekly payment of money, or (b) the profit derived
rom such pasturing. Agistment is a contract of bailment, and
he bailer is bound to take reasonable care of the animals entrusted

him; he is responsible for damages and injury which result
from ordinary casualties, if it be proved that such might have
been prevented by the exercise of great care. There is no lien
on the cattle for the price of the agistment, unless by express
greement. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, agisted
cattle cannot be distrained on for rent if there be other sufficient

stress to be found, and if such other distress be not found, and
he cattle be distrained, the owner may redeem them on pay-
the price of their agistment. The tithe of agistment or
" tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was formally
abolished by the act of union in 1707, on a motion submitted
with a view to defeat that measure.

AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS, the name given to representa-
tives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English
Parliamentary army. The word really means an agent, but it

was confused with " adjutant," often called " agitant," a title
familiar to the soldiers, and thus the form " adjutator " came
into use. Early in 1647 the Long Parliament wished either to
disband many of the regiments or to send them to Ireland. The
soldiers, whose pay was largely in arrear, refused to accept
either alternative, and eight of the cavalry regiments elected
agitators, called at first commissioners, who laid their grievances
before the three generals, and whose letter was read in the House
of Commons on the 3oth of April 1647. The other regiments
followed the example of the cavalry, and the agitators, who
belonged to the lower ranks of the army, were supported by
many of the officers, who showed their sympathy by signing
the Declaration of the army. Cromwell and other generals suc-
ceeded to some extent in pacifying the troops by promising the
payment of arrears for eight weeks at once; but before the return
of the generals to London parliament had again decided to
disband the army, and soon afterwards fixed the ist of June
as the date on which this process was to begin. Again alarmed,
the agitators decided to resist; a mutiny occurred in one
regiment and the attempt at disbandment failed. Then
followed the seizure of the king by Cornet Joyce, Cromwell's
definite adherence to the policy of the army, the signing of the
manifestoes, a Humble Representation and a Solemn Engagement
and the establishment of the army council composed of officers
and agitators. Having, at an assembly on Thriplow Heath,
near Royston, virtually refused the offers made by parliament,
the agitators demanded a march towards London and the
" purging " of the House of Commons. Subsequent events are
part of the general history of England. Gradually the agitators
ceased to exist, but many of their ideas were adopted by the
Levellers (?.».), who may perhaps be regarded as their successors.
Gardiner says of them, " Little as it was intended at the time,
nothing was more calculated than the existence of this elected
body of agitators to give to the army that distinctive political
and religious character which it ultimately bore."

See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv.
(London, 1905).

AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832- ), papal diplomatist, was
born at Cologno (Bergamo), Italy, on the 4th of September 1832.
He studied theology and canon law, and, after acting as parish
priest in his native diocese for twelve years, was sent by the pope
to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was ap-
pointed secretary to the Propaganda. In 1884 he was created
by Leo XIII. archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to
India to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In
1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the con-
cordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed
secretary to the Congregation super negotiis ecdesiae extraordi-
nariis, in 1889 became papal nuncio at Munich and in 1892
at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical
disputes by which Hungary was divided in 1895, he was made
the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government
and in 1896 was recalled. His services were rewarded by a
cardinalate and the archbishopric of Ferrara. In 1903 he was
named vice-chancellor of the Roman Church.

AGNANO, LAGO DI, a circular lake, 5 m. W. of Naples, Italy.
It was apparently not formed until the middle ages, as it is not
mentioned by ancient writers; it was drained in 1870. It
occupied the crater of an extinct volcano, 4 m. in circumference.
On the south bank are the Stufe di S. Germano, natural sul-
phureous vapour baths, and close by is the Grotta del Cane, from
the floor of which warm carbonic acid gas constantly rises to a
height of 18 in., the fumes of which render a dog insensible in
a few seconds. It is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 93).
Remains of an extensive Roman building and some statues
have been discovered close by.

AGNATES (Agnati), in Roman law, persons related through
males only, as opposed to cognates. Agnation was founded on
the idea of the family held together by the patria potestas;
cognatio involves simply the modern idea of kindred.

AGNES, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the Catholic Church. The
legend of St Agnes is that she was a Roman maid, by birth a

378

AGNES OF MERAN— AGNOSTICISM

Christian, who suffered martyrdom when but thirteen during
the reign of the emperor Diocletian, on the 2ist of January 304.
The prefect Sempronius wished her to marry his son, and on her
refusal condemned her to be outraged before her execution, but
her honour was miraculously preserved. When led out to die
she was tied to a stake, but the faggots would not burn, where-
upon the officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and
struck off her head. St Agnes is the patron saint of young girls,
who, in rural districts, formerly indulged in all sorts of quaint
country magic on St Agnes' Eve (2oth-2ist January) with a
view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition
has been immortalized in Keats's poem, " The Eve of St Agnes."
St Agnes's bones are supposed to rest in the church of her name
at Rome, originally built by Constantine and repaired by Pope
Honorius in the yth century. Here on her festival (2ist of
January) two lambs are specially blessed after pontifical high
mass, and their wool is later woven into pallia (see PALLIUM).

AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of France, was the
daughter of Bertold IV., duke of Meran in Tirol. She is called
Marie by some of the chroniclers. In June 1196 she married
Philip II., king of France, who had repudiated Ingeborg of
Denmark in 1193. The pope espoused the cause of Ingeborg;
but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, interdict having
been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation
from Agnes. She died in July of the next year, at the castle
of Poissy, and was buried in the church of St Corentin, near
Nantes. Her two children by Philip II., Philip, count of Cler-
mont (d. 1234), and Mary, who married Philip, count of Namur,
were legitimized by Innocent III. in 1201 on the demand of the
king* Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the
remarkable influence which she exercised over Philip II. She
has been made the heroine of a tragedy by Francois Ponsard,
Agnes de Meranie.

See the notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp. II. August von
Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888). A genealogical notice is
furnished by the Chronicon of the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Trois-
Fontaines, (Albcricus Trium Pentium) in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii.
pp. 872 f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229.

AGNESI, MARIA GAETANA (1718-1799), Italian mathe-
matician, linguist and philosopher, was born at Milan on the i6th
of May 1718, her father being professor of mathematics in the
university of Bologna. When only nine years old she had such
command of Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address
in that language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies
was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year she had
acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German and other
languages. Two years later her father began to assemble in his
house at stated intervals a circle of the most learned men in
Bologna, before whom she read and maintained a series of theses
on the most abstruse philosophical questions. Records of these
meetings are given in de Brosse's Letlres sur I'ltalie and in the
Propositions PhUosophicae, which her father caused to be
published in 1738. These displays, being probably not alto-
gether congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition,
ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that she had
at that age a strong desire to enter a convent. Though the wish
was not gratified, she lived from that time in a retirement
almost conventual, avoiding all society and devoting herself
entirely to the study of mathematics. The most valuable result
of her labours was the Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della
giovenlu ilaliana, a work of great merit, which was published
at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the analysis of
finite quantities, and the second of the analysis of infinitesimals.
A French translation of the second volume by P. T. d'Antelmy,
with additions by Charles Bossut (1730-1814), appeared at
Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole work
by John Colson (1680-1760), the Lucasian professor of mathe-
matics at Cambridge, was published in 1801 at the expense of
Baron Maseres. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary
on the Trait6 analylique des sections coniques of the marquis de
I'H&pital, which, though highly praised by those who saw it in
manuscript, was never published. She invented and discussed
the curve known as the " witch of Agnesi " (q.v.) or versiera.

In 1750, on the illness of her father, she was appointed by Pope
Benedict XIV. to the chair of mathematics and natural philo-
sophy at Bologna. After the death of her father in 1752 she
carried out a long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the
study of theology, and especially of the Fathers. After holding
for some years the office of directress of the Hospice Trivulzio
for Blue Nuns at Milan, she herself joined the sisterhood, and in
this austere order ended her days on the gth of January 1799.

Her sister, MARIA TERESA AGNESI (1724-1780), a well-known
Italian pianist and composer, was born at Milan in 1724. She
composed several cantatas, two pianoforte concertos and five
operas, Sofonisbe, Giro in Armenia, Nitocri, II Re Pastore and
Ihsubria consolala.

See Antonio Francesco Frisi, f.loge historique de Mademoiselle
Agnesi, translated by Boulard (Paris, 1807) ; Milesi-Mojon, Vita
di M. G. Agnesi (Milan, 1836); J. Boyer, "La Mathematicienne
Agnesi," in the Revue Catholique des revues franfaises et etrangeres
(Paris, 1897).

AGNEW, DAVID HAYES (1818-1892), American surgeon,
was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of
November 1818. He graduated from the medical department
of the university of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later
set up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the
Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He was appointed surgeon
at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its
pathological museum. For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he was
connected with the medical faculty of the university of Penn-
sylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery in 1870
and professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the
following year. From 1865 to 1884 — except for a brief interval
— he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital. During the
American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower
Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired considerable
reputation for his operations in cases of gun-shot wounds. He
attended as operating surgeon when President Garfield was
fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881. He was
the author of several works, the most important being The
Principles and Practice of Surgery (1878-1883). He died at
Philadelphia on the 22nd of March 1892.

AGNI, the Hindu God of Fire, second only to Indra in the
power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology.
His name is the first word of the first hymn of the Rig-veda:
" Agni, I entreat, divine appointed priest of sacrifice." The
sacrifices made to Agni pass to the gods, for Agni is a messenger
from and to the gods; but, at the same time, he is more than a
mere messenger, he is an immortal, for another hymn runs:
" No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the
mighty One. ..." He is a god who lives among men, mira-
culously reborn each day by the fire-drill, by the friction of the
two sticks which are regarded as his parents; he is the supreme
director of religious ceremonies and duties,and even has the power
of influencing the lot of man in the future world. He is wor-
shipped under a threefold form, fire on earth, lightning and the
sun. His cult survived the metamorphosis of the ancient Vedic
nature-worship into modern Hinduism, and there still are in
India fire-priests (agnihotri) whose duty is to superintend his
worship. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by
friction — symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth — is still used.
In pictorial art Agni is always represented as red, two-faced,
suggesting his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with
three legs and seven arms.

See W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900); A. A.
Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).

AGNOETAE (Gr. b-yvoiu, to be ignorant of), a monophysite
sect who maintained that Christ's human nature was like other
men's in all respects, including limited knowledge. Its founder
was Themistius, a deacon in Alexandria in the 6th century.
The sect was anathematized by Gregory the Great.

AGNOIOLOGY (from Gr. K-fvoia., ignorance), the science or
study of ignorance, which determines its quality and conditions.

AGNOSTICISM. The term " agnostic " was invented by
Huxley in 1869 to describe the philosophical and religious
attitude of those who hold that we can have scientific or real

AGNOSTICISM

379

knowledge of phenomena only, and that so far as what may lie
behind phenomena is concerned — God, immortality, &c. — there
is no evidence which entitles us either to deny or affirm anything.
The attitude itself is as old as Scepticism (q.v.) ; but the expres-
sions " agnostic " and " agnosticism " were applied by Huxley
to sum up his deductions from those contemporary developments
of metaphysics with which the names of Hamilton (" the Un-
conditioned ") and Herbert Spencer (" the Unknowable ") were
associated; and it is important, therefore, to fix precisely his
own intellectual standpoint in the matter. Though Huxley only
began to use the term " agnostic " in 1869, his opinions had taken
shape some time before that date. In a letter to Charles
Kingsley (September 23, 1860) he wrote very fully concerning
his beliefs: —

" I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason
for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disprov-
ing it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who
has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about
a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in
believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not?
It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the inde-
structibility of matter. . . .

" It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know
what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and
I will not rest my life and my hopes upon' weaker convictions. . . .

" That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But
the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties.
I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego,
noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know
that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human in-
tellect flounders at once out of its depth."

And again, to the same correspondent, the 5th of May 1863: —
" I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons
against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest
possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Neverthe-
less I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian
would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and
infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great
unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us
in the relation of a Father — loves us and cares for us as Christianity
asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, im-
mortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what
possible objection can I — who am compelled perforce to believe in the
immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very un-
mistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds —
have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am
ready to jump at them."

Of the origin of the name " agnostic " to cover this attitude,
Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account: —

" When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask myself
whether I was an atheist, a theist or a pantheist, a materialist or an
idealist, a Christian or a freethinker, I found that the more I learned
and reflected, the less ready was the answer. The one thing on which
most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which
I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a
certain ' gnosis ' — had more or less successfully solved the problem
of existence; while I was quite sure that I had not, and had a pretty
strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. This was my
situation when I had the good fortune to find a place among the
members of that remarkable confraternity of antagonists, the Meta-
physical Society. Every variety of philosophical and theological
opinion was represented there; most of my colleagues were -ists of
one sort or another; and I, the man without a rag of a belief to cover
himself with, could not fail to have some of the uneasy feelings which
must have beset the historical fox when, after leaving the trap in
which his tail remained, he presented himself to his normally elon-
gated companions. So I took thought, and invented what I conceived
to be the appropriate title of ' agnostic.' It came into my head
as suggestively antithetic to the ' gnostic ' of Church history, who
professed to know so much about the very things of which I was
ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took."

This account is confirmed by R. H. Hutton, who in 1881 wrote
that the word " was suggested by Huxley at a meeting held
previous to the formation of the now defunct Metaphysical
Society at Mr Knowles's house on Clapham Common in 1869, in
my hearing. He took it from St Paul's mention of the altar to
the Unknown God." Hutton here gives a variant etymology for
the word, which may be therefore taken as partly derived from
a-yi/ajoros (the "unknown" God), and partly from an antithesis
to " gnostic "; but the meaning remains the same in either case.
The name, as Huxley said, " took "; it was constantly used by

Hutton in the Spectator and became a fashionable label for
contemporary unbelief in Christian dogma. Hutton himself
frequently misrepresented the doctrine by describing it as " belief
in an unknown and unknowable God "; but agnosticism as
defined by Huxley meant not belief, but absence of belief, as much
distinct from belief on the one hand as from disbelief on the other;
it was the half-way house between, the two, where all questions
were " open." All that Huxley asked for was evidence, either
for or against; but this he believed it impossible to get. Occa-
sionally he too mis-stated the meaning of the word he had
invented, and described agnosticism as meaning " that a man
shall not say he knows or believes what he has no scientific
ground for professing to know or believe." But as the late Rev.
A. W. Momerie remarked, this would merely be " a definition
of honesty; in that sense we ought all to be agnostics."

Agnosticism really rests on the doctrine of the Unknowable,
the assertion that concerning certain objects — among them the
Deity — we never can have any " scientific " ground for belief.
This way of solving, or passing over, the ultimate problems of
thought has had many followers in cultured circles imbued with
the new physical science of the day, and with disgust for the
dogmatic creeds of contemporary orthodoxy; and its outspoken
and even aggressive vindication by physicists of the eminence of
Huxley had a potent influence upon the attitude taken towards
metaphysics, and upon the form which subsequent Christian
apologetics adopted. As a nickname the term " agnostic " was
soon misused to cover any and every variation of scepticism, and
just as popular preachers confused it with atheism (q.v.) in their
denunciations, so the callow freethinker — following Tennyson's
path of " honest doubt " — classed himself with the agnostics,
even while he combined an instinctively Christian theism with a
facile rejection of the historical evidences for Christianity.

The term is now less fashionable, though the state of mind
persists. Huxley's agnosticism was a natural consequence of
the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the 'sixties, when
clerical intolerance was trying to excommunicate scientific dis-
covery because it appeared to clash with the book of Genesis.
But as the theory of evolution was accepted, a new spirit was
gradually introduced into Christian theology, which has turned
the controversies between religion and science into other channels
and removed the temptation to flaunt a disagreement. A
similar effect has been produced by the philosophical reaction
against Herbert Spencer, and by the perception that the canons
of evidence required in physical science must not be exalted into
universal rules of thought. It does not follow that justification
by faith must be eliminated in spiritual matters where sight
cannot follow, because the physicist's duty and success lie in
pinning belief solely on verification by physical phenomena, when
they alone are in question; and for mankind generally, though
possibly not for an exceptional man like Huxley, an impotent
suspension of judgment on such issues as a future life or the Being
of God is both unsatisfying and demoralizing.

It is impossible here to do more than indicate the path out of
the difficulties raised by Huxley in the letter to Kingsley quoted
above. They involve an elaborate discussion, not only of
Christian evidences, but of the entire subject-matter alike of
Ethics and Metaphysics, of Philosophy as a whole, and of the
philosophies of individual writers who have dealt in their different
ways with the problems of existence and epistemology. It is,
however, permissible to point out that, as has been exhaustively
argued by Professor J. Ward in his Gifford lectures for 1896-1898
(Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1899), Huxley's challenge ("I
know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse
squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker
convictions ") is one which a spiritualistic philosophy need not
shrink from accepting at the hands of naturalistic agnosticism.
If, as Huxley admits, even putting it with unnecessary force
against himself," the immortality of man is not half so wonderful
as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter,"
the question then is, how far a critical analysis of our belief in
the last-named doctrines will leave us in a position to regard
them as the last stage in systematic thinking. It is the pitfall

38o

AGNUS DEI— AGORA

of physical science, immersed as its students are apt to be in
problems dealing with tangible facts in the world of experience,
that there is a tendency among them to claim a superior status
of objective reality and finality for the laws to which their data
are found to conform. But these generalizations are not ultimate
truths, when we have to consider the nature of experience itself.
" Because reference to the Deity will not serve for a physical
explanation in physics, or a chemical explanation in chemistry,
it does not therefore follow," as Professor Ward says (op. cit.
vol. i. p. 24), " that the sum total of scientific knowledge is
equally intelligible whether we accept the theistic hypothesis
or not. It is true that every item of scientific knowledge is con-
cerned with some definite relation of definite phenomena, and
with nothing else; but, for all that, the systematic organization
of such items may quite well yield further knowledge, which
transcends the special relations of definite phenomena."

At the opening of the era of modern scientific discovery, with
all its fruitful new generalizations, the still more highly generalized
laws of epistemology and of the spiritual constitutionof man might
well baffle the physicist and lead his intellect to " flounder."
It is fundamentally necessary, in order to avoid such floundering,
that the " knowledge " of things sensible should be kept distinct
from the " knowledge " of things spiritual; yet in practice they
are constantly confused. When the physicist limits the term
" knowledge " to the conclusions from physical apprehensions,
his refusal to extend it to conclusions from moral and spiritual
apprehensions is merely the consequence of an illegitimate
definition. He relies on the validity of his perceptions of physical
facts; but the saint and the theologian are no less entitled to
rely on the validity of their moral and spiritual experiences. In
each case the data rest on an ultimate basis, undemonstrable,
indeed, to any one who denies them (even if he be called mad for
doing so), except by the continuous process of working out their
own proofs, and showing their consistency with, or necessity in,
the scheme of things terrestrial on the one hand, or the mind
and happiness of man on the other. The tests in each case differ ;
and it is as irrelevant for the theologian to dispute the " know-
ledge " of the physicist, by arguments from faith and religion,
as it is for the physicist to deny the " knowledge " of the theo-
logian from the point of view of one who ignores the possibility
of spiritual apprehension altogether. On the ground of secular
history and secular evidence both might reasonably meet, as
regards the facts, though not perhaps as to their interpretation;
but the reason why they ultimately differ is to be found simply
in the difference of their mental attitude towards the nature of
" knowledge " — itself a difference of opinion as to the nature
of man.

In addition to the literature cited above, see L. Stephen, An
Agnostic's Apology (1893); K, Flint, Agnosticism (1903); T. Bailey
" Quest of Faittt~cKap^ii. (1899); A. W.'Behn, English

Saunders, The Quesi , r --,„ .

Rationalism in the XlXth Century (London, 1906).

(H. CH.)

AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical
of the Saviour as the " Lamb of God." The device is common
in ecclesiastical art, but the name is especially given in the
Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the Easter
candles and impressed with this figure. Since the 9th century
it has been customary for the popes to bless these cakes, and
distribute them on the Sunday after Easter among the faithful,
by whom they are highly prized as having the power to avert
evil. In modern times the distribution has been limited to
persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on his accession
and every seven years thereafter.

Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem beginning
with these words, which is said to have been introduced into
the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701). Based upon John i. 29,
the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere
nobis. In the celebration of the mass it is repeated three times
before the communion, and it is also appended to many of the
litanies. By the judgment in the case of " Read and others v.
The Bishop of Lincoln " it was decided in 1890 that the singing
of the Agnus Dei in English by the choir during the administra-
tion of the Holy Communion, provided that the reception of

the elements be not delayed till its conclusion, is not illegal in
the Church of England.

For the various ceremonies in the blessing of the Agnus Dei see
A. Vacant, Diet, de theologie (cols. 605-613).

AGOBARD (c. 770-840), Carolingian prelate and reformer,
became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and
on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (816). We
know nothing of his early life nor of his descent. He pursued
the same vigorous policy as his predecessor, who had been one
of Charlemagne's most active agents in the reformation of the
Church. He was strongly opposed to the schemes of the empress
Judith for a redivision of the empire in favour of her son Charles
the Bald, which he regarded as the cause of all the subsequent
evils, and supported Lothair and Pippin against their father the
emperor Louis I. Deposed in 835 by the council of Thionville,
he made his peace with the emperor and was reinstated in 837.
Agobard occupies an important place in the Carolingian re-
naissance. He wrote extensively not only theological works
but also political pamphlets and dissertations directed against
popular superstitions. These last works are unique in the
literature of the time. He denounced the trial by ordeal of fire
and water, the belief in witchcraft, and the ascription of tempests
to magic.maintainedthe Carolingian opposition to image-worship,
but carried his logic farther and opposed the adoration of the
saints. The basis for this crusade was theological, not scientific;
but it reveals a clear intellect and independent judgment. In
his purely theological works Agobard was strictly orthodox,
except that he denied the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.
Agobard was reverenced as a saint in Lyons, and although his
canonization is disputed his life is given by the Bollandists,
Acta Sanctorum, Jun. ii. 748.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Agobard s works were lost until 1605, when a
manuscript was discovered in Lyons and published by Papirius
Masson, again by Baluze in 1666. For later editions see Potthast,
Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi. The life of Agobard in Ebert's
Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters (1880), Band ii., is still one
of the best to consult. For further indications see A. Molinier,
Sources de I'histoire de France, i. p. 235.

AGONALIA, in ancient Rome, festivals celebrated on the
9th of January, 1 7 th of March, 2 1 st of May, and 1 1 th of December
in each year in honour of various divinities (Ovid, Fasti, i.
319-332). The word is derived either from agonia, " a victim,"
or from agonium, " a festival."

AGONIC LINES (from Gr. a-, privative, and ydivia, an angle),
the term given to the imaginary lines on the earth's surface
connecting points at which the magnetic needle points to the
geographical north and south. (See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.)

AGONOTHETES, in ancient Greece, the president or super-
intendent of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted
the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; but
in the great public games, such as the Olympic and Pythian,
these presidents were the representatives of different states, or
were chosen from the people in whose country the games were
celebrated; thus at the Panathenaic festival at Athens ten
athlothetae were elected for four years to superintend the various
contests. They were variously called aiavnvrJTa.1, |3pa/3eurai,
A-ycoi/apxai, ayuvobiKai, d0Xo0«T<u (at Athens), pa^8ov\ot. or
frapSovo/jLoi (from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their
authority), but their functions were generally the same.

AGORA, originally, in primitive times, the assembly of the
Greek people, convoked by the king or one of his nobles. The
right of speech and vote was restricted to the nobles, the people
being permitted to express their opinion only by signs of applause
or disapproval. The word then came to be used for the place
where assemblies were held, and thus from its convenience as
a meeting-place the agora became in most of the cities of Greece
the general resort for public and especially commercial inter-
course, corresponding in general with the Roman forum. At
Athens, with the increase of commerce and political interest, it
was found advisable to call public meetings at the Pnyx or the
temple of Dionysus; but the important assemblies, such as
meetings for ostracism, were held in the agora. In the best days
of Greece the agora was the place where nearly all public traffic

AGORACRITUS— AGRA

was conducted. It was most frequented in the forenoon, and then
only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing,
though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple to
buy and sell there. Citizens were allowed a free market;
foreigners and metics had to pay a toll. Public festivals also
were celebrated in the open area of the agora. At Athens the
agora of classical times was adorned with trees planted by Cimon;
around it numerous public buildings were erected, such as the
council chamber and the law courts (for its topography, see
ATHENS). Pausanias (especially vi. 24) is the great architectural
authority on the agorae of various Greek cities, and details are
also given by Vitruvius (v. i).

AGORACRITUS, a Parian and Athenian sculptor of the age
of Phidias, and said to have been his favourite pupil. His most
noted work was the statue at Rhamnus of Nemesis, by some
attributed to Phidias himself. Of this statue part of the head
is in the British Museum; some fragments of the reliefs which
adorned the pedestal are in the museum at Athens.

AGORANOMI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose
position and duties were in many respects similar to those of the
aediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annually by
lot, five of whom took charge of the city and five of the Peiraeus.
They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, examined
the quality of the articles exposed for sale, tested weights and
measures, collected the harbour dues and enforced the shipping
regulations.

AGORDAT, a town of Eritrea, N.E. Africa, on the route
between Massawa and Kassala. At Agojrdat on the 2ist of
December 1893 the Italian troops under Colonel Arimondi
inflicted a severe defeat on the followers of the khalifa. Agordat
is protected by a strong fort. (See ERITREA and SUDAN, History.)

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO, Italian antiquary of the i?th cen-
tury, was born at Siena. After being employed for some time
to collect works of art for the Barberini palace, he was appointed
by Pope Alexander VII. superintendent of antiquities in the
Roman states. He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian
Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens; and in
conjunction with Giovanni Bellori (1615-1696) he also published
a work on antique sculptured gems, which was translated into
Latin by Jakob Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1685).

AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629),
Italian musician, was born at Valerano, and studied under
G. B. Nanini, as we learn from the dedication in the third and
fourth books of his masses, subsequently becoming the son-in-
law of his master. He succeeded Ugolini as conductor of the
pope's orchestra in St. Peter's. His musical compositions are
numerous and of great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being
specially admired.

AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or ANGELO) DA SIENA, Italian
architects and sculptors in' the first half of the I4th century.
Delia Valle and other commentators deny that they were
brothers. They certainly studied together under Giovanni
Pisano, and in 1317 were jointly appointed architects of their
native town, for which they designed the Porto Romana, the
church and convent of St Francis, and other buildings. On the
recommendation of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the
best sculptors of the time, they executed in 1330 the tomb of
Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo, which Giotto
had designed. It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works
of the i4th century, but unfortunately was destroyed by the
French under the duke of Anjou.

AGOULT, MARIE CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNY,
COMTESSE o'(i8o5-i876) , French author, whose nont de plume was
" Daniel Stern," was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 3ist of
December 1805. Her father was a French officer who had served
in the army of the emigrant princes, and her mother was the
daughter of a Frankfort banker. She was married in 1827 to the
comte Charles d'Agoult. In Paris she gathered round her a
brilliant society which included Alfred de Vigny, Sainte-Beuve,
Ingres, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Heine and others. She was separated
from her husband, and became the mistress of Franz Liszt.
During her frequent travels in Switzerland, France and Italy she

made the acquaintance of George Sand, and figures in the Leltres
d'un voyageur as " Arabella." By Liszt she had three children —
a son who died young; Blandine, who married M. fimile OUivier;
and Cosima, who married first Hans von Billow and later Richard
Wagner. The story of her breach with Liszt is told under a very
slightjdisguise in her novel Nelida (1845). On her return to Paris
in 1841 she began to write art criticisms for the Presse, and in
1844 she contributed to the Revue des deux Mond.es articles on
Bettina von Arnim and on Heinrich Heine, but her views were not
acceptable to the editor, and Daniel Stern withdrew to become a
contributor to the Revue independante. Mme. d'Agoult was an
ardent apostle of the ideas of '48, and from this date her salon,
which had been literary and artistic, took on a more political
tone; revolutionists of various nationalities were welcomed by
her, and she had an especial friendship and sympathy for Daniele
Manin. In 1857 she produced a national drama, Jeanne Dare,
which was translated into Italian and presented with brilliant
success at Turin. The most important section of Daniel Stern's
work is her political and historical essays: Lettres republicaines
(1848), Esquisses morales et politiques (1849), Histoire de la Re-
volution de 1848 (3 vols., 1850-1853), Histoire des commencements
de la Republique aux Pays-Bas (1872). Mme. d'Agoult died in
Paris on the 5th of March 1876. Her daughter Claire Christine
(b. 1830), who married Guy de Charnace, is known as a writer.

See Mme. d'Agoult, Mes Souvenirs (1806-1833), 1877; A. Cuvillier
Fleury, Portraits revolutionnaires , vol. i. (1889); J. Mazzini, Leltres
de Joseph Mazzini a Daniel Stern (1872); A. Pommier, Madame la
comtesse d'Agoult (Daniel Stern), 1876; A. Ungherini, " Daniel Stern"
in the Revista repubUicana (1880, No. 9) ; S. Rocheblave, Une Amitie
romanesque, George Sand et Madame d'Agoult (1895).

AGOUTI, or AGUTI, the West Indian name of Dasyprocta aguti,
a terrestrial rodent of the size of a rabbit, common to Trinidad
and Guiana, and classed in the family Caviidae. Under the same
term may be included the other species of Dasyprocta, of which
there are about half a score in tropical America. Agoutis are
slender-limbed rodents, with five front and three hind toes (the
first front toe very minute), and very short tails. The hair,
especially on the hind-quarters, is coarse and somewhat rough;
the colour being generally rufous brown. The molar teeth have
cylindrical crowns, with several islands and a single lateral fold of
enamel when worn. In habits agoutis are nocturnal, dwelling in
forests, where they conceal themselves during the day in hollow
tree-trunks, or in burrows among roots. Active and graceful in
their movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series of
springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a gallop.
They take readily to water, in which they swim well. Their food
comprises leaves, roots, nuts and other fruits. They do much
harm to plantations of sugar-cane and bananas. In captivity the
females produce only one or two young at a birth.

AGRA, an ancient city of India, which gives its name to a
district and division in the United Provinces. It is famous for
containing the most perfect specimens of Mogul architecture.
Agra, like Delhi, owes much of its importance in both historical
and modem times to the commercial and strategical advantages
of its position. The river Jumna, which washes the walls of
its fort, was the natural highway for the traffic of the rich delta
of Bengal to the heart of India, and it formed, moreover, from
very ancient times, the frontier defence of the Aryan stock settled
in the plain between the Ganges and the Jumna against their
•western neighbours, hereditary freebooters who occupied the
highlands of Central India. No place was better fitted for both an
emporium and a frontier fortress. The river formed an unfordable
barrier and also a useful means of communication. Jehangir tells
us in his autobiography that before his father Akbar built the
present fort, the town was defended by a citadel of great antiquity.
For three hundred years the Afghans and other tribes came down
from the north and founded kingdoms; and their power radiated
from Delhi and Agra. It was Sikandar, of the house of Lodi
(A.D. 1500), the last of the Afghan dynasties, who realized the
strategic importance of Agra as a point for keeping in check his
rebellious vassals to the south. He removed his court there, and
Agra from being " a mere village of old standing," says a Persian
chronicler, became the capital of a kingdom. In 1 526 the city was

382

AGRA CANAL— AGRAPHA

captured by the emperor Baber, the famous Koh-i-noor diamond
being part of the loot; and it was here that Baber announced
that his invasion was to be a permanent conquest, acd not a mere
temporary inroad. It was Baber's grandson Akbar that built the
present fort, whose strong and lofty walls of red sandstone are a
mile and a.half in circumference. The building was completed in
1665, when Charles II. was on the throne of England and the
plague was devastating London. Another building of much the
same date is the red stone palace generally attributed to Akbar,
but probably of an earlier time, which is the finest example of
pure Hindu architecture; while the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque,
is an equally perfect example of the Mahommedan style.

But the glory of Agra, the most splendidly poetic building in
the world, is the Taj Mahal, the mausoleum built (A.D. 1632) by
the emperor Shah Jahan for the remains of his
Mahal. favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in which he himself also
lies buried. The building is built of white marble
throughout, crowned with a great white dome in the centre, and
with a smaller dome at each of its four corners. From the marble
terrace which surrounds it rise four tall minarets of the same
material, one at each corner. The Taj has been modelled and
painted more frequently than any other building in the world, and
the word pictures of it are numberless. But it can only be
described as a dream in marble. It amply justifies the saying
that the Moguls designed like Titans and finished like jewellers.
In regard to colour and design the Taj ranks first in the world for
purely decorative workmanship; while the perfect symmetry of
its exterior once seen can never be forgotten, nor the aerial grace
of its domes, rising like marble bubbles into the azure sky. In his
History of Architecture, Fergusson says of it: —

" This building is an early example of that system of inlaying with
precious stones which became the great characteristic of the style
of the Moghals after the death of Akbar. All the spandrils of the
Taj, all the angles and more important architectural details, are
heightened by being inlaid with precious stones such as agates,
bloodstones, jaspers and the like. These are combined in wreaths,
scrolls and frets, as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour,
and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they
form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted
in architecture. It is lavishly bestowed on the tombs themselves
and the screens which surround them, but more sparingly introduced
on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj, and on the fountains
and surrounding buildings. The judgment, indeed, with which this
style of ornament is apportioned to the various parts, is almost as
remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea of the
taste and skill of the architects of this age."

Of the Taj as a whole Lord Roberts says in his Forty-one
Years in India: —

" Neither words nor pencil could give to the most imaginative
reader the slightest idea of the all-satisfying beauty and purity of
this glorious conception. To those who have not already seen it I
would say, ' Go to India. The Taj alone is well worth the journey.' "

The Taj was designed by Us tad Isa, variously described as a
Byzantine Turk and a native of Shiraz in Persia. The pietra
dura work belongs to the Persian school; and the common
belief that it was designed by Austin de Bordeaux, a French
architect in the service of Shah Jahan, is probably incorrect.

Agra was formerly the capital of the North- West Provinces, but
after the Mutiny the seat of government was removed to Alla-
habad. Situated 841 m. from Calcutta it is now an important
railway centre, whence two main lines diverge southwards
towards Bombay. In 1901 the population was 188,022, showing
an increase of 1 2 % during the decade. The city contains cotton
mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton, a tannery and
boot factory and flour mill. There are also two missionary
colleges.

The DISTRICT or AGRA has an area of 1856 sq. m. Its
general appearance is that common to the Doab, a level plain
intersected by watercourses and ravines. Its general elevation
is estimated at from 650 to 700 ft. above the level of the sea. The
district is intersected by the Jumna, and is also watered by the
Agra canal. The principal crops are millets, pulses, barley,
wheat, cotton and a little indigo. The population in 1901 was
1,060,528, showing an increase of 6 % during the decade.

The DIVISION OF AGRA has an area of 10,154 sq- m- In

1901 the population was 5,249,542, showing an increase of 10%
during the decade, attributed to the extension of irrigation from
canals. It comprises the six districts of Muttra, Agra, Farukh-
abad, Mainpuri, Etawah and Etah.

For an account of the architecture of Agra see Fergusson's History
of Architecture; Cities of India (1903), by G. W. Forrest; Enchanted
India (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch ; and E. B. Havell,
Handbook to Agra and the Taj (1904). (C. L.)

AGRA CANAL, an important Indian irrigation work, available
also for navigation, in Delhi, Gurgaon, Muttra and Agra districts,
and Bharatpur state. The canal receives its water from the
Jumna river at Okla, about 10 m. below Delhi. The weir across
the Jumna was the first attempted in Upper India upon a founda-
tion of fine sand; it is about 800 yds. long, and rises 7 ft. above
the summer level of the river. From Okla the canal follows the
high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally
joins the Banganga river about 20 m. below Agra. Navigable
branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra. It was
opened in 1874.

A6RAM (Hungarian Zagrdb, Croatian Zagreb), the capital of
Croatia-Slavonia, and a royal free town of Hungary; pleas-
antly situated between the north bank of the Save and the
mountains which culminate in Sljeme (3396 ft.); 187 m. by
rail S. of Vienna. Pop. (1890) 38,742; (1900) 57,930, or with
garrison 61,002. Agram is the seat of the ban, or viceroy, of
Croatia-Slavonia, of the Banal and Septemviral courts, the
highest in the land, and of a chamber of commerce. It is also
the meeting-place of the parliament; but local affairs are con-
ducted by a municipal council. The city is divided into three
districts. The Kapitel-Stadt, sometimes called the Bishop's
Town, with the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop, and his
late Gothic cathedral, dating from the isth century, lies eastward
of the Medvesfiak, a brook which flows into the Save. The Upper
Town, on high ground west of the Medvescak, contains the
palace of the ban and the natural history museum. On the
south, the Lower Town is separated from the other districts by
the Ilica, a long street traversed by a cable tramway. In it are
the business and industrial quarters; the palace of justice; the
academy of science, with picture-galleries, a library and a
collection of antiquities; the theatre; the Franz Josef Univer-
sity, founded in 1874 to teach theology, law and philosophy;
the synagogue; and the only Protestant church existing in
the country at the beginning of the 2oth century. Roman
Catholic churches and schools are numerous. Besides the large
Maximir park and botanical gardens, many of the squares are
planted with trees and adorned with statues; while the whole
city is surrounded by vineyards and country houses. Tobacco,
leather, linen, carpets and war-material are manufactured in
Agram, which also contains the works of the Hungarian state
railways, and has a brisk trade in grain, wine, potash, honey,
silk and porcelain.

In 1094 Agram was founded by Ladislaus I. of Hungary, as
the seat of a bishop; and on the expulsion of its Mongol colony,
in 1242, it was raised to the rank of a royal free city. For cen-
turies a bitter feud raged between the Kapitel-Stadt and the
Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to join hands against
the Turks. Agram, already the political centre of Croatia-
Slavonia, was selected as the capital in 1867. It suffered severely
from earthquake in 1880 and 1901.

AGRAPHA (i.e. "unwritten"), the name given to certain
utterances ascribed, with some degree of certainty, to Jesus,
which have been preserved in documents other than the Gospels,
e.g. Acts xx. 35; i Tim. v. 18; i Cor. vii. 10-12, and the Logia
(q.v.) discovered in 1897 and 1903 at Oxyrhyncus. Two inter-
esting examples of such sayings may be quoted: (i) " That
which is weak shall be saved by that which is strong "; (2)
" Jesus, on whom be peace, has said: 'The world is merely a
bridge; ye are to pass over it, and not to build your dwellings
upon it.' " The first of these is from the Apostolic Canons
(c. A.D. 300), the second was found by the missionary Alexander
Duff inscribed in Arabic on the gateway of the mosque at Fateh-
pur Sikri.

AGRARIAN LAWS

383

The earliest modern collection of such sayings was by Cotelerius,
Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta. (1677-1688), followed by J. E. Grabe,
Spicelegium (1698 and 1700), and J. B. Fabricius, Codex Apocryph.
N. T. (2nd ed., 1719). See also A. Resch, Agrapha (Leipzig, 1889) ;
J. H. Ropes, Die Spriiche Jesu (Leipzig, 1896); and the article
" Sayings " in J. Hastings' Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels.

AGRARIAN LAWS (Lat. ager, land). Under this heading
we deal with the disposal of the public land (ager publicus) of
ancient Rome. It was a principle of the Republican constitution
that no gratuitous disposition of state property should be made
without the consent of the people. Hence many of the ordinances
affecting the public land were laws (leges) in the strictest sense of
that word It is, however, both justifiable and convenient to
consider in this article all the regulations that were made for the
administration of the public land by the executive authorities,
as well as by the people during the Republic, and by the com-
mands of the emperor, which had the force of law during the
Principate.

The existence of public land, first in Italy, and then in the
Mediterranean world, was the outcome of two ideas which are
very familiar to students of antiquity. This land was the prize
of conquest and was one of the means of defraying the current
expenses of state-administration. For the latter purpose land
is often leased or allowed to be occupied on the condition of the
payment of dues. But it may be made to fufil another purpose
as well — this purpose being the satisfaction of the individual
needs of poorer citizens. To meet this object the land is usually
assigned, and on assignment generally ceases to be the property
of the state. But it often happens that the state is not wholly
disinterested in undertaking such acts of assignment. It gains
security and territorial control by planting garrisons in conquered
country, and it relieves itself of the necessity of providing for
its poorer classes whether by state-aid or by a hazardous tamper-
ing with the rights of private property. In this use to which
public land could be turned we see at once the connexion
between agrarian legislation and colonization — a connexion
which was so close that when a Roman spoke of an agrarian law
he seems generally to have understood by it a law establishing
a colony — and also the two aspects of colonization, the military
and the social. These two objects were indissolubly connected
roughout the whole of the earlier period of Roman agrarian
ignation. They only became separated in the period subse-
uent to the Gracchi in so far as social motives still continued
be operative when military precautions had ceased to be
ecessary. It is probable that one of the chief motives which
prompted infant Rome to war with her neighbours was the
land-hunger of her citizens. This hunger she satisfied after
inquest by annexing a portion of the enemy's territory. The
mount thus confiscated varied from time to time. It was
iually a third, but sometimes a half or even two-thirds, and
fter the fall of Capua in the Second Punic War the whole terri-
ry of the state was annexed. It is possible that by the close
f the 2nd century B.C. one-half of the land of Italy belonged
Rome whether in private ownership or as the property of the
,tate. Annexation was carried on in the provinces on a relatively
aller scale; but Rome retained as domain-land much of the
irritory of communities which had been destroyed, such as
'arthage and Corinth, and the estates of former kings, such as
e lands of the Attalids in the Chersonese. Other domains in
icily and Greece, such as the territory of Leontini in the former,
>r Oropus in the latter case, are also found. This peculiar prop-
'ty of the Roman state in the provinces must be carefully
istinguished from the general overlordship which Rome was
lUpposed to hold over all provincial soil, expressed in the state-
ment that provincials had only possession or usufruct of their
land (Gaius ii. 7; Gromatici, p. 36, Lachmann). This overlord-
ihip was probably merely a legal fiction by which the juristic
ind assigned a reason for the fact that the provincials paid a
nd tax from which Italians were exempt.
Such portions of the territories of conquered cities as were
not claimed by Rome were as a matter of course left in the un-
disturbed possession of these cities. If the city was a federate
itate (civitas foederata) , his possession was guaranteed by a treaty;

if it was a free city, the guarantee was made by charter; if it
was neither federate nor free, the abandonment of the territory
by Rome must have been taken as a sufficient guarantee of the
city's right to possess, although statements relative to the sur-
render may have been contained in the charter of the province
(lex provinciae) to which the city belonged. But, whether the
states were federate, free or stipendiary, there was only one case
in which it was important to specify precisely that land had
been restored (redditus) to its former occupants. This was the
case where Rome had marked out a territory for assignment to
her own citizens, but where in or near the limits of the assignment
some of the land had been left in the hands of its former pro-
prietors. Such land was noted in the state registers as redditus
iseteri possessori. Sometimes it was found that such an ancient
possessor owned pieces of land separated from one another. In
such cases an exchange might be effected between him and some
other possessor, so that his possessions might be continuous.
The fac.t of such an exchange was symbolized in the registers
by the entry of land redditus et commutatus pro suo.

When the claims of earlier owners had been satisfied, the
state proceeded to deal with such land as it retained. It dealt
with it in two ways. It either alienated it, whether in exchange
for a price or gratuitously; or it kept it as a source of revenue,
whether on a system of lease or on some system of remunerative
occupation. We may first consider the cases in which the state
decided to alienate. The land might be sold for the benefit of
the treasury. Typical instances of this treatment are furnished
by the sale of some Campanian land during the Second Punic War
(Livy xxviii. 46, xxxii. 7). The censors may have directed the
sale, but it was executed by the quaestors as the regular officials
of the treasury. Hence such land was described as ager quaes-
torius. The land was sold in definitely marked out plots, and
we must suppose that, as a rule, when this sale had been effected,
the lots fell under the absolute ownership of their purchasers.
Yet there was some period of Roman history when this ownership
was (at least in certain cases) conditioned. The Roman writers
on agriculture speak of conditions and their neglect (Gromatici,
p. 115). The conditions were probably those of military service
or frontier defence. The epoch of history at which this con-
ditioned ownership was recognized cannot be determined. It
is a form of tenure that would be equally appropriate to the
needs of the earliest period of Roman history and to those of
imperial times.

The second mode of alienation was that by assignation. Lands
thus assigned were known as agri dati assignati. The gift on
the part of the state was gratuitous, and ownership passed wholly
to the assignee. The land so given was definitely surveyed,
marked out and registered. Such an assignment might take
one of two possible forms. It might be the means of establishing
a new " plantation " (colonia), with some independent political
organization of its own, however slight — a settlement, therefore,
which could be thought of as an entity separate from the city
of Rome and from any other municipality. Or it might be the
means of providing allotments for individuals who remained
domiciled at Rome or continued to be members of some already
existing municipality. It has been frequently held in modern
times that this latter method of assignment is the one which
our ancient authorities describe as assignment to individuals
(mritim), and that the antithesis lies between the " colonial "
and the " viritane " method of distribution. It is true that the
passages which speak of the latter mode of assignation need not,
and perhaps cannot, be interpreted as presenting the antithesis
(Varro, de Re Rustica, i. 2. 7, i. 10. 2; Livy iv. 48, v. 24;
Festus, p. 373; Gromatici, pp. 154, 160); yet it is not improb-
able that the antithesis is latent in this specific use of the term.
It seems clear that the idea of assignation to, and, therefore,
of ownership by, individuals must originally have been developed
in contrast to the idea of ownership by some larger group (see
ROMAN LAW). When the stage of individual ownership was
reached, all assignation was " viritane," but only some assigna-
tion was " colonial." " Viritane " was, therefore, the wider
term which would cover, and may sometimes have been used

384

AGRARIAN LAWS

specially to denote, the system of non-colonial assignment. The
amount granted to individuals in assignments of both types
varied from time to time. It was reckoned in terms of the
jugerum, which was approximately f of an English acre. The
earliest and smallest assignment was 2 jugera — an amount so
small that it seems to presuppose on the part of the recipient
some share in common or gentile property or some additional
private property of his own. Other quotas were 3,31^, 7, 10+14
jugera. The last was the maximum amount granted before the
time of Ti. Gracchus (133 B.C.), and it was held by representatives
of the old school that 7 jugera were as much as any frugal Roman
should want (Pliny, Historia Naturalis, xviii. 18). The division
was carried out by commissions of 3, 5 or 10 men appointed by
the people (Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii. 7. 17). The land which
the state retained as ager pwblicus was always placed in the hands
of individuals, who occupied it in some manner remunerative
to the state. These individuals (possessores) were never regarded
as owners of the land thus occupied. It remained the property
of the state, was held without a contract (precario) and could
be resumed by the state at will. But though the possessors
had no claim against the state, their ownership could be defended
against all other individual claimants; and it seems probable
that from an early date the praetor's possessory interdict was
used to protect all occupiers, provided their tenure had been
acquired neither by force (vi) nor by seizureof land in its occupiers'
absence (clam), nor by mere permission of the previous holder
to occupy (precario alter ab altero). Moreover, Appian says that
possessors of this type could transfer their land by inheritance,
and that the land was accepted as security by creditors. This
kind of occupation, therefore, though clearly distinguished from
ownership (dominium), was yet regarded as a perfectly secure
form of tenure. All occupiers of public land paid dues to the
state through a state contractor (publicanus) . These dues
varied in amount, and in the method of their collection. We
learn from Appian that the ordinary dues paid by occupiers of
arable land in Italy were -fa of seed crops and £ of plant produce.
Owners who turned cattle or sheep on pasture land belonging
to the state also paid fixed dues to the treasury. The occupiers
of the Roman public land in Campania paid a large rent (Cic.
de leg. Agr. i. 7. 21). Appian's account of the public land (Bell.
Civ. i. 7) would lead us to suppose that the amount of tax paid
by the occupier, and the method adopted by the state for the
collection of the revenues, depended upon the nature of the land
at the time when it first passed to a possessor. He says that
some of the public land which was in a good state of cultivation
was let on lease; but that with regard to the poorer devastated
land proclamation was made that anyone might squat on it
and till it in return for the small payment in kind mentioned
above. It has been questioned whether the land 'described by
Appian and by Cicero as let on lease, of which the Campanian
land and some lands in Sicily are typical, represents a legally
distinct class. It seems probable that the distinction is one of
practice rather than of law, and that the difference lay not in
the relation between the state and the possessor (as would be
the case if the leased land were really let to individuals by the
censor, while the occupied land was held by mere permission of
the state without any contract) but in the details of the contract
between the censor and the publicanus with regard to the collec-
tion of the dues. The conditions of the tenure of the Roman
public land in Africa are known to us from the Lex Agraria of
in B.C. (Bruns, Fontes, i. 3. n, w. Ssfoll.). Here the publicanus
is the middleman between the state and the possessor, and
purchases from the censor the right of collecting dues. The
law places no restriction on bargaining between the censor and
the publicanus, but enacts that no possessor or pastor shall ever
be required by the publicanus to pay more than the amount
prescribed by the censors of 1 1 5 B.C. These conditions may be
regarded as typical for the occupation of public lands. And
when Cicero speaks of public land as let on lease (locatus) by
the censor, he no doubt refers to the farming of the taxes to a
publicanus for a fixed period, and not to the letting of the land.
This seems clear from a passage (in Verr. iii. 6. 12) where he

speaks of land in Sicily which had been restored by Rome to
former owners as being leased. The land itself could not be
leased by Rome if it belonged not to Rome but to the Sicilian
inhabitants; but the collection of the revenues due to Rome
could be so leased to Publicani (q.v.). And the same explanation
would apply to Cicero's statements that the Campanian land
was let on lease by the censors (cf. Festus, s.v. vendUiones) . The
view that there was a distinct class of the public land which was
let out for a fixed teim of years to tenants on a definite lease,
unlike the ordinary public land which was always held in occupa-
tion merely at will (precario), has been maintained by W. A.
Becker, and seems to be supported, with the help of conjecture,
by a few passages in Cicero and by Hyginus (Gromatici, p. 116).
But the passage of Hyginus is barely intelligible even on this
supposition; and Cicero's repeated statement that the Campanian
land was expressly exempted from the legislation of the Gracchi
(cf. Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit. v. 6) shows that there was not
sufficient distinction between the Campanian tenure and that
of other public land in Italy to make this definite exception
by name superfluous. The Sempronian law could obviously
not touch land which the state had leased to occupiers on the
basis of a definite contract. Moreover, we have absolutely no
evidence for such a contract, even in Cicero's speeches against
Rullus, when he might be expected to mention it as an objection
to Rullus's bill. That there were some distinctive characteristics
about the tenure of certain lands, of which the Campanian land
is typical, seems proved by the repeated association of these
lands with certain special lands in the provinces, especially at
Leontini in Sicily, and by some passages in the Gromatici where
agri tiectigales are spoken of as a distinct class. But what these
characteristics were cannot be clearly determined. It seems
certain that in every case the possessor occupied precario, and
that only in the bargain between the censor and the middleman
was there room for contract. Thus the state was justified in
the claim to resume public land which it made in many of the
Agrarian laws.

The earliest agrarian measures of which we have any record
are the distributions of land conquered in war to poor citizens,
which later authorities attribute to Numa and Servius Tullius.
Such assignments, however, are not the result of legislative acts,
but of a voluntary surrender on the king's part of his own
portion of the spoils. It is probable that the agrarian law which
resulted from the proposals of Spurius Cassius (consul 486 B.C.)
was the first attempt made by the Roman people to exercise its
control over the occupation of state territory. According to
the traditional account, Cassius proposed that such portion ot
lands lately conquered from the Hernici as fell to the Roman
state should be divided in equal shares between the Roman
plebs and the Latins; and further that poor citizens should
receive allotments of land previously conquered, and occupied
without any legal right by the Patricians. The inclusion of
the Latins in the distribution was afterwards dropped; but the
law in its final form certainly asserted the right of the Plebeians
to take their share in the public land. The accounts given of it
by Livy and Dionysius are no doubt coloured by their know-
ledge of later agrarian legislation, and it seems hardly likely
that the proposal to resume and redistribute public land already
occupied was made at this early stage; but it probably challenged
the exclusive claim of Patricians to occupy. We hear of another
agrarian law proposed by the tribune Lucius Icilius in 456 B.C.
(Lex Icilia de Aventino publicando) which regulated in some way
the tenure of public land on the Aventine. In 376 B.C. the
tribunes Licinius and Sextius introduced into their laws, for
the promotion of the privileges of the plebs, a clause enacting
that no more than 500 jugera of land should be occupied by a
single cultivator. It seems almost certain from Livy's account
that this measure referred only to the occupation of ager publicus,
though some modern authorities have upheld the view that it
dealt with land held on any kind of tenure, others again that it
dealt only with private property in land. According to Appian,
the law also enacted that only 100 cattle and 500 sheep might
be turned by one owner on the public pastures. But it failed

AGREDA

385

of its object because it did not provide any adequate machinery
for the resumption by the state of land held in excess of the
prescribed amount, and was therefore easily evaded. The next
agrarian law we hear of was a more special measure dealing with
lands conquered from the Senones and Picentines. In 232 B.C.
C. Flaminius, then tribune of the plebs, proposed to resume
these lands for the state, although they were already occupied
by large landholders, and to distribute them in allotments to poor
citizens. The measure met with much opposition from the richer
classes, and did not gain the sanction of the senate; but
C. Flaminius ignored constitutional usage and brought it direct
efore the council of the plebs, by which it was made law. In
133 B.C. the tribune Tiberius Gracchus (q.v.) re-enacted the
arlier measure of Licinius and Sextius, with the additional
provisions that each owner might occupy 250 jugera for each
son, in addition to the original 500, and that a commission of
hree (iii. iiiri agris dandis adsignandis) should be appointed to
out the terms of the law. He also enacted that the land
cupied in excess of the prescribed amount, and on that account
sumed for the state by the land commission, should be dis-
tributed in inalienable lots to poor citizens. Subsequent modi-
fications of those provisions which dealt with the powers of
he land commission led to a re-enactment of the whole by
Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, tribune in 123 B.C. But
vithin 15 years from the tribunate of C. Gracchus the whole
of his law had been rendered null by three further enactments.
The first of these permitted the sale of land allotted under the
which thus tended to return into the hands of its former
ccupiers as private property, which the state had no longer
any right to resume. The second abolished the commission
appointed to carry out the terms of the law, thus putting a stop
to further resumption and distribution, and also transformed
xisting occupiers into owners of the land they occupied, paying
only a small due to the treasury. The third (probably the sur-
viving Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit.) abolished the payment. This
aw belongs to the year in B.C. The dates of the two former
jws are uncertain, but it is probable that the first was passed in
121, the second in 119 or 118. From this time forward a
change comes over land legislation. The ordinary public land
in Italy, in the hands of occupiers, which had given rise to all
he agrarian legislation between 376 and in, had practically
eased to exist. The Campanian land still remained, but the
ame reasons which led to its exemption from the Gracchan
legislation seem to have continued to protect its holders until
63 B.C. In the meantime several agrarian laws were passed
vhich provided for the distribution of land placed in some other
vay at the disposal of the state. In 100 B.C. Appuleius Satur-
ninus (q.v.), tribune of the plebs, proposed the allotment of lands
cently taken from the Cimbri in Gaul. This law was passed,
jut eventually declared null by the senate, with the rest of
iturninns's laws. A more dangerous precedent was set by
Sulla in his dictatorship (82-81 B.C.). He was the first to con-
cate the lands of his political foes, and of communities which
iad resisted him, and treating them as ager publicus, assign
hem to his veterans as a prize. This example was followed by
Dctavian (Augustus) and Antony (M. Antonius) after their
proscriptions in 43 B.C. A third method of providing land for
distribution was that adopted by Servilius Rullus (q.v.) in
63 B.C. His bill enacted that land should be purchased in Italy
vith money gained by the sale of Roman territories abroad, and
Hotted to citizens. A commission of ten (x. viri agris dandis
dsignandis), annually elected by 9 out of the 35 tribes, was to
arry out the terms of the law. Rullus also ventured to propose
he distribution of the Campanian land, which had hitherto
en respected by all agrarian reformers. It was chiefly on this
ound that Cicero in his three speeches on the Agrarian law
succeeded in exciting such a general feeling against it that it was
entually withdrawn. In 60 B.C. the tribune L. Flavius brought
forward a bill for the distribution of lands to Pompey's veterans,
he Campanian land was certainly to be included in the dis-
ribution, and it is clear from Cicero that the bill in some way
dealt violently with the rights of private owners. It also, how-

ever, enacted that land should be purchased by the state with
the wealth which Pompey's conquests had brought into the
treasury. The last proposal was supported by Cicero, but the
bill seems to have been dropped, only to reappear in more
moderate form in the following year. A consular bill, the lex
Julia Campana, was passed by Julius Caesar in 59 B.C., which
provided for the settlement of Pompey's veterans on the Cam-
panian land, and other lands purchased by the state from private
owners in Italy with the full consent of the latter. In its
original form, the bill omitted all reference to the Campanian
land, which seems to have been included by Caesar in the dis-
tribution only when the continued and unreasoning opposition
of the senate had goaded him to extreme measures. A commission
of twenty was to be appointed to carry out the law, from which
Caesar himself was expressly excluded. This measure finally
settled the question of the Campanian land, which now passed
out of the category of ager publicus. The last agrarian law of
the republic was that passed in 44 B.C. on the proposal of the
consul M. Antonius, or of his brother L. Antonius. We have
no detailed account of the measure, but it seems to have pro-
vided grants of land for veterans, and was to be administered by
seven commissioners. The law was afterwards cancelled by decree
of the senate, probably on the ground of some technical flaw.
The emperor Vespasian attempted to reclaim for the state small
oddments of land (subseciva) which were held by neighbouring
owners to whom they had never been definitely assigned. The
attempt met with violent opposition, and though resumed by
Titus, was finally crushed by Domitian, who issued an edict re-
cognizing all oddments of land thus held to be private property.

AUTHORITIES. — Niebuhr, History of Rome (English translation),
ii. p. 129 foil. (Cambridge, 1832); Becker, Handbuch der romischen
Alterthiimer, iii. 2, p. 142 (Leipzig, 1843); Marquardt, Romische
Staatsverwaltung, i. p. 96 foil. (Leipzig, 1881); Madvig, Verjassung
und Verwaltung des romischen Staates, ii. p. 364 foil. (Leipzig, 1882),
(See also ROME, History.) (A. H. J. G. ; A. M . CL.)

AGREDA, MARIA FERNANDEZ CORONEL, ABBESS or,
known in religion as Sor (Sister) Maria de Jesus (1602-1665), was
the daughter of Don Francisco Coronel and of his wife Catalina
de Arana. She was born at Agreda, on the borders of Navarre
and Aragon, on the 2nd of April 1602. All her family were power-
fully influenced by the ecstatic piety of Spain in that age. Her
biographer, Samaniego, records that even as an infant in arms she
was filled with divine knowledge. Her stupidity as a child is
piously accounted for by extreme humility. From childhood she
was favoured by ecstasies and visions. When she was fifteen the
whole family entered religion. The father, now an old man, and
the two sons entered the Franciscan house of San Antonio de
Nalda. Maria, her .mother and sister established a Franciscan
nunnery in the family house at Agreda, which, when Maria's
reputation had extended, was replaced by the existing building.
She began it with one hundred reals (one pound sterling) lent her
by a devotee, and it was completed in fourteen years by voluntary
gifts. Much against her own wish, we are told, she was appointed
abbess at the age of twenty-five. In 1668, four years after her
death, the Franciscans published a story that at the age of
twenty-two she had been miraculously conveyed to Mexico, to
convert a native people, and had made five hundred journeys
through the air for that purpose in one year. Though the rule
required the abbess to be changed every three years, Maria
remained the effective ruler of Agreda till her death. The Virgin
was declared abbess, and Maria acted as her locum tenens. In her
later years she inclined to the " internal prayer," and neglect of
the outward offices of the church, which was usual with the
" alumbrados " or Quietists. The Inquisition took notice of her,
but she was not proceeded against with severity. Maria's
importance in religion and Spanish history is based on two
grounds. In the earlier part of her life, while the Franciscan,
Francisco Andres de la Torre, was her confessor, she wrote an
Introduction to the History of the Most Blessed Virgin. It was
destroyed by the direction of another confessor. Later on, by the
order of her superiors, and under the guidance of her Franciscan
confessor, Andres de Fuen Mayor, she wrote The Mystic City oj
God. It is an extraordinary book, full of apocryphal history,

386

AGRICOLA

visions and scholasticism, which professes to have been written by
divine inspiration, and is devoted to praise of the Virgin. In
1642 she sent to Philip IV. an account of a vision she had had, of
a council of the infernal powers for the destruction of Catholicism
and Spain. The king visited her when on his way to Aragon to
suppress the rebellion of Catalonia. A long correspondence,
which lasted till her death on the 29th of March 1665, was begun.
The king folded a sheet of paper down the middle and wrote on
the one side of the division. The answers were to be written on
the other and the sheet returned. By a pious fraud copies were
kept at Agreda. How far Maria was only the mouthpiece of the
Franciscans must of course be a matter of doubt. Her corre-
spondence was apparently suspended whenever her confessor was
absent. She must, however, have co-operated at least, and it is
certain that the Franciscans, who were very unfortunate in some
of their pious women, owed not a little to her. The letters are in
excellent Spanish, are curious reading, and are invaluable as
illustrations for the second part of the reign of Philip IV.

The correspondence of Sor Maria with the king has been published
in full by Don F. Siluela, Cartas de la Venerable Madre Sor Maria de
Agreda y del Senor Rey Don Filipe IV. (Madrid, 1885). The Mystic
City of God is one of the most characteristic monuments of Mariolatry,
and has continued to be much in favour with supporters of the dogma
of the Immaculate Conception. It appeared in Madrid in 1668, with
a biographical introduction by Samamego, has been often reprinted,
and was translated into French and Italian. It was for a time
reserved by the Index, both Spanish and Papal, but was taken off
by the influence of the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters
of the Immaculate Conception. An account of Maria de Agreda
will be found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 1706), vol. iii. ,
written by a competent critic and Anglican divine of the 1 8th century
who detested " enthusiasm." (D. H.)

AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719), German
landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon).
He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England,
HoUand and France, and residing for a considerable period at
Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are
remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful
representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his
style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and
colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found
in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and many
other towns of both Germany and Italy.

AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG
(1490-1555), German scholar and man of science, known as " the
father of mineralogy," was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the
24th of March 1490. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early
threw himself into the pursuit of the " new learning," with such
effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector exlra-
ordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of Zwickau, and
made his appearance as a writer on philology. After two years he
gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at Leipzig,
where, as rector, he received the powerful support of the pro-
fessor of classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), a celebrated
humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in corre-
spondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of medicine,
physics and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus he went
for a short time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree. On
his return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimstal, a
centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly " to
fill in the gaps in the art of healing," partly to test what had been
written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the
methods of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology
and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and
this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations
of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528.
Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus, the first attempt to
reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work,
brought Agricola into notice. In 1 530 Prince Maurice of Saxony
appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he
migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order
to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed
their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town
physician and electing him burgomaster. His popularity was,

however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the
Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his
allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his
office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of
the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest
was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with
medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his
chief historical work being the Dominatores Saxonici a prima
origins ad hanc aetatem, published at Freiberg. In 1544 he
published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid
the first foundations of a physical geology, and criticized the
theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the De natura eorum
quae effluunl e terra; in 1546 the De veteribus el novis metallis,
a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of
minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus subterraneis; and in the
two following years a number of smaller works on the metals.
His most famous work, the De re metallica, libri xii., was pub-
lished in 1556, though apparently finished several years before,
since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550.
It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and metallurgy,
illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and contain-
ing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical
terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work,
and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists
of his time. Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at
Stolpen to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to
it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been per-
manently incorporated in the vocabulary of science.

In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the
tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end
his days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catholic,
though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and
it is said that his life was ended by a fit of apoplexy brought on
by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine. He died at
Chemnitz on the 2ist of November 1555, and so violent was the
theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in
the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demon-
strations he was carried to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and
there buried.

See article by Giimbel in Allgem. Deutsche Biog. (1875);
F. L. Becher, Georg Agricola und Werner (Freiberg, 1819); F. A.
Schmidt, Georg Agricola's Bermannus mil Einleitung (Freiberg,
1806); Poggendorff, Biographisches Handworterbuch; Agricola s
works passim.

AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93), Roman states-
man and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was
born on the i3th of June A.D. 37 (according to others, 39) at
Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius
Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was
brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philo-
sophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) under
Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome,
where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of dis-
tinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68
praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he
immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was
appointed to the command of the 2oth legion in Britain, then
stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end
of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician,
and appointed governor of Aquitania (74-78) . Appointed consul
suffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college
of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year
he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of
Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post
for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to
Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civil-
ization of their conquerors. His military achievements were
equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North
Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two
years he carried his victorious arms to the Taiis (Tay; others
read Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth cam-
paign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the
firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of

AGRICOLA— AGRICULTURAL GANGS

38?

the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of Fife and
Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians unde:
Galgacus at the Graupian hill (see BRITAIN, Roman). His
successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion o:
Domitian. He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life o:
studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to
the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the
emperor's orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus
is practically a panegyric or funeral oration.

See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); Dio Cassius
xxxix. 50, Ixvi. 20; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire
(Eng. trans., 1886), i. 183-184, 194.

AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774), German
musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the
4th of January 1720. While a student of law at Leipzig he
studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went
to Berlin, where he studied musical composition. He was soon
generally recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his
time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, // Filosofo
connnto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court
composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the
ist of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich
Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra.
Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental
pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however,
on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. He
wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio.

AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER),
JOHANNES (1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born
n the 2Oth of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes
:alled Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he
>on gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied
uther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and
ted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in
ittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the re-
'ormed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month
hen he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as
cher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai
urch. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and
as welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a
utroversy, which had been begun ten years before and been
emporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever.
;ricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the
t to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian
?.».), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under
e Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under
ie gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with
uther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg secretly
Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector
Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of
;is obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems not to have so
cepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector
oachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour,
ppointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He
icld both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in
randenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along
ith Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael
elding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg
terim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adi-
.phoristic controversy (see ADIAPHORISTS). He died during an
idemic of plague on the 22iid of September 1566. Agricola
wrote a number of theological works which are now of little
interest. He was the first to make a collection of German
proverbs which he illustrated with a commentary. The most
mplete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty pro-
rbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one
that of Latendorf, 1862.

See Cordes, Joh. Agricola' s Schriften moglichst verzeichnet (Altona,
Life by G. Kawerau (1881), who also wrote the notice in
Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., where other literature is

ted.
AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was
rn about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr

pro
con

I

or Sore. From 1524 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, whera
he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant
school. The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg,
was a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing
valuable material concerning the change from the old to the
new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the
first to harmonize in four parts Luther's chorale, Bin' feste Burg.

Four other Agricolas1 are known as composers between the
end of the isth century and the middle of the lyth.

In the i8th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour
in Germany (1772), much impressed by JOHANN FRIEDRICH
AGRICOLA (1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal
chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of
Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially
on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be
raised by French writers_aud composers in preparation for the
work of Gluck.

AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN)
(1443-1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near.Groningcn, in
1443- He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as
master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went
in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the
celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek language.
Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native
country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic
of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation'of Johann von Dalberg,
bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he had gained
in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and for
three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the litera-
ture of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more
than by his writings he did much for the promotion of learning
in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation
immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his
opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree antici-
pated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his
pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the
28th of October 1485. His principal work is De inventione
dialectica, libri Hi., in which he attempts to change the scholastic
philosophy of the day.

See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen,
1830); y. Bezold, R. Agricola (Miinchen, 1884); and Ihm, Der
Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben and seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893).

AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys
organized by an independent gang-master, under whose super-
vision they execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain
parts of England. They are sometimes called " public gangs "
to distinguish them from " private gangs " consisting of workers
engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for
turn, under his own supervision or under that of one of his men.
The system was for long prevalent in the counties of Cambridge-
shire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk
and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much modified form in
the fen district. The practice dates from the latter years of the
reign of George III., when the low-lying, marshy lands surround-
"ng the basin of the Wash were being rapidly drained and con-
verted into rich alluvial districts. The unreformed condition of
the poor-law, under which the support of the poor fell upon each
individual parish, instead of a union of parishes, made landlords
reluctant to erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit
of their tenants. Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation
of these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys, being
cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely
employed. The tendency to moral and physical ruin which
resulted from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into
the condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the
reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862,
and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs
Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child
under eight years old, and of any female under a male gang-
master unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also
1 Alexander, died 1506; Johann, flor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph,
lor. 1630; and George Lucfwig, 1643-1676.

388

AGRICULTURE

[ANCIENT SYSTEMS

present. Gang-masters must be licensed by two justices, and
may not hold a liquor license. The distance to be traversed
on foot is fixed by the justices, and the licenses must be renewed
every six months. Later legislation made more stringent the
regulations under which children are employed in agricultural
gangs. By the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and
re-enacting the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children)
Act 1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven
years, and none between eleven years and thirteen years before
the child has obtained a certificate of having reached the
standard of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district.

AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ager, field, and colere, to cultivate),
the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil so as to produce
the means of human subsistence, embracing in its widest sense
the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of crops. The
history of agriculture is the history of man in his most primitive,
and most permanent aspect. Hence the nations of antiquity
ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma in Hindustan, Isis in
Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in Italy, were its founders.
The simplest form of agriculture is that in which crops are raised
from one patch of ground till it is exhausted, when it is allowed
to go wild and abandoned for another. This " extensive "
husbandry is found in combination with a nomadic or semi-
nomadic and pastoral organization, such as that of the German
tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus (see especially Germania,
26). The discovery of the uses of the bare fallow and of manure,
by making it possible to raise crops from the same area for an
indefinite period, marks a stage of progress. This " intensive "
culture in a more or less developed form was practised by the
great nations of antiquity, and little decided advance was made
till after the middle ages. The introduction of new plants, which
made it possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later
the application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils,
plant constituents and manures, brought abcjut a revolution
in farming. But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the
production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is
due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is the
work of modern times. What before was done in the light of
experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge. Even
the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the practice
of the fundamental processes of husbandry — ploughing, manur-
ing, sowing, weeding, reaping. It is the improvements in methods,
implements and materials, brought about by the application
of science, that distinguish the husbandry of the 2oth century
from that of medieval and ancient times.

Ancient Husbandry. — The monumental records of Egypt are
the source of the earliest information on farming. The Egypt
Egypt °f *ne Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed
either by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the
superintendence of stewards. It owed its fertility to the Nile,
which, inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by
means of canals over more distant portions of its valley. The
autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow
ploughing performed by oxen yoked to clumsy wooden ploughs,
the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by hand.
Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into the soil by
the feet of sheep which were driven over the fields. At harvest
the corn was cut high on the stalk with short sickles and put
up in sheaves, after which it was carried to the threshing-floor
and there trodden out by the hoofs of oxen. Winnowing was
done by women, who tossed the grain into the air with small
wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the winds. Wheat
and barley were the chief crops, and another plant, perhaps
identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of modern Egypt, was also
cultivated. The latter, when ripe, was pulled up by the roots,
and the grain was separated by means of an implement re-
sembling a comb. To these crops may be added peas, beans
and many herbs and esculent roots. Oxen were much prized,
and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to selection.
Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared.

Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle were
sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures of

the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen. They
were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at other
times tethered in meadows of green clover. The flocks were
shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic
countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also EGYPT.)

The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and
Euphrates, like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation,
and traces of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia.
But beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were
large producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry.

The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent
upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper.
The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary Blbllcal
circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During accounts
the summer they frequented the mountainous districts, among
and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of the
sheep and of jjoat constituted their wealth, although
they also possessed oxen. When the last were abundant,
it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised.
Job, besides immense possessions in flocks and herds, had
500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in ploughing, and a " very
great husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral
husbandry, and that with success, for " he sowed in the land
Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold " — a return which, it would
appear, in some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the
labour of the husbandman. In the parable of the sower, Jesus
Christ mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold.

Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the
Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of
antiquity. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law,
based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult males,
a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into
Canaan. Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assigning
(according to different calculations) from sixteen to twenty-five
acres of land to each. This land, held in direct tenure from
Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory inalienable. The
accumulation of debt upon it was prevented by the prohibition
of interest, the release of debts every seventh year, and the
reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return
of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated
them with much care, and rendered them highly productive.
They were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which
their skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones
were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered
from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks and
streams with which the country " was well watered everywhere,"
and enriched by the application of manures. The seventh year's
fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further
enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth
of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat,
millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is supposed, on
grounds not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The
chief implements were a wooden plough of simple and light
construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light harrow. The ox
and the ass were used for labour. The word "oxen," which
occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septua-
gint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As
the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were
in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke
of oxen in one day was called a yoke or acre. Towards the
end of October, with which month the rainy season begins, seed-
time commenced, and of course does so still. The seedtime,
begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other white
crops, through November and December; and barley continues
to be sown until about the middle of February. The seed
appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other
times to have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds
which prevail in January and February frequently injured
the crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The
rainy season extends from October to April, during which time
refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and generally
at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earlier or later as

ANCIENT SYSTEMS]

AGRICULTURE

389

wh

•1

the rains towards the end of the season were more or less copious.
It, however, generally began in April, and continued through
May for the different crops in succession. In the south, and in
the plains, the harvest, as might be expected, commenced some
weeks earlier than in the northern and mountainous districts.
The slopes of the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated
wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive
were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for
numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of
a mixed husbandry. Not by a figure of speech but literally, every
Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and fig-tree;
whilst the country as a whole is described (2 Kings xviii.32)as
a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land
oil olive and of honey."

The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based
chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation. The agri-
Oreece culture of classical ages was slightly more developed in
so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less
able to leave to nature the fertilization of the soil. Greece being
a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine
rather than to that of cereals. Scanty, information on its agri-
culture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod (about
the 8th century B.C.), the Oeconomicus of Xenophon (4th century
B.C.), the History of Plants and the Origin of Plants of Theo-
phrastus (4th century B.C.). The latter is the first writer on
botany, and his works also contain interesting remarks on
manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural topics (see
also GEOPONICI). Greek husbandry had no salient character-
istics. The summer fallow with repeated ploughing was its basis.
The young crop was hoed, reaping was performed with a sickle,
and a high stubble left on the ground as manure. The methods
of threshing and winnowing were the same as those in use in
ancient Egypt. Wheat, barley and spelt were the leading crops.
Meadows were pastured rather than mown. Attica was famous
for its oh'ves and figs, but general agriculture excelled in Pelo-
ponnesus, where, by means of irrigation and drainage, all the
available land was utilized.

In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held
.rgely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed
and classed with war as an occupation becoming a free
man. The story of Cincinnatus, twice summoned from
ie plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates the status
the Roman husbandman. The later tendency was towards the
absorption of smaller holdings into large estates. As wealth
increased the peasant-farmer gave way before the large land-
owner, who cultivated his property by means of slave-labour,
superintended by slave-bailiffs. The low price of grain, which
is imported in huge quantities from Sicily and other Roman
ivinces, operated to crush the small holder, at the same time
as it made arable farming unremunerative. Sheep-raising,
involving larger holdings, less supervision and less labour, was
•eferred by the capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the
'heat, spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the
•untry. Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for
"odder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied hay.
Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater extent than
oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing. The following
epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman in the first book of
the Georgics suggests the outline of Roman husbandry: " First
learn the peculiarities of your soil and climate. Plough the
fallow in early spring, and plough frequently — twice in winter,
twice in summer unless your land is poor, when a light ploughing
in September will do. Either let the land lie fallow every other
year or else let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine. Repetition
of one crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the
strain, only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with
manure or ashes. It often does good to burn the stubble on the
ground. Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross
ploughing, work the land thoroughly. Irrigation benefits a sandy
soil, draining a marshy soil. It is well to feed down a luxuriant
crop when the plants are level with the ridge tops. Geese and

cranes, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, caltrops, darnel and
shade are farmer's enemies. Scare off the birds, harrow up the
weeds, cut down all that shades the crop. Ploughs, waggons,
threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, hurdles, winnowing-fans are
the farmer's implements. The plough consists of several parts
made of seasoned wood. The threshing-floor must be smooth and
rammed hard to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to
get through. Some steep seed in soda and oil lees to get a larger
produce. Careful annual selection by hand of the best seed is the
only way to prevent degeneration. It is best to mow stubble and
hay at night when they are moist."

In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other
manures, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the Romans.
The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, characterized
their husbandry comes out well in the following quotation from
the i8th book of the Natural History of Pliny: — " Cato would
have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm
be good and fertile; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers
and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have
sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or
land. Also that the house be well built, and the land about it as
well managed. They are in error who hold the opinion that the
negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his
successor. Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and
disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of
heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one
who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise and make
light of the skill and knowledge of another."

Roman writers on agriculture (see GEOPONICI) are more
numerous than those of Greece. The earliest important treatises
are the De re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) and the Rerum
Rusticarum Libri of Varro. More famous than either are the
Georgicsoi Virgil, published about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage,
horticulture, cattle-breeding and bee-keeping. The works of
Columella (ist century A.D.) and of Palladius (4th century A.D.)
are exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder
Pliny (A.D. 23-70) contains considerable information on hus-
bandry. Under the later empire agriculture sank into a condition
of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark Ages. In
Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by them, and their
successors the Moors, agriculture was carried to a high pitch of
excellence. The work on agriculture1 of Ibn-al-Awam, who
lived in the i2th century A.D., treats of the varieties of soils,
manuring, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, harvesting, stock,
horticulture, arboriculture and plant diseases, and is a lasting
record of their skill and industry. •

The subsequent history of agriculture is treated in the following
pages primarily from the British standpoint. Doubtless Flanders
may claim to be the pioneer of " high farming " in medieval
times, other countries following her lead in many respects. It is
not, however, necessary to deal with the agricultural evolution of
continental Europe, the gradual progress of agriculture as a whole
being well enough typified in the story of its development in
England, which indeed has led the way in modern times. After
sections on the history and chief modern features of British
agriculture, a separate account is given of the general features of
American agriculture.

HISTORY OF ENGLISH AGRICULTURE

The " combined " or " common-field " system of husbandry
practised by the village community or township (see VILLAGE
COMMUNITIES) may be taken as the starting-point of English
agriculture, in which, till the end of the i8th century, it is a
dominant influence. The territory of the " township " consisted
of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste. The arable land
was divided into two or, more usually, three fields, which were
cut up into strips bounded by balks and allotted to the villagers
in such a way that one holding might include several discon-
nected strips in each field — a measure designed to prevent the
whole of the best land falling to one man. The fields were fenced
in from seed-time to harvest, after which the fences were taken
1 Translation by Clement-Mullet (Paris, 1864).

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down and the cattle turned in to feed on the stubble. Accord-
ing to early methods of cropping, which were destined to prevail
for centuries, wheat, the chief article of food, was sown in one
autumn, reaped the next August; the following spring, oats or
barley were sown, and the year following the harvest was a
period of fallow. This procedure was followed on each of the
three fields so that in every year one of them was fallow. In
addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown to
some extent. The meadow-land was also divided into strips
from which the various holders drew their supply of hay. The
pasture-land was common to all, though the number of beasts
which one man might turn into it was sometimes limited.
Rough grazing could also be had on the outlying waste lands.
In the absence of artificial grasses and roots, hay was very
valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for live
stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring.

Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the
Norman Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained,
but the position of the cultivator was radically altered.
" Villeins," instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous
class of the population. They were bound to the soil and occu-
pied holdings of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate
or 30 acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly
in kind. A portion of the manor, generally about a third, con-
stituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes separate,
usually consisted of strips intermingled with those of his villeins.
It thus formed part of the common farm and was cultivated by
the villeins and their oxen under the superintendence of a
bailiff. Below the villeins in the social scale came the cottiers
possessing smaller holdings, sometimes only a garden, and no
oxen. Free tenants and, after the Norman Conquest, slaves
formed small proportions of the population. During the middle
ages cattle and sheep were the chief farm animals, but the inter-
mixture of stock consequent on the common-field system was
a barrier to improvement in the breed and conduced to the
propagation of disease. Oxen, usually yoked in teams of eight,
were used for ploughing. Sheep were small and their fleeces
light, nevertheless, owing to the meagreness of the yields of
cereals' and the demand for wool for export, sheep-farming
was looked to, as early as the 1 2th century, as the chief source
of profit. Pigs and poultry were universally kept. The treatise
on husbandry of Walter of Henley, dating from the early i3th
century, is very valuable as describing the management of the
demesne under the two- or three-field system. The following
are typical passages: —

' " April is a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks up behind
the plough ; for second fallowing after St John's Day when the dust
rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing when the earth is well
settled and not too cracked; however, the busy man cannot be
always waiting on the seasons." " At sowing do not plough large
furrows, but little and well laid together, that the seed may fall
evenly."

" Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings,
except lands that are sown each year, and that each ploughing costs
6d. more or less and the harrowing id. It is well to sow at least two
bushels to the acre."

" Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown
on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own."

" Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless
you need it for thatching. Have manure put up in heaps and mixed
with earth."

" Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off."

During the I3th century there arose a tendency to commute
labour-rents for money payments. This change led to the
gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage — the villeins and
cottiers — and the rise on the one hand of the small independent
farmer, on the other of the hired labourer. The plague of 1348
marks an epoch in English agriculture. The diminution of the
population by one-half led to a scarcity of labour and an increase
of wages which deprived the landowner of his narrow margin
of profit. To meet this situation, the Statute of Labourers
(1351) enacted that no man should refuse to work at the same
rate of wages as prevailed before the plague. In addition the

1 Walter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory
crop.

landowners attempted to revive the disappearing system of
labour-rents. The bitter feelings engendered between em-
ployer and employed culminated in the peasants' revolt of 1381.
Meanwhile large numbers of landowners were forced to adopt
one of two alternatives. In some cases they ceased to farm their
own land and let it out on lease often together with the stock
upon it; or else they abandoned arable culture, laid down their
demesnes to pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted them-
selves to sheep-farming. In the latter course they were en-
couraged by the high prices of wool during the i4th century, and
by Edward III.'s policy of fostering both the export of wool and
the home manufacture of woollen goods. The i5th century,
barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was -in its early
years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing abandon-
ment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought about a
less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was accelerated
as the peasant was deprived of his grazing-ground by the en-
closure of more and more of the waste land.2

From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the end of
Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the encourage-
ment of tillage, though probably to little purpose. Agrlcul.
" Where in some towns," says the statute 4th tun under
Henry VII. (1488), " two hundred persons were occu- the Tudor*
pied and lived of their lawful labours, now there are **"'
occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall
into idleness"; therefore it is ordained that houses which
within three years have been let for farms, with twenty acres
of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under
the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the king
or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century afterwards the
practice had become still more alarming; and in 1534 a new
act was tried, apparently with as little success. " Some have
24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some
4000, and some more and some less "; and yet it is alleged the
price of wool had nearly doubled, " sheep being come to a few
persons' hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who
kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in farm more
than two tenements of husbandry. By the 3Qth Elizabeth (1597)
arable land made pasture since the ist Elizabeth shall be again
converted into tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted
into pasture.

The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise
of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the i6th
century. The best of the early works is the Book of Husbandry
(ist ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony Fitzherbert,
a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of Henry VIII., but
more probably written by his elder brother John. This was
followed by the Book of Surveying and Improvements (1523), by the
same author. In the former treatise we have a clear and minute
description of the rural practices of that period, and from the
latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal
system in its decline.

The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the plough
and other implements, after which about a third part of it is
occupied with the several operations as they succeed one another
throughout the year. Among other passages in this part of the
work, the following deserve notice: —

"Somme (ploughs) wyll tournthe sheld bredith at every landsende,
and plowe all one way ' ; the same kind of plough that is now found
so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, that
"they be good on even grounde that lyeth lyghte "; and on such
lands they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheels were
sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. On the
much agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen
in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated.

" In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better," and in
others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre-
ference. Beans and peas seem to have been common crops. He
mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats; and after
describing the method of harrowing " all maner of cornnes," we
find the roller employed. "They used to role their barley grounde

2 This process of enclosure must be distinguished from that of
enclosing the arable common fields which, though advocated by
Fitzherbert in a passage quoted below proceeded slowly till the
i 8th century.

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AGRICULTURE

391

after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even to mowe." Under
the article " To falowe," he observes, " the greater clottes (clods) the
better wheate, for the clottes kepe the wheat warme all wynter; and
at March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small peces,
the whiche is a new dongynge and refreshynge of the corne." This
is agreeable to the present practice, founded on the very same
reasons. " In May, the shepe fplde is to be set out " ; but Fitzherbert
does not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages
in a very judicious manner. " In the latter end of May and the
begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne " ; and then we have
an accurate description of the different weeds, and the instruments
and mode of weeding. Next conies a second ploughing of the fallow ;
and afterwards, in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows
begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes and the hay-
making there is a very good account. The corn harvest naturally
follows : rye and wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut
with the scythe. The writer does not approve of the common
practice of cutting wheat high and then mowing the stubbles. " In
Somersetshire," he says, " they do shere theyr wheat very lowe; and
the wheate strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not
threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and call it rede,
and therewith they thacke theyr houses." He recommends the
practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight,
instead of ten sheaves as at present — probably owing to the straw
being then shorter. The corn was commonly housed; but if there
be a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a scaffold
and not upon the ground. The fallow received a third ploughing in
September, and was sown about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost
commonlye sowne under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the
falowe, and then plpwe it under"; and this branch of his subject
is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing and other
kinds of barn-work.

Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. " An housbande," he
says, " can not well thryue by his corne without he have other
cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. And bycause that shepe, in
myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can
haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe." His remarks
on this subject are so accurate that one might imagine they came
from a storemaster of the present day.

In some places at present "they neuer seuertheir lambesfrom their
dammes " ; " and the poore of the peeke (high) countre'ye, and such
other places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to
wayne theyr lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue
or syxe weekes " ; but that, he observes, " is greate hurte to the ewes,
and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tyme
of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." " In June is tyme to
shere shepe ; and ere they be shorne, they must be verye well washen,
the which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of his wool,
and also to the clothe-maker."

His remarks on horses, cattle, &c., are not less interesting; and
there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and some
just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the
same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work.

The author then points out the great advantages of enclosure;
recommends " quycksettynge, dychynge and hedgeyng "; and gives
particular directions about settes, and the method of training a hedge,
as well as concerning the planting and management of trees. Fitz-
herbert throws some light on the position of women in the agri-
culture of his day. "It is a wyues occupation," he says, " to wynowe
all maner of cornes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make
heye, shere corne, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande to
fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode
heye, corne and suche other; and to go or ride to the market to sel
butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese,
and all maner of cornes."

The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge
of the rural economy ol that age. " Four maner of commens "
are described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes,
and also " quernes that goo with hand"; different orders of
tenants, down to the " boundmen," who " in some places con-
tynue as yet "; " and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be
many freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is
taken from them." Lime and marl are mentioned as common
manures, and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to
destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though
the latter but slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry
" how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere,
worth XX. li. a year," advocating the transition from communal
or open field to individual or enclosure farming.

" It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in
tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable landes to plowe and
sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses and mares upon, and
common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes and shepe
upon; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon.
Than to let it be known how many acres of errable lande euery man
hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with

his neyghbours, and to leve them toguyther, and to make hym one
seuerall close in euery felde for his errable lands; and his leyse in
euery felde to leve them togyther in one felde, and to make one seuerall
close for them all. And also another seuerall close for his portion
of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his medowe in a
seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seureall both in wynter and
somer; and euery cottage shall haue his portion assigned hym
accordynge to his rent, and than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse
the poore man with his cattell ; and euery man may eate his oun
close at his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will
find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, and
better they shall lyke. For those beestis in the house have short
heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle and be bare ;
and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen
in winter tyme for colde. And those that lye in a close undera hedge
haue longe heare and thyck, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare ;
and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse so many catell
as he did before.

" This is the cause of this apprpwment. Nowe euery husbande
hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his
leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, and the sixte for his haye ;
and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and than
hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that he
hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer.
And when he hath mowen his medowe, then he hath his medowe
grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be amended,
or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the
which is a great advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than
wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the
medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the rych men that hath
moche catell wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have
no help nor relefe in wynter when he hath moste nede ; and if an
acre of lande be wort he sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth
VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and
dpngyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and
nighte; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be
worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his close that
he hadde for his layse, or the close that he hadde for his commen
pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye
for a time, and so shall he have always reist grounde, the which will
bear moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great
profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only
these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche
more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate,
drinke and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and
the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge-
able as all his holle rente; and also his corne shall be better saved
from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For dout ye nat but heerde-
men with their catell, shepeherdes with theirshepe, and tieng of horses
and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save.
Paraduenture some men would say that this shuld be against the
common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen and swyne-herdes
shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered,
though these occupations be not used, there be as many newe
occupations that were not used before ; as getting of quicke settes,
diching, hedging and plashing, the which the same men may use
and occupye."

The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is
Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,
published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 Lord
Molesworth recommended that it should be taught in schools.
In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and then
follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages more.
It is written in verse. Amidst much that is valueless there are
some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the
time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been intro-
duced in the early part of the i6th century, and on the culture
of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are
mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after
barley. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. En-
closures must have been numerous in some counties; and there
is a very good comparison between " champion (open fields)
country and several," which Blith afterwards transcribed into
his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape,
not yet cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs
and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser
about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works.

In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated,
with augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach. Much
stress is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of
clover.

Fitzherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the
practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar

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in modern times of tenants " who, if they should marl and make
their holdings much better, fear lest they should be put out,
or make a great fine or else pay more rent." This subject is
treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue (ist
ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding notice. The
author, writing from the landowner's point of view, ascribes the
rise in rents and the rise in the price of corn1 to the " emulation "
of tenants in competing for holdings, a practice implying that
the agriculture of the period was prosperous. Norden's work
contains many judicious observations on the " different natures
of grounds, how they may be employed, how they may be
bettered, reformed and amended." The famous meadows near
Salisbury are mentioned, where, when cattle have fed their fill,
hogs, it is said, " are made fat with the remnant — namely, with
the knots and sappe of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse
honey suckle " (white clover), is directed to be sown with other
hay seeds. " Carrot rootes " were then raised in several parts
of England, and sometimes by farmers. London street and
stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and appears from
later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing.
Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of small capital
as better than employing it in purchasing land. The works of
Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel Plattes and other
authors of the first half of the i yth century may be passed over,
the best part of them being preserved by Blith and Hartlib, who
are referred to below.

Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant
and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, ar>d its title
indicates the source to which England owed much of its sub-
sequent agricultural advancement. Weston was ambassador
from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the merit
of being the first who introduced the great clover, as it was then
called, 'into English agriculture, about 1652, and probably turnips
also. Clover thrives best, he says, when you sow it on the
barrenest ground, such as the worst heath ground in England.
The ground is to be pared and burnt, and unslacked lime must
be added to the ashes. It is next to be well ploughed and
harrowed; and about 10 Ib of clover seed must be sown on
an acre in April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve
seed, then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full
and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five bushels
per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; the land, when
ploughed, will yield, three or four years together, rich crops of
wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is
to be sown again. It is in itself an excellent manure. Sir Richard
adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this treatment.
Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present
method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had
also made its way to Ireland.

A great many works on agriculture appeared during the
time of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver
Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legacie are the most valuable.
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and of the
latter in 1651; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent
editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved no
mention is made of clover, nor in the second of turnips, but in the
third, clover is treated of at some length, and turnips are recom-
mended as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir Richard
Weston must have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith
says that Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine
with them. They were first given boiled, but afterwards the
swine came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and
pull them forth as they gathered them — an expression which
conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields.

Blith's book is the first systematic work in which there are
some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of interposing
clover and turnip between culmiferous crops. He is a great
enemy to commons and common fields, and to retaining land in

1 During the i6th century wheat had risen in price, and between
1606 and 1618 never fell below 305. a quarter. At the same time
wages remained low.

old pasture, unless it be of the best quality. His description of
the different kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he justly
recommends such as were drawn by two horses (some even by
one horse) in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines
which required four or more horses or oxen. The following
passage indicates the contemporary theory of manuring: — " In
thy tillage are these special opportunities to improve it, either
by liming, marling, sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-coddihg,
mucking, chalking, pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or
by any other means as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by
pitch marks, and tarry stuff, any oyly stuff, salt and many
things more, yea indeed any thing almost that hath any liquid-
ness, foulness, saltness or good moysture in it, is very natural!
inrichment to almost any sort of land." Blith speaks of an
instrument which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same
time; and the setting of corn was then a subject of much dis-
cussion. Blith was a zealous advocate of drainage and holds
that drains to be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft. deep.
The drainage of the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted
during the i;th century, but lack of engineering skill and the
opposition of the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now
fertile region.

Hartlib's Legacie contains, among some very judicious direc-
tions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies
which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be
placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can
be supplied. Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable
to the state of the country, and display more of general.knowledge
and good intention than of either the theory or practice of
agriculture. Among the subjects deserving notice may be
mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a
preventive of smut; changing every year the species of grain,
and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down green
crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and chaff.
This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about the
advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. " It were no
losse to this island," he says, " if that we should not plough at
all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at a reasonable
rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures of wool "; and
one reason for this is, that pasture employs more hands than
tillage, instead of depopulating the country, as was commonly
imagined. The grout, which he mentions as " coming over to us
in Holland ships," about which he desires information, was
probably the same as shelled barley; and mills for manufac-
turing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards
the beginning of the i8th century.

Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention
must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn,
both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in
high estimation.

The first half of the tyth century was a period of agricultural
activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed farms.
Marling and liming are again practised, new agricultural imple-
ments and manures introduced, and the new crops more widely
used. But the Civil War and the subsequent political disturb-
ances intervened to prevent the continuance of this progress, and
the agriculture of the end of the century seems to have relapsed
into stagnation.

Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the i6th and the greater
part of the i7th century very little is known; no professed
treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution. Scottish
The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, agri-
and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very culture at
wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the eastern ^/(//£.
coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no
fallow ground in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they
manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be very lazy, and
may be frequently observed to plough in their cloaks. It is the
fashion of them to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especi-
ally on Sundays. They have neither good bread, cheese nor
drink. They cannot make them, nor will they learn. Their
butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how they could

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contrive to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of
coal-wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built of
stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one room, many
of them no chimneys, the windows very small holes and not
glazed. The ground in the valleys and plains bear very good
corn, but especially bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely
wheat and rye."

It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland
from the end of the i sth century, except that tenants gradually
became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of having
their farm stocked by the landlord. " The minority of James V.,
the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars
of her grandson Charles I. , were all periods of lasting waste. The
very laws which were made during successive reigns for protecting
the tillers of the soil from spoil are the best proofs of the deplor-
able state of the husbandman."1

In the 1 7th century those laws were made which paved the way
for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland. By a statute
of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes valued,
and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, according
to the nature of the property. The statute of 1685, conferring on
landlords a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very
different tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. But the
two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons and separation of
intermixed properties, facilitated improvements.

From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as might
be imagined from the great exportation of corn. It
ofagricat- is probable that very little improvement had taken
tare from place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the
'*** '° management of live stock, from the Restoration down
to the middle of the i8th century. Clover and turnips
were confined to a few districts, and at the latter period were
scarcely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern
part of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, it is
necessary to notice only such as describe some improvement in
the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that were
formerly little known.

In John Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a
periodical work begun in 1681 , there is one of the earliest notices of
turnips being eaten by sheep: — " Some in Essex have their fallow
after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, by which means
the turnips are scooped, and so made capable to hold dews and
rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the nitre of the air, and
when the shell breaks it runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the
sheep, the land is dunged as if it had been folded; and those
turnips, though few or none be carried off for human use, are a
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so, though they
only plough the turnips in without feeding." This was written
in February 1694. Ten years before, John Worlidge, one of his
correspondents, and the author of the Sy sterna A griculturae ( 1 669) ,
observes, " Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an
excellent nourishment for them in haM winters when fodder is
scarce; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots
in the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin. Ten
acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many
sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done."

The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole Art
of Husbandry, a regular, systematic work of considerable merit,
was published in 1707.

From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that
:lover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that
this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very
common about the beginning of the i8th .century, wherever
clover was cultivated. Rye-grass was now sown along with it.
Turnips were hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding
sheep and cattle.

The first considerable improvement in the practice of that

(riod was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire,
10 about the year 1701 invented the drill, and. whose Horse-
1 Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732.

hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits the first decided
step in advance upon the principles and practices of his pre-
decessors. Not contented with a careful attention to details,
Tull set himself, with admirable skill and perseverance, to
investigate the growth of plants, and thus to arrive at a know-
ledge of the principles by which the cultivation of field-crops
should be regulated. Having arrived at the conclusion that the
food of plants consists of minute particles of earth taken up by
their rootlets, it followed that the more thoroughly the soil in
which they grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would
be the "pasture" (as he called it) to which their fibres would
have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing
his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the
intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until
they had well-nigh arrived at maturity. Such reliance did he
place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many as
thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure.

As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than
was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he begins
by showing that these roots extend much farther than is com-
monly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the nature of
their food. After examining several hypotheses, he decides this
to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use
of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve " this
terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths of
vegetable roots "; and this can be done more completely by
tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pulverize the soil
by repeated ploughings before it be seeded, but, as it becomes
gradually more and more compressed afterwards, recourse must
be had to tillage while the plants are growing; and this is hoeing,
which also destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of
their nourishment.

The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice of
laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., and upon
the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows, distant
from one another about 7 in. when there were three, and 10 in.
when only two. The distance of the plants on one ridge from
those on the contiguous one he called an interval; the distance
between the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition; the
former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by
the hand-hoe.

" Hoeing," he says, " may be divided into deep, which is our
horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing;
and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt
rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches.
This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succenadeum to
it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, and may
be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his mode of forming
ridges his practice seems to have been original; his implements,
especially his drill, display much ingenuity; and his claim to
the title of founder of the present horse-hoeing husbandry of
Great Britain seems indisputable.

Contemporary with Tull was Charles, 2ndViscountTownshend,
a typical representative of the large landowners to whom the
strides made by agriculture in the i8th century were due. The
class to which he belonged was the only one which could afford
to initiate improvements. The bulk of the land was still farmed
by small tenants on the old common-field system, which made
it impossible for the individual to adopt a new crop rotation and
hindered innovation of every kind. On the other hand, the small
farmers who occupied separated holdings were deterred from
improving by the fear of a rise in rent. Townshend's belief in
the growing of turnips gained him the nickname of " Turnip
Townshend." In their cultivation he adopted Tull's practice
of drilling and horse-hoeing, and he was also the founder of the
Norfolk or four-course system, the first of those rotations which
dispense with the necessity of a summer-fallow and provide
winter-keep for live-stock (see below, Rotation of Crops), The
spread of these principles in Norfolk made it, according to Arthur
Young (writing in 1770), one of the best cultivated counties in
England. In the latter half of the century another Norfolk
farmer, Thomas William Coke of Holkham, earl of Leicester,

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(1752-1842), figures as a pioneer of high-farming. He was one
of the first to use oil-cake and bone-manure, to distinguish the
feeding values of grasses, to appreciate to the full the beneficial
effects of stock on light lands and to realize the value of long
leases as an incentive to good farming.

Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the end of
the 1 7th century, we are almost entirely ignorant. The first
... work, written by James Donaldson, was printed in

culture la 1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or,
Scotland an Inquiry into the Present Manner of Tilling and
la the 18th Manuring the Ground in Scotland. It appears from
this treatise that the state of the art was not more
advanced at that time in North Britain than it had been
in England in the time of Fitzherbert. Farms were divided
into infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another with-
out the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage or turnips,
though something is said about fallowing the outfield; en-
closures were very rare; the tenantry had not begun to emerge
from a state of great poverty and depression; and the wages of
labour, compared with the price of corn, were much lower than
at present, though that price, at least in ordinary years, must
appear extremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of
years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of capital
rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt any spirited
improvements.

The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is The Country-
man's Rudiments, or an Advice to the Farmers in East Lothian,
how to labour and improve their Grounds, said to have been written
by John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven about the time of the
Union, and reprinted in 1723. The author bespeaks the favour
of those to whom he addresses himself in the following significant
terms: — " Neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditching,
marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, watering and
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, and
very agreeable with the soil and situation of East Lothian, but
I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of improvements, this
being only intended to initiate you in the true method and
principles of husbandry." The farm-rooms in East Lothian,
as in other districts, were divided into infield and outfield.

" The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the
tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, viz. one
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease and one of oats, so that the
wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley after the wheat and the
oats after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use of
promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis
also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds ; and sometimes,
when they have much of it, they fanch or fallow a part of it yearly."

Under this management the produce seems to have been
three times the seed ; and yet, says the writer, " if in East
Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in other places
of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a much worse con-
dition than at present they are, though bad enough." " A good
crop of corn makes a good stubble, and a good stubble is the
equalest mucking that is." Among the advantages of enclosures,
he observes, " you will gain much more labour from your ser-
vants, a great part of whose time was taken up in gathering
thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their
stables; and thereby the great trampling and pulling up and
other destruction of the corns while they are yet tender will
be prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be
sown in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem to have
been in use. Rents were paid in corn; and for the largest farm,
which he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the
rent was about six chalders of victual " when the ground is very
good, and four in that which is not so good. But I am most fully
convinced they should take long leases or tacks, that they may
not be straitened with time in the improvement of their rooms;
and this is profitable both for master .and tenant."

Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the early
part of the i8th century. The first attempts at improvement
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title
of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in

Scotland. John, 2nd earl of Stair, one of their most active
members, is said to have been the first who cultivated turnips in
that country. The Select Transactions of this society were
collected and published in 1743 by Robert Maxwell, who took a
large part in its proceedings. It is evident from this book
that the society had exerted itself with success in intro-
ducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving
the former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe
that the influence of the example of its numerous members did
not extend to the common tenantry, who not unnaturally were
reluctant to adopt the practices of those by whom farming was
perhaps regarded as primarily a source of pleasure rather than
of profit. Though this society, the earliest probably in the
United Kingdom, soon counted upwards of 300 members, it
existed little more than 20 years.

In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection we are told
that—

" The practice of draining, enclosing, summer fallowing, sowing
flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, planting cabbages after,
and potatoes with, the plough, in fields of great extent, is introduced ;
and that, according to the general opinion, more corn grows now
yearly where it was never known to grow before, these twenty years
last past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in use
to produce at any time before."

In 1757 Maxwell issued another work entitled The Practical
Husbandman; being a collection of Miscellaneous papers on
Husbandry, &c. In it the greater part of the Select Transactions
is republished, with a number of new papers, among which an
Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for the im-
provement of it, is the most valuable. In this he lays it down
as a rule that it is bad husbandry to take two crops of grain
successively, which marks a considerable progress in the know-
ledge of modern husbandry; though he adds that in Scotland
the best husbandmen after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after
the wheat, peas; then barley, and then oats; and after that
they fallow again. The want of enclosures was still a matter of
complaint. The ground continued to be cropped so long as it
produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented with four
seeds, which was more than the general produce.

The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon after
the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popula-
tion and of wealth derived from manufactures and lsig
commerce, gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry,
augmented agricultural capital and called forth a more skilful and
enterprising race of farmers.

A more rational system of cropping now began to take the
place of the thriftless and barbarous practice of sowing succes-
sive crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and then
leaving it foul with weeds to recover its power by an indefinite
period of rest. Green crops, such as turnips, clover and rye
grass, began to be alternated with grain crops, whence the name
alternate husbandry.

The writings of Arthur Young (<?.».)> secretary to the Board
of Agriculture, describe the transition from the old to the new
agriculture. In many places turnips and clover were still
unknown or ignored. Large districts still clung to the old
common-field system, to the old habits of ploughing with
teams of four or eight, and to slovenly methods of cultivation.
Young's condemnation of these survivals was as pronounced as
his support of the methods of the large farmers to whom he
ascribed the excellence of the husbandry of Kent, Norfolk and
Essex. He realized that with the enclosure of the waste lands
and the absorption of small into large holdings, the common-
field farmer must migrate to the town or become a hired labourer;
but he also realized that to feed a rapidly growing industrial
population, the land must be improved by draining, marling,
manuring and the use of better implements, in short by the
investment of the capital which the yeoman farmer, content to
feed himself and his own family, did not possess. The enlarge-
ment of farms, and in Scotland the letting of them under leases
for a considerable term of years, continued to be a marked feature
in the agricultural progress of the country until the end of the
century, and is to be regarded both as a cause and a consequence

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of that progress. The passing of some 3500 enclosure bills, affect-
ing between 5 and 55 million acres, during the reign of George
III., before which the whole number was between 200 and 250,
shows how rapidly the break-up of the common-field husbandry
and the cultivation of new land now proceeded. The disastrous
American War for a time interfered with the national prosperity;
but with the return of peace in 1783 the cultivation of the
country made more rapid progress. The quarter of a century
immediately following 1760 is memorable for the introduction
of various important improvements. It was during this period
that the genius of Robert Bakewell produced an extraordinary
change in the character of our more important breeds of live
stock, more especially by the perfecting of a new race of sheep —
the well-known Leicesters. Bakewell's fame as a breeder was
for a time enhanced by the improvement which he effected on
the Long-horned cattle, then the prevailing breed of the midland
counties of England. These, however, were ere long rivalled
and afterwards superseded by the Shorthorn or Durham breed,
which the brothers Charles and Robert Colling obtained from
the useful race of cattle that had long existed in the valley of
the Tees, by applying to them the principle of breeding which
Bakewell had already established. To this period also belong
George and Matthew Culley — the former a pupil of Bakewell —
who left their paternal property on the bank of the Tees and
settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing with
them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved husbandry
of their native district. The improvements introduced by these
energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and exerted a most
beneficial influence upon the border counties.

From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced with steady steps.
This period was distinguished for the adoption and working
out of ascertained improvements. Small's swing plough and
Andrew Meikle's threshing-machine, although invented some
years before this, were now perfected and brought into general
use, to the great furtherance of agriculture. Two important
additions were about this time made to the field crops, viz. the
Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter was accidentally
discovered in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation.
In the same year Merino sheep were introduced by George III.,
who was a zealous farmer. For a time this breed attracted much
attention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that it
would prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the pro-
duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing wool
from other countries, soon led to its total rejection.

In Scotland the opening up of the country by the construction
of practicable roads, and the enclosing and subdividing of farms
by hedge and ditch, was now in active progress. The former
admitted of the general use of wheel-carriages, of the ready con-
veyance of produce to markets, and in particular of the extended
use of lime, the application of which was immediately followed
by a great increase of produce. The latter, besides its more
obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country from
stagnant water and their inhabitants from ague, and prepared
the way for the underground draining which soon after began to
be practised. Dawson of Frogden in Roxburghshire is believed
to have been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to any
extent. It is on record that as early as 1764 he had 100 acres of
drilled turnips on his farm in one year. An Act passed in 1770,
which relaxed the rigour of strict entails and afforded power to
landlords to grant leases and otherwise improve their estates, had
a beneficial effect on Scottish agriculture.

The husbandry of the country was thus steadily improving,
when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars
of the French Revolution. In 1795, under the joint operation of
a deficient harvest and the diminution in foreign supplies of
grain owing to outbreak of war, the price of wheat, which, for the
twenty preceding years, had been under 505. a quarter, suddenly
rose to 8is. 6d., and in the following year reached p6s. In 1797
the fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the banks,
in which emergency the Bank Restriction Act, suspending cash
payment, was passed, and ushered in a system of unlimited credit
transactions. Under the unnatural stimulus of these extra-

ordinary events, every branch of industry extended with un-
exampled rapidity. But in nothing was this so apparent as in
agriculture; the high prices of produce holding out a great
inducement to improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that
had previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land under
the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere with the
increase of live stock, as the green crops of the alternate hus-
bandry more than compensated for the diminished pasturage.
This extraordinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 1814,
the prices of produce even increasing towards the close of that
period. The average price of wheat for the whole period
was 895. 7d. per quarter; but for the last five years it was
1075., and in 1812 it reached 1263. 6d. The agriculture of Great
Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during this
period; but nowhere was the change so great as in Scotland.
Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty years, is probably
without parallel in the history of any other country. This is
accounted for by a concurrence of circumstances. Previous to
this period the husbandry of Scotland was still in a backward
state as compared with the best districts of England, where many
practices, only of recent introduction in the north, had been in
general use for generations. This disparity made the subsequent
contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was now, with
trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying from twenty to
thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size to employ at the least
two or three ploughs. The unlimited issues of government paper
and the security afforded by these leases induced the Scottish
banks to afford every facility to landlords and tenants to embark
capital in the improvement of the land. The substantial educa-
tion supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whole
population could then avail themselves, had diffused through all
ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them promptly
to discern and skilfully and energetically to take advantage of
this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit by the agricultural
information now plentifully furnished by means of the Bath and
West of England Society, established in 1777; the Highland
Society, instituted in 1784; and the National Board of Agricul-
ture, in 1793.

The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of
the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the beginning of another era in the
history of agriculture. The sudden return to peace-
prices was followed by a time of severe depression, low
wages, diminished rents and bad farming. The fall
in prices was aggravated, first by the unpropitious weather and
deficient harvest of the years 1816, 1817, and still more by the
passing in 1819 of the bill restoring cash payments, which, coming
into operation in 1821, caused serious embarrassment to all
persons who had entered into engagements at a depreciated
currency, which had now to be met with the lower prices of an
enhanced one. The frequency of select-committees and commis-
sions, which sat in 1814, 1821 and 1822, 1833 and 1836, testifies
to the gravity of the crisis. The years 1830-1833 are especially
memorable for a disastrous outbreak of sheep-rot and for agrarian
outrages, caused partly by the dislike of the labourers to the
introduction of agricultural machines.

During this period of depression, which lasted till the 'forties,
want of confidence prevented any general improvement in
agricultural methods. At the same time, certain developments
destined to exercise considerable influence in later times are
to be noted. Before the close of the i8th century, and during
the first quarter of the igth, a good deal had been done in the
way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James
Elkington's system of deep covered drains. In 1834 James
Smith of Deanston promulgated his system of thorough draining
and deep ploughing, the adoption of which immeasurably im-
proved the clay lands of the country. The early years of the
reign of Queen Victoria witnessed the strengthening of the union
between agriculture and chemistry. The Board of Agriculture
in 1803 had commissioned Sir Humphry Davy to deliver a
course of lectures on the connexion of chemistry with vegetable
physiology. In 1840 the appearance of Chemistry in its Appli-
cation to Agrkulture and Physiology by Justus von Liebig set

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on foot a movement in favour of scientific husbandry, the most
notable outcome of which was the establishment by Sir John
Bennet Lawes in 1843 of the experimental station of Rotham-
sted. Since Blith's time bone was the one new fertilizer that
had come into use. Nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano and
superphosphate of lime in the form of bones dissolved by sulphuric
acid were now added to the list of manures, and the practice
of analysing soils became more general. Manual labour in
farming operations began to be superseded by the use of drills,
hay-makers and horse-rakes, chaff-cutters and root-pulpers.
The reaping-machine, invented in 1812 by John Common,
improved upon by the Rev. Patrick Bell in England and by
Cyrus H. McCormick and others in America, and finally perfected
about 1879 by the addition of an efficient self-binding apparatus,
is the most striking example of the application of mechanics to
agriculture. Improvements in the plough, harrow and roller
were introduced, adapting those implements to different soils
and purposes. The steam-engine first took the place of horses
as a threshing power in 1803, but it was not until after 1850 that
it was applied to the plough and cultivator. The employment
of agricultural machines received considerable impetus from the
Great Exhibition of 1851. The much-debated Corn Laws, after
undergoing various modifications, and proving the fruitful
source of business uncertainty, social discontent and angry
partisanship, were finally abolished in 1846, although the act
was not consummated until three years later. Several other
acts of the legislature passed during this period exerted a bene-
ficial influence on agriculture. Of these, the first in date and
importance is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836. Improve-
ment was also stimulated by the Public Money Drainage
Acts 1846-1856, under which government was empowered to
advance money on certain conditions for the improvement of
estates. Additional facilities were granted by the act passed
in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for burdening such as are
entailed with the share of the cost of certain specified im-
provements.

Meanwhile much had been done in the organization of agri-
cultural knowledge. Mention has already been made of the
institution of the Highland Society and the National Board of
Agriculture. These institutions were the means of collecting
a vast amount of statistical and general information connected
with agriculture, and by their publications and premiums made
known the practices of the best-farmed districts and encouraged
their adoption elsewhere. These associations were soon aided
in their important labours by numerous local societies which
sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. After a highly useful
career, under the presidency till 1813 of Sir John Sinclair, the
Board of Agriculture was dissolved in 1819, but left in its statis-
tical account, county surveys and other documents much
interesting and valuable information regarding the agriculture
of the period. In 1800 the original Farmers' Magazine came
into existence under the editorship of Robert Brown of
Markle, the author of the well-known treatise on Rural A/airs.
The Highland Society having early extended its operations to
the whole of Scotland, by and by made a corresponding addition
to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland gradually extended its operations. In 1828, shortly
after the discontinuance of the Farmers' Magazine, its Prize
Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly in connexion
with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. This society early
began to hold a great show of live stock, implements, &c. In
1842 certain Midlothian tenant-farmers had the merit of
originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the first of
its kind), by which funds were raised for the purpose of conduct-
ing such investigations as the title of the society implies. After
a successful trial of a few years this association was dissolved,
transferring its functions to the Highland and Agricultural
Society.

In England the Agricultural Society was founded in 1838,
with the motto " Practice with Science," and shortly afterwards
incorporated by royal charter. In 1845 the Royal Agricultural
College at Cirencester was incorporated. This era of revival

was not, however, without its calamities. The foot-and-mouth
disease first appeared about 1840, having been introduced, as is
supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread rapidly over the country,
affecting all domesticated animals except horses, and although
seldom attended by fatal results, caused everywhere great alarm
and loss. It was soon followed by the more terrible lung-disease,
or pleuro-pneumonia. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain,
originating amongst the vast herds of the Russian steppes, had
spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to London
by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before the true char-
acter of the disease was known, and in this brief space it had
already been carried by animals purchased in Smithfield market
to all parts of the country. After causing the most frightful
losses, it was at last stamped out by the resolute slaughter of all
affected animals and of all that had been in contact with them.
Severe as were the losses in flocks and herds from these imported
diseases, they were eclipsed by the ravages of the mysterious
potato blight, which, first appearing in 1845, pervaded the whole
of Europe, and in Ireland especially proved the precursor of
famine and pestilence.

A short period of low prices followed the repeal of the Corn
Laws, wheat averaging only 385. 6d. a quarter in 1851, but the
years from 1852 to 1875 were the most prosperous of the century.
The letters written by Sir James Caird to The Times during
1850, and republished in 1852 under the title English Agriculture
in 1850-1851, give a general review of English agriculture at
the time. The scientific and mechanical improvements of the
first half of the century were widely adopted, while the prices
of the protectionist period showed little decline. Amelioration
in all breeds of domesticated animals was manifested, not so
much in the production of individual specimens of 'high merit
as in the diffusion of these and other good breeds over the
country, and in the improved quality of live stock as a whole.
The fattening of animals was conducted on more scientific
principles. Increased attention was successfully bestowed on
the improvement of field crops. Improved varieties, obtained
by cross-impregnation either naturally or artificially brought
about, were carefully propagated and generally adopted, and in-
creased attention was bestowed on the cultivation of the natural
grasses. The most important additions to the list of field crops
were Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot and
alsike clover.

The last quarter of the igth century proved, however, a fateful
period for British agriculture. The great future that seemed
to await the application of steam power to the tillage
of the soil proved illusory. The clay soils of England,
the latent fertility of which was to be brought into
play in a fashion that should mightily augment the
home-grown supplies of food, remained intractable, and the
extent of land devoted to the cultivation of corn crops, instead
of expanding, diminished in a marked degree. British farmers
of long experience look back to 1874 as the last of the really
good years, and consider that the palmy days of British agri-
culture began to dwindle at about that time. The shadow of the
approaching depression had already fallen upon the land before
the year 1875 had run its course, and the outlook became ominous
as the decade of the 'seventies neared its close. One memorable
feature was associated with 1877 in that this was the last year
in which the dreaded cattle plague (rinderpest) made its appear-
ance in England. The same year, 1877, was the last also in
which the annual average price of English wheat (then 565. gd.)
exceeded 508. a quarter. With declining prices for farm produce
came that year of unhappy memory, 1879, when persistent rains
and an almost sunless summer ruined the crops and reduced
many farmers to a state of destitution. Much of the grain was
never harvested, whilst owing mainly to the excessive floods
there commenced an outbreak of liver-rot in sheep, due to the
ravages of the fluke parasite. This continued for several years,
and the mortality was so great that its adverse effects upon the
ovine population of the country were still perceptible ten years
afterwards. A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of the
agricultural distress, to inquire into which a royal commission

"

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397

was appointed in 1879, under the chairmanship of the duke of
Richmond and Gordon. Its report, published in 1882, testified
to " the great extent and intensity of the distress which has
fallen upon the agricultural community. Owners and occupiers
have alike suffered from it. No description of estate or tenure
has been exempted. The owner in fee and life tenant, the
occupier, whether of large or of small holding, whether under
lease, or custom, or agreement, or the provisions of the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act — all without distinction have been involved
in a general calamity." The two most prominent causes assigned
for the depression were bad seasons and foreign competition,
aggravated by the increased cost of production and the heavy
losses of live stock. Abundant evidence was forthcoming as
to the extent to which agriculture had been injuriously affected
" by an unprecedented succession of bad seasons." As regards
the pressure of foreign competition, it was stated to be greatly
in excess of the anticipations of the supporters, and of the
apprehensions of the opponents of the repeal of the Corn Laws.
Whereas formerly the farmer was to some extent compensated
by a higher price for a smaller yield, in recent years he had had
to compete with an unusually large supply at greatly reduced
prices. On the other hand, he had enjoyed the advantage of
an extended supply of feeding-stuffs—such as maize, linseed-
cake and cotton-cake — and of artificial manures imported from
abroad. The low price ofagriculturalproduce, beneficial though
it might be to the general community, had lessened the ability
of the land to bear the proportion of taxation which had hereto-
fore been imposed upon it. The legislative outcome of the
findings of this royal commission was the Agricultural Holdings
Act 1883, a measure which continued in force in its entirety
till 1901, when a new act came into operation.

The apparently hopeless outlook for corn-growing compelled
farmers to cast about for some other means of subsistence, and
to rely more than they had hitherto done upon the possibilities
of stock-breeding. It was in particular the misfortunes of the
later 'seventies that gave the needed fillip to that branch of
stock-farming concerned with the production of milk, butter
and cheese, and from this period may be said to date the revival
of the dairying industry, which received a powerful impetus
through the introduction of the centrifugal cream separator,
and was fostered by the British Dairy Farmers' Association
(formed in 1875). The generally wet character of the seasons
in 1879 and the two or three years following was mainly respon-
sible for the high prices of meat, so that the supplies of fresh beef
and mutton from Australia which now began to arrive found a
ready market, and the trade in imported fresh meat which was
thus commenced has practically continued to expand ever since.
The great losses arising from spoilt hay crops served to stimulate
experimental inquiry into the method of preserving green fodder
known as ensilage, with the result that the system eventually
became successfully incorporated in the ordinary routine of
agricultural practice. A contemporaneous effort in the direction
of drying hay by artificial means led to nothing of practical
importance. By 1882 the cry as to land going out of cultivation
became loud and general, and the migration of the rural popula-
tion into the towns in search of work continued unchecked (see
below, Agricultural Population). In 1883 foot-and-mouth disease
was terribly rampant amongst the herds and flocks of Great
Britain, and was far more prevalent than it has ever been since.
It was about this time that the first experiments were made
(in Germany) with basic slag, a material which had hitherto
been regarded as a worthless by-product of steel manufacture.
A year or two later field trials were begun in England, with the
final result that basic slag has become recognized as a valuable
source of phosphorus for growing crops, and is now in constant
demand for application to the soil as a fertilizer.

In 1883 the veterinary department of the Privy Council —
which had been constituted in 1365 when the country was
ravaged by cattle plague — was abolished by order in council,
and the " Agricultural Department " was substituted, but no
alteration was effected in the work of the department, so far as
it related to animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for

Great Britain) was formed under an act of parliament of that
year (see AGRICULTURE, BOARD or). The election took place
in the same year (1889) of the first county councils, and the
allotment to them of various sums of money under the Local
Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 enabled local provision
to be made for the promotion of technical instruction in agri-
culture (see below, Agricultural Education). It was about this
time that the value of a mixture of lime and sulphate of copper
(bouillie bordelaise), sprayed in solution upon the growing plants,
came to be recognized as a check upon the ravages of potato
disease. .

The general experience of the decade of the 'eighties was
that of disappointing summers, harsh winters, falling prices,
declining rents and the shrinkage of land values. It is true that
one season of the series, that of 1887, was hot and droughty,
but the following summer was exceedingly wet. Nevertheless,
the decade closed more hopefully than it opened, and found
farmers taking a keener interest in grass land, in live stock and
in dairying. Cattle-breeders did well in 1889, but sheep-breeders
fared better; on the other hand, owing to receding prices, corn-
growers were more disheartened than ever. With the incoming
of the last decade of the century there seemed to be some
justifiable hopes of the dawn of better times, but they were
speedily doomed to disappointment. In 1891 excessively heavy
autumn rains washed the arable soils to such an extent that the
next season's corn crops were below average. Wheat in parti-
cular was a poor crop in 1892, and the low yield was associated
with falling prices due to large imports. The hay crop was very
inferior, and in some cases it was practically ruined. This gave
a stimulus to the trade in imported hay, which rose from 61,237
tons in 1892 to 263,050 tons in 1893, and despite some large
home-grown crops in certain subsequent years (1897 and 1898)
this expansion has never since been wholly lost.

The misfortunes of 1892 proved to be merely a preparation
for the disasters of 1893, in which year occurred the most de-
structive drought within living memory. Its worst effects were
seen upon the light land farms of England, and so deplorable
was the position that a royal commission on agricultural de-
pression was appointed in September of that year under the
chairmanship of Mr Shaw Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley).
Thus, within the last quarter of the igth century — and, as a
matter of fact, only fourteen years apart — two royal commissions
on agriculture were appointed, the one in a year of memorable
flood, 1879, and the other in a year of disastrous drought, 1893.
The report of the commission of 1893 was issued in March 1896.
Amongst its chief recommendations were those relating to
amendments in the Agricultural Holdings Acts, and to tithe rent-
charge, railway rates, damage by game, sale of adulterated
products, and sale of imported goods (meat, for example) as
home produce. Two legislative enactments arose out of the
work of this commission. In the majority report it was stated
" that, in order to place agricultural lands in their right position
as compared with other ratable properties, it is essential that
they should be assessed to all local rates in a reduced propor-
tion of their ratable value." The Agricultural Rates Act 1896
gave effect to this recommendation. Its objects were to relieve
agricultural land from half the local rates, and to provide the
means of making good out of imperial funds the deficiency in local
taxation caused thereby. It was provided that the act should
continue in force only till the 3ist of March 1902, but a further
act in 1901 extended the period by four years, and in 1905 its
operation was extended to the 3ist of March 1910. The other
measure arising out of the report of the royal commission of 1893
was the Agricultural Holdings Act 1900. This was an amending
act and not a consolidating act; consequently it had to be read
as if incorporated into the already existing acts. As affecting
agricultural practice there were three noteworthy improvements
in respect of the making of which, without the consent of or
notice to his landlord, a tenant might claim compensation — (i)
the consumption on the holding " by horses, other than those
regularly employed on the holding," of corn, cake or other
feeding-stuff not produced on the holding; (2) the " consumption

398

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than
those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by
satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on
the holding "; (3) " laying down temporary pasture with clover,
grass, lucerne, sainfoin or other seeds sown more than two years
prior to the determination of the tenancy." A further act was
passed in 1906 (the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906) which im-
proved the tenant's position in respect of freedom of cropping,
disposal of produce and compensation for disturbance.

After 1894, in which' year the brilliant prospects of a bountiful
harvest were ultimately extinguished by untimely and heavy
rains, all the remaining seasons of the closing decade of the igth
century were dominated by drought. A fact that was amply
illustrated, moreover, is that the period of incidence of a drought
is not less important than its duration, and the same is true of
abnormal rainfall. A spring drought, a summer drought, an
autumn drought, each has its distinctive characteristics in so far
as the effect upon the crops is concerned. The hot drought of
1893 extended over the spring and summer months, but there
was an abundant rainfall in the autumn; correspondingly there
was an unprecedented^ bad yield of corn and hay crops, but a
moderately fair yield of the main root crops (turnips and swedes).
In 1899 the drought became most intense in the autumn after
the corn crops had been harvested, but during the chief period,
of growth of the root crops; correspondingly the corn crops of
that year rank very well amongst the crops of the decade, but
the yield of turnips and swedes was the worst on record. It is
quite possible for a hot dry season to be associated with a large
yield of corn, provided the drought is confined to a suitable period,
as was the case in 1896 and still more so in 1898; the English
wheat crops in those years were probably the biggest in yield
per acre that had been harvested since 1868, which is always
looked back upon as a remarkable year for wheat. The drought
of 1898 was interrupted by copious rains in June, and these
falling on a warm soil led to a rapid growth of grass and, as
measured by yield per acre, an exceedingly heavy crop of hay.

With the exceptions of 1891 and 1894, every year in the period
1891-1900 was stricken by drought. The two meteorological
events of the decade which will probably live longest in the
recollection were, however, the terrible drought of 1893, result-
ing in a fodder famine in the succeeding winter, and the severe
frost of ten weeks' duration at the beginning of 1895. Between
these two occurrences came the disastrous decline in the value
of grain in the autumn of 1894, when the weekly average price
of English wheat fell to the record minimum of 175. 6d. per im-
perial quarter. As a consequence, the extent of land devoted
to wheat in the British Isles receded in 1895 to less than 13
million acres. The year 1903 was memorable for a very heavy
rainfall, comparable though not equal in its disastrous effects to
that of 1879. Successful trials of sulphate of copper solution
as a means of destroying charlock in corn crops took place in
the years 1898-1900. Charlock is a most persistent cruciferous
weed, but if sprayed when young with the solution named it is
killed, the corn plants being uninjured. In 1901 the formation
of the Agricultural Organization Society marked the first sys-
tematic attempt to organize co-operation among the farmers
of Great Britain. In the subsequent years the principle, which
had already made great progress in Ireland, began to obtain a
hold in England and Wales, where, in 1906, there were 145 local
co-operative societies with a turn -over of £350,000.

Amongst legislative measures of importance to agriculturists
mention' should be made, in addition to those that have been
referred to, of the Tithe Rent-charge Recovery Act 1891, which
transfers the liability for payment of tithe from the occupier to
the owner. In the same year was passed the Markets and Fairs
(Weighing of Cattle) Act. The object of the Small Holdings Act
1892 was to facilitate the acquisition of small agricultural hold-
ings. It provided that a county council might acquire any suit-
able land, with the object of allotting from one to fifty acres,
or, if more than fifty acres, of an annual value not exceeding £50,
to persons who desired to buy, and would themselves cultivate,
the holdings. If, owing to proximity to a town or otherwise, the

prospective value were too high, the council might hire such land
for the purpose of letting it. (See ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLD-
INGS for this and other acts.) The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
Act 1893 compelled sellers of fertilizers (i.e. manures), manu-
factured or imported, to state the percentage of the nitrogen, of
the soluble and insoluble phosphates, and of the potash in each
article sold, and this statement was to have the effect of a war-
ranty. Similar stringent conditions applied as regards the sale of
feeding-stuffs for live stock. The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
Act 1906, amending and re-enacting the act of 1893, provided
for the compulsory appointment by county councils of official
samplers. It also provides penalties for breaches of duty by the
seller, but grants him protection in cases where he is not morally
responsible. The Finance Act of 1894, with its great changes in
the death duties, overshadowed all other acts of that year both in
its immediate effects and in its far-reaching consequences. The
Copyhold Consolidation Act 1894 supersedes six previous copy-
hold statutes, but does not effect any alteration in the law concern-
ing enfranchisement. The Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided
for the compulsory slaughter of imported live stock at the place
of landing. The Light Railways Act and the Locomotives on
Highways Act were added to the statute book in 1896, and
various clauses in the Finance Act effected reforms in respect of
the death duties, the land-tax, farmers' income-tax and the beer
duty. The Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897 is a
measure very similar in its intention to the Threshing Machines
Act 1878, and provides for the automatic prevention of accidents
to persons in charge of chaff-cutting machines. The Sale of Food
and Drugs Act 1899 has special reference in its earlier sections
to the trade in dairy produce and margarine. In 1899 was also
passed the act establishing the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction in Ireland.

The year 1900 saw the passing of a Workmen's Compensation
Act, which extended the benefits of the act of 1897 to agricultural
labourers.

Acreage 'and Yields of British Crops.

The most notable feature in connexion with the cropping of the
land of the United Kingdom between 1875 and 1905 was the
lessened cultivation of the cereal crops associated with an expan-
sion in the area of grass land. At the beginning of the period the
aggregate area under wheat, barley and oats was nearly iOj
million acres; at_the close it did not amount to 8 million acres.
There was thus a withdrawal during the period of over 25 million
acres from cereal cultivation. From Table I., showing the
acreages at intervals of five years, it will be learnt that the loss
fell chiefly upon the wheat crop, which at the close of the period

TABLE I. — Areas of Cereal Crops in the United Kingdom
— A cres.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Total.

1875
1880
1885
1890

1895
1900

1905

3,514,088
3,065,895
2,553-092
2,483-595
1,456,042
1,901,014
1,836,598

2,751,362
2,695,000
2,447,169
2,300,994
2,346,367
2,172,140
1,872,305

4.176,177
4,191,716
4,282,594
4-137,790
4,527,899
4,H5,633
4,137,406

10,441,627
9,952,611
9,282,855
8,922,379
8,330,308
8,218,787
7,846,309

occupied barely more than half the area assigned to it at the
beginning. If the land taken from wheat had been cropped with
one or both of the other cereals, the aggregate area would have
remained about the same. This, however, was not the case, for
a fairly uniform decrease in the barley area was accompanied by
somewhat irregular fluctuations in the acreage of oats. To the
decline in prices of home-grown cereals the decrease in area is
largely attributable. The extent of this decline is seen in Table
II., wherein are given the annual average prices from 1875 to
1905, calculated upon returns from the 190 statutory markets of
England and Wales (Corn Returns Act 1882). These prices are
per imperial quarter, — that is, 480 Ib of wheat, 400 Ib of barley
and 312 ft of oats, representing 60 Ib, 50 Ib and 39 Ib per bushel
respectively. After 1883 the annual average price of English
wheat was never so high as 405. per quarter, and only twice after

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

399

1892 did it exceed 305. In one of these exceptional years, 1898,
the average rose to 343., but this was due entirely to a couple of
months of inflated prices in the early half of the year, when the
outbreak of war between Spain and the United States of America
coincided with a huge speculative deal in the latter country. The

TABLE II. — Gazette Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter
of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

1875

45 2

38 5

28 8

1876

46 2

35 2

26 3

1877

56 9

39 8

25 ii

1878

46 5

40 2

24 4

1879

43 10

34 o

21 9

1880

44 4

33 i

23 i

1881

45 4

31 ii

21 9

1882

45 i

31 2

21 IO

1883

4i 7

31 10

21 5

1884

35 8

30 8

20 3

1885

32 10

30 I

20 7

1886

31 o

26 7

19 o

1887

32 6

25 4

16 3

1888

31 10

27 10

16 9

1889

29 9

25 10

17 9

1890

31 it

28 8

18 7

1891

37 o

28 2

20 o

1892

30 3

26 2

19 10

1893

26 4

25 7

18 9

1894

22 IO

24 6

17 I

1895

23 I

21 II

14 6

1896

26 2

22 II

H 9

1897

30 2

23 6

16 II

1898

34 o

27 2

18 5

1899

25 8

25 7

17 o

1900

26 ii

24 ii

17 7

1901

26 9

25 2

18 5

1902

28 i

25 8

2O 2

1903

26 9

22 8

17 2

1904

28 4

22 4

16 4

1905

29 8

24 4

17 4

weekly average prices of English wheat in 1898 fluctuated between
485. id. and 253. sd. per quarter, the former being the highest
weekly average since 1882. The minimum annual average was
22S. icd. in 1894, in the autumn of which year the weekly average
sank to 1 75. 6d. per quarter, the lowest on record. Wheat was
so great a glut in the market that various methods were devised
for feeding it to stock, a purpose for which it is not specially
suited; in thus utilizing the grain, however, a smaller loss was
often incurred than in sending it to market. In 1 894 the monthly
average price for October, the chief month for wheat-sowing in
England, was only 175. 8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally
shrank from seeding the land freely with a crop which could not
be grown except at a heavy loss. The result was that in the
following year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was
harvested upon the smallest area on record — less than ij million
acres. In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price of
English barley touch 403. per quarter; it never reached 305.
after 1885, whilst in 1895 it fell to so low a level as ais. nd. The
same story of declining prices applies to oats. An average of 203.
per quarter was touched in 1891 and 1902, but with those excep-
tions this useful feeding grain did not reach that figure after 1885.
In 1895 the average price of 480 ft) of wheat, at 235. id., was
identical with that of 312 Ib of oats in 1880, and it was less in the
preceding year. The declining prices that have operated against
the growers of wheat should be studied in conjunction with
Table III., which shows, at intervals of five years, the imports of
TABLE III. — Imports into the United Kingdom of Wheat Grain,
and of Wheat Meal and Flour — Cwt.

Year.

Wheat Grain.'

Meal and Flour.

Total.

1875
1880
1885
1890

1895
1900

1905

51,876,517
55,261,924
61,498,864
60,474,180

81,749,955
68,669,490
97,622,752

6,136,083
10,558,312
15,832,843

15,773,336
18,368,410
21,548,131
11,954,763

58,012,600
65,820,236
77-331,707
76,247,516
100,118,365
90,217,621
109,577,515

wheat grain and of wheat meal and flour into the United King-
dom. The import of the manufactured product from 1875 to 1900
increased at a much greater ratio than that of the raw grain, for
whilst in 1875 the former represented less than one-ninth of the
total, by 1900 the proportion had risen to nearly one-fourth.
The offal, which is quite as valuable as the flour itself, was thus
retained abroad instead of being utilized for stock-feeding
purposes in the United Kingdom. In the five subsequent years
the proportion was fundamentally altered, so that with a greatly
increased importation of grain, that of meal and flour was in the
proportion of about one-ninth. The highest and lowest areas of
wheat, barley and oats in the United Kingdom during the period
1875-1905 were the following: —

Wheat . 3,514,088 acres in 1875; 1,407,618 acres in 1904.
Barley . 2,931,809 „ „ 1879; 1,872,305 „ „ 1905.
Oats . 4,527,899 „ ,,1895:3,998,200 „ ,,1879.

These show differences amounting to 2,106,470 acres for
wheat, 1,059,504 acres for barley, and 529,699 acres for oats.
The acreage of wheat, therefore, fluctuated the most, and that
of oats the least. Going back to 1869, it is found that the extent
of wheat in that year was 3,981,989 acres or very little short of
four million acres.

The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain
crop is small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during
the period 1875-1905 having been 102,676 acres in 1894 and
47,937 acres in 1880. Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a
green crop to be fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the
spring months.

Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both
less cultivated than formerly. In the period 1875-1905 the area
of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 574,414
acres in 1875 and 230,429 acres in 1897, and that of peas between
318,410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acces in 1901. The area of
peas (175,624 acres in 1905) shrank by nearly one-half, and that
of beans (256,383 acres in 1905) by more than one-half. Taking
cereals and pulse corn together, the aggregate areas of wheat,
barley, oats, rye, beans and peas in the United Kingdom varied
as follows over the six quinquennial intervals embraced in the
period 1875-1905: —

Year. Acres. Year. Acres.

1875 . . 11,399,030 1890 . . 9,574,249
1880 . . 10,672,086 1895 . . 8,865,338
1885 . . 10,014,625 1900 . . 8,707,602

1905 • . 8,333,770

Disregarding minor fluctuations, there was thus a loss of corn
land over the 30 years of 3,065,260 acres, or 27%.

The area withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found
under the head of what are termed " green crops." In 1905 the
total area of these crops in the United Kingdom was 4,144,374
acres, made up thus: —

Crop. Acres.

Potatoes 1,236,768

Turnips and swedes 1,879,384

Mangel 477,540

Cabbage, kohl-rabi and rape .... 225,315

Vetches or tares 139,285

Other green crops 186,082

The extreme aggregate areas of these crops during the thirty
years were 5,057,029 acres in 1875 and 4,109,394 acres in 1904.
At five-year intervals the areas were: —

Year. Acres. Year. Acres.

1875 • • 5,057-029' 1890 . . 4-534-H5

1880 . . 4,746,293 1895 . . 4,399,949

1885 . . 4,765,195 1900 . . 4,301,774

1905 . . 4.144-374

These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are used mainly
for stock-feeding, have like the corn crops been grown on
gradually diminishing areas.

The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be still
further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into the area
devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The
areas of five-year intervals are given in Table IV. Under the
old Norfolk or four-course rotation (roots, barley, clover, wheat)
land thus seeded with clover or grass seeds was intended to be

400

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low
prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided in-
ducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over
three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many
cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass
indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the
Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass
into the category of permanent grass land, or what is often
spoken of as " permanent pasture." Whilst much grass land has
been laid down with the intention from the outset that it should
be permanent, at the same time some considerable areas have
through stress of circumstances been allowed to drift from the
temporary or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have
thus still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion
of the plough. The column relating to permanent grass in
Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became

TABLE IV. — Areas of Grass Land (excluding Heath and Mountain
Land) in the United Kingdom — Acres.

Year.

Temporary (i.e.
under rotation).

Permanent
(i.e. not broken up
in rotation).

Total.

1875
1880
1885
1890

1895
1900

1905

6,337,953
6,389,232
6,738,206
6,097,210
6,061,139
6,025,025
5,779.323

23,772,602
24,717,092
25,616,071
27,115,425

27,831,117
28,266,712
28,865,373

30,110,555
31,106,324

32,354,277
33,212,635
33,892,256

34,291,737
34,644,696

more pastoral, while the figures already given demonstrate the
extent to which they became less arable. In the period 1875-
1905 the extreme areas returned as " permanent pasture " — a
term which, it should be clearly understood, does not include
heath or mountain land, of which there are in Great Britain
alone about 13 million acres used for grazing — were 23,772,602
acres in 1875, and 28,865,373 acres in 1905. Comparing 1905
with 1875 the increase in permanent grass land amounted to
over five million acres, or about 21 %.

On account of the greater humidity and mildness of its climate,
Ireland is more essentially a pastoral country than Great Britain.
The distribution between the two islands of such important crops
of arable land as cereals and potatoes is indicated in Table V.
The figures are those for 1905, but, though the absolute acreages

TABLE V. — Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in Great Britain
and Ireland in 1905.

Great Britain
Ireland

Total

Wheat.

Barley.

Acres.

1.796,993
37,860

Acres.
1,713,664
154,645

1,834,853

1,868,309

Great Britain
Ireland

Total

Oats.

Potatoes.

3.051,376
1,066,806

608,473
6i6,755

4,118,182

1,225,228

vary somewhat from year to year, there is not much variation
in the proportions. The comparative insignificance of Ireland
in the case of the wheat and barley crops, represented by 2 and
8% respectively, receives some compensation when oats and
potatoes are considered, about one-fourth of the area of the
former and more than half that of the latter being claimed by
Ireland. It is noteworthy, however, that Ireland year by year
places less reliance upon the potato crop. In 1888 the area of
potatoes in Ireland was 804,566 acres, but it continuously con-
tracted each year, until in 1905 it was only 616,755 acres, or
187,811 acres less than 17 years previously.

A similar comparison for the several sections of Great Britain,
as set forth in Table VI., shows that to England belong about
95 % of the wheat area, over 80 % of the barley area, over 60 %
of the oats area, and over 70% of the potato area, and these

proportions do not vary much from year to year. The figures
for cereals are important, as they indicate that it is the farmers
of England who are the chief sufferers through the diminishing
prices of corn; and particularly is this true of East Anglia, where
corn-growing is more largely pursued than in any other part of the

TABLE VI. — Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in England, Wales
and Scotland, and in Great Britain, in 1905.

England
Wales
Scotland

Wheat.

Barley.

Acres.
1,704,281

44-<>73
48,641

Acres.
1,410,287

91,243
212,134

Great Britain

1,796,995

1,713,664

England
Wales
Scotland

Oats.

Potatoes.

1,880,475
207,929
962,972

' 434,773
29,435
144,265

Great Britain

3,051,376

608,473

country. Scotland possesses nearly one-third of the area of oats
and nearly one-fourth of that of potatoes. Beans are almost
entirely confined to England, and this is even more the case with
peas. The mangel crop also is mainly English, the summer in
most parts of Scotland being neither long enough nor warm
enough to bring it to maturity.

The Produce of British Crops.

Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the
number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially collected
in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates of the
produce of the crops in the several sections of the kingdom do
not extend back beyond 1885. The practice is for the Board of
Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report in the autumn
as to the total production of the crops in the localities respectively
assigned to them. By dividing the total production, say of wheat,
in each county by the number of acres of wheat as returned by
the occupiers on June 4, the estimated average yield per acre is
obtained. It is important to notice that the figures relating to
total production and yield per acre are only estimates, and it is
not claimed for them that they are anything more. The fact
that much of the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the
stack after the publication of the figures shows that the latter
are essentially estimates. The total produce of any crop in a
given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst
the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the
character of the season. In Table VII. are shown, in thousands

TABLE VII. — Estimated Annual Total Produce of Corn Crops in
the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 — Thousands of Bushels.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Beans.

Peas.

1890

75,994

80,794

171,295

1 1, 860

6313

1891

74,743

79,555

166,472

10,694

5777

1892

60,775

76,939

168,181 i 7,054

5028

1893

50.913

65,746

168,588

4,863

4756

1894

60,704

78,601

190,863

7,198

6229

1895

38,285

75,028

174,476

5,626

4732

1896

58,247

77-825

162,860

6,491

4979

1897

56,296

72,613

163,556

6,650

5250

1898

74,885

74,731

172,578

7,267

4858

1899

67,261

74,532

166,140

7,566

4431

1900

54,322

68,546

165,137

7,469

4072

1901

53,928

67,643

161,175

6,154

4017

1902

58,278

74,439

184,184

7-704

5106

1903

48,819

65,310

172,941

7,535

4812

1904

37,920

62,453

176,755

5,901

4446

1905

6o,333

65,004

166.286

8,262

4446

of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the United
Kingdom in the years 1890-1905. The largest area of wheat
in the period was that of 1890, and the smallest was that of
1904; the same two years are seen to have been respectively
those of highest and lowest total produce. It is noteworthy
that in 1895 tne country produced about half as much wheat

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

401

as in any one of the years 1890, 1891 and i8g8. The produce
of barley, like that of oats, is less irregular than that of wheat, the
extremes for barley being 80,794,000 bushels (1890) and 62,453,000
bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894)
and 161,175,000 bushels (1901). Similar details for potatoes,
ots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the

TABLE VIII. — Estimated Annual Total Produce of Potatoes, Roots
and Hay in the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 — Thousands of
Tons.

Year.

Potatoes.

Turnips.

Mangels.

Hay.

1890

4622

32,002

6709

14,466

1891

6090

29,742

7558

12,671

1892

5634

3L4I9

7428

n,567

i893

6541

31,110

5225

9,082

1894

4662

30,678

73io

15-699

1895

7065

29,221

6376

12,238

1896

6263

28,037

5875

11,416

1897

4107

29-785

7379

I4.043

1898

6225

26,499

7228

I5,9i6

1899

5837

20,370

7604

12,898

1900

4577

28,387

9650

13.742

1901

7043

25,298

9224

11,358

1902

5920

29,116

10,809

15,246

1903

5277

23,523

8212

14,955

1904

6230

28,033

8813

14,860

1905

7186

26,563

9493

13,554

production of potatoes varies much from year to year. The
imports of potatoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some
extent inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was accom-
panied by an increase of imports from 3,921,205 cwt. in 1897 to
6,751,728 cwt. in 1898. No very great reliance can be placed
upon the figures relating to turnips (which include swedes), as
these are mostly fed to sheep on the ground, so that the estimates
as to yield are necessarily vague. Mangels are probably more
closely estimated, as these valuable roots are carted and stored
for subsequent use for feeding stock. Under hay are included
the produce of clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also
that of permanent meadow. The extent to which the annual
production of the leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the
table by the two consecutive years 1893 and 1894; from only
nine million tons in the former year the production rose to up-
wards of fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over

:

Turning to the average yields per acre, as ascertained by
ividing the number of acres into the total produce, the results
of a decade are collected in Table IX. The effects of a prolonged

drought, as distinguished from spring and summer drought, are
shown in the very low yield of turnips in 1899. Mangels are
sown earlier and have a longer period of growth than turnips; if
they become well established in the summer they are less sus-
ceptible to autumn drought. The hay made from clover, sain-
foin and grasses under rotation generally gives a bigger average
yield than that from permanent grass land. The mean values at
the foot of the table — they are not, strictly speaking, exact
averages — indicate the average yields per acre in the United
Kingdom to be about 31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley,
40 bushels of oats, 28 bushels of beans, 26 bushels of peas, 4$ tons
of potatoes, 135 tons of turnips and swedes. i8j tons of mangels,
32 cwt. of hay from temporary grass, and 29 cwt. of hay from
permaneht grass. Although enormous single crops of mangels

TABLE X. — Decennial Average Yields in Great Britain of Wheat,
Barley and Oats — Bushels per acre.

i o- Year
Periods.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

1885-1894

29-32

33-02

38-21

1886-1895

28-81

32-68

38-23

1887-1896

29-49

32-82

38-13

1888-1897

29-19

32-97

38-5I

1889-1898

29-86

33-26

38-86

1890-1899

30-15

33-50

38-81

1891-1900

29-92

33-13

38-46

1892-1901

29-88

32-80

38-26

1893-1902

30-53

32-83

38-64

1894-1903

30-95

33-16

39-05

1895-1904

30-56

32-82

38-81

1896-1905

31-21

33-04

38-92

are sometimes grown, amounting occasionally to 100 tons per
acre, the general average yield of i8J tons is about 5 tons more
than that of turnips and swedes. Again, although from the
richest old permanent meadow-lands very heavy crops of
hay are taken season after season, the general average yield of
permanent grass is about 3 cwt. of hay per acre less than that
from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The general
average yields of the corn crops are not fairly comparable one
with the other, because they are given by measure and not by
weight, whereas the weight per bushel varies considerably. For
purposes of comparison it would be much better if the yields of
corn crops were estimated in cwt. per acre. This, indeed, is the
practice in Ireland, and in order to incorporate the Irish figures
with those for Great Britain so as to obtain average values for the
United Kingdom, the Irish yields are calculated into bushels at

TABLE IX. — Estimated Annual Average Yield per Acre of Crops in United Kingdom, 1895-1904.

Year.

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Beans.

Peas.

Pota-

tnfQ

Turnips
and

Mangels.

Hay.

Rota-

Perman-

LUC9.

Swedes.

tion.

ent.

Bush.

Bush.

Bush.

Bush.

Bush.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Cwt.

Cwt.

'895

26-33

32-09

38-67

22-98

22-62

5-64

13-11

16-44

29-08

25-21

1896

33-63

34-16

37-97

25-69

25-34

4-93

12-79

14-99

27-95

24-14

1897

29-07

32-91

38-84

28-91

27-55

3-47

13-90

18-03

32-53

30-7I

1898

34-75

36-24

42-27

3I-I3

27-60

5-23

12-74

17-71

36-49

34-27

1899

32-76

34-64

40-57

30-19

27-22

4-82

9-97

17-41

31-04

29-11

1900

28-61

3I-67

39-97

28-18

25-89

3-77

14-29

19-97

32-42

30-98

1901

30-93

3I-70

39-35

24-29

25-97

5-8i

12-95

19-37

28-98

23-85

1902

32-91

35-83

44-50

31-49

28-51

4-92

I5-3S

20-85

35-29

32-57

1903

30-15

32-38

40-81

3I-27

26-56

4-45

12-44

17-19

33-07

31-27

1904

26-97

3I-25

40-80

23-23

25-75

5-24

14-83

18-57

33-43

3 1. -04

Mean,

10

years

30-85

33-28

40-35

27-68

26-24

4-84

13-21

18-18

32-06

29-32

1905

32-88

34-79

40-38

32-33

25-71

5-86

14-19

19-91

32-24

28-37

spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified in
the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops all
registered very low average yields that year, viz. wheat 26-08
bushels, barley 29-30 bushels, oats 38-14 bushels, beans 19-61
bushels, rotation hay 23-55 cwt., permanent hay 20-41 cwt.
On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally favour-
able to cereals and to hay. The effects of a prolonged autumn

the rate qf 60 Ib to the bushel
of wheat, of beans and of peas,
50 Ib to the bushel of barley
and 39 Ib to the bushel of oats.
The figure denoting the
general average yield per acre
of any class of crop needs re-
adjustment after every succes-
sive harvest. If a decennial
period be taken, then — for the
purpose of the new calculation
— the earliest year is omitted
and the latest year added, the
number of years continuing at
ten. Adopting this course in
the case of the cereal crops of
Great Britain the decennial
averages recorded in Table X.
are obtained, the period 1885-
1894 being the earliest decade
for which the official figures are available. It thus appears
that the average yield of wheat in Great Britain, as calcu-
lated upon the crops harvested during the ten years (1896-
1905), exceeded 31 bushels to the acre, whereas, for the ten
years ended 1895, it fell below 29 bushels. A large expansion
in the acreage of the wheat crop would probably be at-
tended by a decline in the average yield per acre, for when a

402

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first
the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the
United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels
of 60 Ib per bushel, which was for a long time the acceptec
average — unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating anc
manuring the soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding
capacity.1

Crops and Cropping.

The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence to
the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the
early years of the 2oth century, rest upon a scientific basis.
Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as
to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how
best to meet these requirements in the case of field crops. He
cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually
accumulated — the truths that have been slowly established — at
the agricultural experiment stations in various parts of the
world. Of these stations the greatest, and the oldest now existing,
is that at Rothamsted, Harpenden, Herts, England, which was
founded in 1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.). The results of
more than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were
communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, Sir
J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or reports, many of
which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England.2

In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow some
of the most important crops of rotation, each separately year
after year, for many years in succession on the same land, (a)
without manure, (b) with farmyard manure and (c) with a great
variety of chemical manures; the same description of manure
being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same plot. Experi-
ments on an actual course of rotation, without manure, and with
different manures, have also been made. Wheat, barley, oats,
beans, clover and other leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet,
mangels, potatoes and grass crops have thus been experimented
upon. Incidentally there have been extensive sampling and
analysing of soils, investigations into rainfall and the composition
of drainage waters, inquiries into the amount of water transpired
by plants, and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen.

Cereals. — Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, not
one of more universal interest than that in which wheat was
grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without manure,
(b) with farmyard manure and (c) with various artificial manures.
The results show that, unlike leguminous crops such as beans or
clover, wheat may be successfully grown for many years in suc-
cession on ordinary arable land, provided suitable manures be
applied and the land be kept clean. Even without manure the
average produce over forty-six years, 1852-1897, was nearly
thirteen bushels per acre, or about the average yield per acre of

1 The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the igth century
appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing seasons.
The yields in the experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted— where
there is no change either of land or of treatment — indicate this.
Tne following figures show the average yields per acre of the selected
plots at Rothamsted over six 8-yearly periods from 1852 to 1899,
and afford evidence that the higher yield of later years is due to the
seasons : —

Bushels (of 60 ft)
Average of— per acre

8 years 1852-1859 28

8 1860-1867 28

1868-1875 27

1876-1883 25-

1884-1891 ...... 29

1892-1899 30

8
B

8

32

16

1852-1883 27|

1884-1899 30

48 „ 1852-1899 28J

The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 27^ bushels per
acre, of the last sixteen years 30 bushels, and of the whole forty-eight
years 28} bushels.

2 See J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert, Rothamsted Memoirs on
Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1899); A. D
Hall, Book of the Rothamsted Experiments (1905).

the wheat lands of the whole world. Mineral manures alone give
very little increase, nitrogenous manures alone considerably more
than mineral manures alone, but the mixture of the two con-
siderably more than either separately. In one case, indeed, the
average produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was
more than that by the annual application of farmyard manure;
and in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were
used the average yield per acre was from over two to over eight
bushels more than the average yield of the United Kingdom
(assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 60 Ib per
bushel) under ordinary rotation. It is estimated that the
reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the forty years,
1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without manure during
the eight preceding years, was, provided it had been uniform
throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel from
year to year due to exhaustion — that is, irrespectively of fluctua-
tions due to season. It is related that a visitor from the United
States, talking to Sir John Lawes, said, " Americans have learnt
more from this field than from any dther agricultural experiment
in the world."

Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years in
succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in show-
ing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger than that
without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone give more
produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures of
mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than either
used alone — generally twice, or more than twice, as much as
mineral manures alone. Of mineral constituents, whether used
alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are
much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and
magnesia. The average results show that, under all conditions
of manuring — excepting with farmyard manure — the produce
was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the experi-
ments, an effect partly due to the seasons. But the average
produce over forty years of continuous growth of barley was, in
all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures (containing
phosphates) were used together, much higher than the average
produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation in the United
Kingdom, and very much higher than the average in most other
countries when so grown. The requirements of barley within the
soil, and its susceptibility to the external influences of season, are
very similar to those of its near ally, wheat. Nevertheless there
are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of
the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accord-
ingly. In the British Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn
on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to dis-
tribute its roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of soil
and subsoil before barley is sown in the spring. Barley, on the
other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its short
period for root-development, relies in a much greater degree on
the stores of plant-food within the surface soil. Accordingly it
is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface soil as to its nitro-
genous, and especially as to its mineral supplies; and in the
common practice of agriculture it is found to be more benefited
ay direct mineral manures, especially phosphatic manures, than
is wheat when sown under equal soil conditions. The exhaustion
of the soil induced by both barley and wheat is, however, char-
acteristically that of available nitrogen; and when, under the
ordinary conditions of manuring and cropping, artificial manure
s still required, nitrogenous manures are, as a rule, necessary for
Dbth crops, and, for the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also.
Although barley is appropriately grown on lighter soils than
wheat, good crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier
soils after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures,
Drovided that the land is sufficiently clean. Experiments similar
:o the foregoing were carried on for many years in succession at
Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were in general
accordance with those on the other cereal crops.

Additional significance to the value of the above experiments
on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same series,
with but slight modifications, has also been carried out since
1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental farm of the

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

403

Royal Agricultural Society of England, the soil here being of
light sandy character, and thus very different from the heavy
soil of Rothamsted. The results for the thirty years, 1877-1906,
are in their general features entirely confirmatory of those
ibtained at Rothamsted.

Root-Crops. — Experiments upon root-crops — chiefly white
mips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels — have resulted
the establishment of the following conclusions. Both the
antity and the quality of the produce, and consequently its
ding value, must depend greatly upon the selection of the
:st description of roots to be grown, and on the character and
ie amount of the manures, and especially on the amount of
itrogenous manure employed. At the same time, no hard-
d-fast rules can be laid down concerning these points. Inde-
ndently of the necessary consideration of the general economy
the farm, the choice must be influenced partly by the character
the soil, but very much more by that of the climate. Judgment
tunded on knowledge and aided by careful observation, both
the field and in the feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the
guide of the practical farmer. Over and above the great advan-
.ge arising from the opportunity which the growth of root-crops
:ords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the
t-crop in rotation are due (i) to the large amount of manure
plied for its growth, (2) to the large residue of the manure left
the soil for future crops, (3) to the large amount of matter
t once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) to the large
ount of food produced, and (5) to the small proportion of the
ost important manurial constituents of the roots which is
tained by store or fattening animals consuming them, the rest
turning as manure again; though, when the roots are consumed
for the production of milk, a much larger proportion of the con-

t'ltuents is lost to the manure.
Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen. — The fact
at the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves
e soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of a grain
sp — that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous crop is to
a great extent equivalent to the application of a nitrogenous
manure for the cereal crop — was in effect known ages ago.
Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the closing
decade of the igth century that the explanation of this long-
established point of agricultural practice was forthcoming. It
was in -the year 1886 that Hellriegel and Wilfarth first published
in Germany the results of investigations in which they demon-
strated that, through the agency of micro-organisms dwelling
in nodular outgrowths on the roots of ordinary leguminous
plants, the latter are enabled to assimilate the free nitrogen of
the air. The existence of the root nodules had long been recog-
nized, but hitherto no adequate explanation had been afforded
as to their function.

Since Hellriegel's striking discovery farm crops have been
conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and nitrogen-
consuming. To the former belong the ordinary leguminous
crops — the clovers, beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin,
lucerne, for example — which obtain their nitrogen from the air,
and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures,
whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which
will ultimately become available for future crops of other
kinds. It is, in fact, fully established that these leguminous
crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation
of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of
the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the
higher plant. The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize) ;
the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage, kale, rape, mustard);
the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodiaceous crops
(mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have,
so far as is known, no such power, and are therefore more or
less benefited by the direct application of nitrogenous manures.
The field experiments on leguminous plants at Rothamsted have
shown that land which is, so to speak, exhausted so far as the
growth of one leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very
luxuriant crops of another plant of the same natural order,
but of different habits of growth, and especially of different

character and range of roots. This result is doubtless largely
dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition
of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different
descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells sym-
biotically with one species is not identical with that which
similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success in
any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous
crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation
in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success
will commonly include the liberal application of potash and
phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the
leguminous crop. As to how long the leguminous" crop should
occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed
on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned,
and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be
ploughed in — these are points which must be decided as they
arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer
soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils by the
extended growth of leguminous crops.

Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished
the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established
by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent
application when the old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was
devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green
manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable
with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus,
whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere
a quantity of nitrogen available for the use of subsequent crops
of any kind. In Canada and the United States this rational
employment of a leguminous crop for ploughing in green is
largely resorted to for the amelioration of worn-out wheat lands
and other soils, the condition of which has been lowered to an
unremunerative level by the repeated growth year after year
of a cereal crop. The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and
Pugh (1861), " On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation,
with special reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate
free or uncombined Nitrogen," answered the question referred
to in the negative. The attitude taken up later on with regard
to this problem is set forth in the following words, which are
quoted from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments,
1900 (p. 7):—

" Experiments were commenced in 1857, and conducted for several
years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate free or
uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral points. Plants
of the gramineous, the leguminous and of other families were
operated upon. The late Or Pugh took a prominent part in this
inquiry. The conclusion arrived at was that our agricultural plants
do not themselves directly assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by
their leaves.

" In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite a new
aspect. It now is — whether the free nitrogen of the atmosphere is
brought into combination under the influence of micro-organisms,
or other low forms, either within the soil or in symbiosis with a
higher plant, thus serving indirectly as a source of nitrogen to
plants of a higher order. Considering that the results of Hellriegel
and Wilfarth on this point were, if confirmed, of great significance
and importance, it was decided to make experiments at Rothamsted
on somewhat similar lines. Accordingly, a preliminary series was
undertaken in 1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889
and in 1890; and the investigation was continued up to the com-
mencement of the year 1895. Further experiments relating to
certain aspects of the subject were begun in 1898. The results
have shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected
with appropriate organisms, there is a development of the so-called
leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, and, coincidently,
increased growth and gain of nitrogen."

The conclusions of Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been
confirmed by the later experiences of Rothamsted, and since
that time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical
application of the discovery. This has taken the form of in-
oculating the soil with the particular organism required by the
particular kind of leguminous crop. To this end the endeavour
has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in
portable form the organisms required by the several plants,
and though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have
been generally successful, the work done justifies hopes

404

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

that the problem will eventually be solved in a practical
direction.

Grass. — Another field experiment of singular interest is that
relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, for which
seven acres of old grass land were set apart in Rothamsted Park
in 1856. Of the twenty plots into which this land is divided,
two were left without manure from the outset, two received
ordinary farmyard manure for a series of years, whilst the
remainder each received a different description of artificial or
chemical manure, the same being, except in special cases, applied
year after year on the same plot. During the growing season
the field affords striking evidence of the influence of different
manurial dressings. So much, indeed, does the character of
the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly
be described as kaleidoscopic. Repeated analyses have shown
how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical
composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the descrip-
tion of manure applied. They have further shown how dominant
is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of
different manures that the gross produce of the mixed herbage
is totally different on the respective plots according to the
manure employed, both as to the proportion of the various
species composing it and as to their condition of development
and maturity.

The Rotation of Crops.

The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of
plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has
exhausted it, and renders them less vigorous and more liable to
disease. The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a
way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops.

It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to which
the different crops are put, that have to be considered in the case
of rotation. Thus the cereal crops, when grown in rotation,
yield more produce for sale in the season of growth than when
grown continuously. Moreover, the crops alternated with the
cereals accumulate very much more of mineral constituents
and of nitrogen in their produce than do the cereals themselves.
By far the greater proportion of those constituents remains in
circulation in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder
yields highly valuable products for sale in the forms of meat
and milk. For this reason these crops are known as " restora-
tive," cereals the produce of which is sold off the farm being
classed as " exhaustive." With a variety of crops, again, the
mechanical operations of the farm, involving horse and hand
labour, are better distributed over the year, and are therefore
more economically performed. The opportunities which rotation
cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is
another distinct element of advantage. Although many different
rotations of crops are practised, they may for the most part be
considered as little more than local adaptations of the system
of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal
crops, as exemplified in the old four-course rotation — roots,
barley, clover, wheat.

Under this system the clover is ploughed up in the autumn,
the nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the
nourishment of the cereal crop. The following summer the
wheat crop is harvested, and an opportunity is afforded for
extirpating weeds which in the three previous years have re-
ceived little check. Or, where the climate is warm and the soil
light, a " catch-crop," i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some
other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off
or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing. On heavy
soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time
necessary for thorough cultivation of the land. The cleaning
process is carried on through the next summer by means of
successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop. As turnips or
swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time
is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as the
latter is a shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is required.
Clover is sown at the same time or shortly after the cereal and
thus occupies the land for two years.

The rotations extending to five, six, seven or more years are,
in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations of
soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local conditions.
They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the description
of the root-crop, and perhaps by the introduction of the potato
crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may be more than one
cereal consecutively; by the growth of some other leguminous
crop than- clover, since " clover-sickness " may result if that
crop is grown at too short intervals, or the intermixture of grass
seeds with the clover, and perhaps by the extension by one or
more years of the period allotted to this member of the rotation.
Whatever the specific rotation, there may in practice be devia-
tions from the plan of retaining on the farm the whole of the
root-crops, the straw of the grain crops and the leguminous
fodder crops (clover, vetches, sainfoin, &c.) for the production
of meat or milk, and, coincidently, for that of manure to be
returned to the land. It is equally true that, when under the
influence of special local or other demand — proximity to towns,
easy railway or other communication, for example — the products
which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported
from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an
essential condition of such practice. This system of free sale,
indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased
manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of
merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended
in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the
altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very
large imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other
products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food
and other agricultural produce. More attention is thus being
devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, but on those
that are mainly arable.

The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well
illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at
Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may
fairly be regarded as a self-supporting system. Reference may
first be made to the important mineral constituents of different
crops of the four-course rotation. Of phosphoric acid, the cereal
crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops of the
rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion thus taken
up is lost to the farm in the saleable product — the grain. The
remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the
leguminous crops, is supposed to be retained on the farm, except-
ing the small amount exported in meat and milk. Of potash,
each of the rotation crops takes up very much more than of
phosphoric acid. But much less potash than phosphoric acid
is exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the
straw, whilst the other products of the rotation — the root and
leguminous crops — which are also supposed to be retained on
the farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals,
and comparatively little of it is exported in meat and milk. Thus
the whole of the crops of rotation take up very much more of
potash than of phosphoric acid, whilst probably even less of it is
ultimately lost to the land. Of lime, very little is taken up by
the cereal crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash;
more by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the
clover especially, sometimes much more than by all the other
crops of the rotation put together. Very little of the lime of
the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of the farm
in the case of the self-supporting rotation under considera-
tion. Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large,
amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by
the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any
in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash;
and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience
has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased
manures.

Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than
any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding the
circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically benefited
by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain
two or more times as much nitrogen as either of the cereals,

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

405

and the leguminous crops, especially the clover, much more
than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of the
cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps not more
than 10 or 15% of that of either the root-crop or the clover (or
other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in animal increase or in
milk. Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very
large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen-
yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of
future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen
of the root-crops — the so-called " restorative crops " — these are
as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen
within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli-

cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artificial. Under such
conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as
they are, and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding
root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity
of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in
similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period
of accumulation and growth extending even months after the
period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and
at the season when nitrification within the soil is most active,
and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest. When
a full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at
command, these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of

TABLE XI. — The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Ib. per Acre.

Crop.

Weight of Crop.

Total
Pure
Ash.

Nitro-
gen.

Sul-
phur.

Potash.

Soda.

Lime.

Mag-
nesia.

Phos-
phoric
Acid.

Chlor-
ine.

Silica.

At
Harvest.

Dry.

Wheat, grain, 30 bushels .
,, straw ....

1, 800
•1,1158

1530
2653

30
142

34
16

2-7
5-1

9-3

19-5

0-6

2-O

I-O
8-2

3-6
3-5

14-2
6-9

O-I

2-4

0-6
96-3

Total crop

4.958

4183

172

50

7-8

28-8

2-6

9-2

7-1

2I-I

2-5

96-9

Barley, grain, 40 bushels .
,, straw ....
«
Total crop

2,080
2,447

1747
2080

46
in

35
'4

2-9
3-2

9-8
25-9

I-I

3-9

1-2

8-0

4-0
2-9

16-0
47

c-5
3-6

11-8
56-8

4.527

3827

157

49

6-1

35-7

5-o

9-2

6-9

20-7

4-1

68-6

Oats, grain, 45 bushels
,, straw ....

Total crop

1,890
2,835

1625
2353

5i
140

34
18

fS

9-1

37-o

0-8
4-6

1-8
9-8

3-6
5-1

13-0
6-4

o-5
6-1

19-9
65-4

4-725

3978

191

52

8-0

46-1

5-4

11-6

8-7

19-4

6-6

85-3

Maize, grain, 30 bushels .

i, 680
2,208

1500

1877

22

99

28
15

1-8

6-5
29-8

0-2

o-5

3'4

IO-O

8-0

O-2

o-5

Total crop

3,888

3377

121

43

36-3

18-0

Meadow hay, ij ton .

3,36o

2822

203

49

57

5°-9

9-2

32-1

14-4

12-3

14-6

56-9

Red Clover hay, 2 tons .

4,480

3763

258

98

9.4

83-4

5'i

90-1

28-2

24-9

9-8

7-0

Beans, grain, 30 bushels .

1,920
2,240

1613
1848

58

99

78
29

4'4
4'9

24-3
42-8

0-6
1-7

2-9

26-3

4-2
5'7

22-8

6-3

i-i
4'3

0-4
6-9

Total crop

4,160

346i

157

107

9'3

67-1

2-3

29-2

9-9

29-1

5-4

7'3

Turnips, root, 17 tons
„ leaf ....

38,080

11.424

3126
1531

218
146

61
49

15-2
57

108-6
40-2

17-0

7-5

25-5
48-5

57
3-8

22-4

10-7

10-9

II-2

2-6

5-1-

Total crop

49,504

4657

364

no

20-9

148-8

24-5

74-0

9-5

33-1

22-1

7-7

Swedes, root, 14 tons
„ leaf

Total crop

31,360
4-704

3349
706

163
75

70

28

14-6

3'2

63-3
16-4

22-8

9-2

19-7

22-7

6-8
2-4

16-9
4-8

6-8
8-3

3-1
3-6

36,064

4055

238

98

17-8*

797

32-0

42-4

9-2

21-7

iS-i

6-7

Mangels, root, 22 tons
leaf ....

Total crop

49,28O
18,233

59H
1654

426
254

98
5i

4'9
9-1

222-8

77-9

69-4

49-3

15-9
27-0

18-3
24-2

36-4
16-5

42-5
40-6

8-7
9-2

67.513

7568

680

149

14-0

300-7

118-7

42-9

42-5

52-9

83-1

17-9

Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons .

13.440

336o

127

46

2-7

76-5

3-8

3-4

6-3

2.1-5

4.4

2-6

*Calculated from a single analysis only.

carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous
food materials, a very large amount of the carbohydrate sugar,
as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live stock of the farm.
The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, although
not characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures, never-
theless contribute much more nitrogen to the total produce of the
rotation than any of the other crops comprised in it. It is the
leguminous fodder crops — especially clover, which has a much
more extended period of growth, and much wider range of
collection within the soil and subsoil, than any of the other
crops of the rotation — that yield in their produce the largest
amount of nitrogen per acre. Much of this is doubtless
, taken up as nitrate, yet the direct application of nitrate of
soda has comparatively little beneficial influence on their
' growth. The nitric acid is most likely taken up chiefly as
, nitrate of lime, but probably as nitrate of potash also, and

it is significant that the high nitrogen-yielding clover takes
up, or at least retains, very little soda. Table XI., from War-
ington's Chemistry of the Farm, igth edition (Vinton and Co.),
will serve to illustrate the subjects that have been discussed in
this section.

For further information on the routine and details of farming,
reference may be made to the articles under the headings of the
various crops and implements.

British Live Stock.

The numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom are shown
at five-yearly intervals in Table XII. Under horses are em-
braced only unbroken horses and horses used solely for agri-
culture (including mares kept for breeding). The highest and
lowest annual totals for the United Kingdom in the period 1875-
1905 were the following: —

406

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

Highest.

Lowest.

Difference.

Horses .
Cattle . .
Sheep .
Pigs. . .

2,116,800 in 1905
1 1 ',674,0 1 9 „ 1905
33,642,808 „ 1892
4,362,040 ,, 1890

1,819,687 in 1875

9.731-537 ,- 1877
27,448,220 ,, 1882
2,863,488 „ 1880

295-H3

1,942,482
6,194,588
1,498,552

After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 11,519,417,
and sheep declined continuously for three years to the totals of
1895, the diminution being mainly the result of the memorable
drought of 1893. Sheep, which numbered 32,571,018 in 1878,
declined continuously to 27,448,220 in 1882 — a loss of over five
million head in five years. This was chiefly attributable to the
ravages of the liver fluke which began in the disastrously wet
season of 1879. Pigs, being prolific breeders, fluctuate more
widely in numbers than cattle or sheep, for the difference of
1,498,552 in their case represents one-third of the highest total,
whereas the difference is less than one-seventh for horses, less
than one-sixth for cattle, and less than one-fifth for sheep. The

TABLE XII. — Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the
United Kingdom.

Year.

Horses.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

1875
1880
1885
1890

1895
1900

1905

1,819,687
1,929,680
1,909,200
1,964,911
2,112,207
2,000,402
2,116,800

10,162,787

9,871,153
10,868,760
10,789,858

10,753,314
11,454,902
11,674,019

33,491,948
30,239,620
30,086,200
31,667,195

29,774.853
31,054,547

29,076,777

3,495,167
2,863,488
3,686,628
4,362,040
4,238,870
3,663,669
3,601,659

relative proportions — as distinguished from the actual numbers
— in which stock are distributed over the several sections of the
United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to year. Table
XIII., in which the totals for the United Kingdom include those
for the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, illustrates the prepon-
derance of the sheep-breeding industry in the drier climate of
Great Britain, and of the cattle-breeding industry in the more
humid atmosphere of Ireland. In Great Britain in 1905, for
every head of cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas
in Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep. Again, whilst
Great Britain possessed only half as many cattle more than

TABLE XIII. — Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the
United Kingdom in 1905.

1905-

Horses.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

England .
Wales
Scotland .

1,204,124
161,923
206,386

5,020,936

738,789
1,227,295

14,698,018

3,534,967
7,024,211

2,083,226

211,479
130,214

Great Britain .

1,572,433

6,987,020

25,257,196

2,424,919

Ireland

534,875

4,645,215

3,749,352

1,164,316

United \
Kingdom1 \

2,116,800

11,674,019

29.076,777

3,601,659

Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep. The cattle
population of England alone slightly exceeded that of Ireland,
but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of England than
amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and Scotland, which
are suitable for sheep. Hence, whilst in England sheep were not
three times as numerous as cattle, in Wales they were nearly
five times, and in Scotland nearly six times as many. Great
Britain had twice as many pigs as Ireland, but the swine industry
is mainly English and Irish, and England possessed more than
six times as many pigs as Wales and Scotland together, the
number in the last-named country being particularly small.
One English county alone, Suffolk, maintained more pigs than
the whole of Scotland.

British Imports of Live A nimals and Meat.
The stock-breeders and graziers of the United Kingdom have,
equally with the corn-growers, to face the brunt of foreign
competition.

1 Including Channel Islands and Isle of Man.

Up to 1896 store cattle were admitted into the United King-
dom for the purpose of being fattened, but under the Diseases
of Animals Act of that year animals imported since then have
to be slaughtered at the place of landing. The dimensions of
this trade are shown in Table XIV.

TABLE XIV. — Numbers of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs imported into the
United Kingdom, 1891-1905.

Year.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

1891

507,407

1 344,504

542

1892

502,237

: 79.048

3826

1893

340,045

62,682

138

1894

475.440

484,597

8

1895

415.565

1,065,470

321

1896

562,553

769,592

4

1897

618,321

611,504

1898

569,066

663,747

450

1899

503,504

607,755

1900

495,645

382,833

1901

495,635

383,594

1902

419,488

293,203

1903

522,546

354,241

1904

549,532

382,240

1905

565,139

183,084

150

The animals come mainly from the United States of America,
Canada and Argentina, and the traffic in cattle is^nore uniform
than that in sheep, whilst that in pigs seems practically to have
reached extinction. The quantities of dead meat imported
increased with great rapidity from 1891 to 1905, a circumstance
largely due to the rise of the trade in chilled and frozen meat.
Fresh beef in this form is imported chiefly from the United
States and Australasia, fresh mutton from Australasia and
Argentina.

Table XV. shows how rapidly this trade expanded during the
decade of the 'nineties. The column headed bacon and hams
indicates clearly enough that the imports of fresh meat did not
displace those of preserved pig meat, for the latter expanded from
4,715,000 cwt. to 7,784,000 cwt. during the decade. The column
for all dead meat includes not only the items tabulated, but also

TABLE XV. — Quantities of Dead Meat imported into the United
Kingdom, 1891-1905 — Thousands of Cwt.

Year.

Fresh.
Beef.

Fresh
Mutton.

Fresh
Pork.

Bacon
and Hams.

All
Dead Meat.

1891

1921

1663

128

4715

9.790

1892

2080

1700

132

5135

10,500

'893

1808

1971

182

4187

9,305

1894

2104

2295

1 80

4819

10,610

i895

2191

2611

288

5353

ii,977

1896

2660

2895

299

6009

13,347

1897

3010

3193

348

6731

14,729

1898

3101

3314

558

7684

i6,445

1899

3803

3446

669

7784

17,658

1900

4128

3393

695

7444

17,912

1901

4509

3608

792

7633

18,764

1902

3707

3660

655

6572

16,971

1903

4160

4017

706

6298

17.498

1904

435°

3495

610

6696

I7,5i7

1905

5038

3811

506

6817

18,680

the following, the quantities stated being those for 1905: — Beef,
salted, 142,806 cwt.; beef, otherwise preserved, 598,030 cwt.;
preserved mutton, 30,111 cwt.; salted pork, 205,965 cwt.; dead
rabbits, 656,078 cwt.; meat, unenumerated, 875,032 cwt. The
quantities of these are relatively small, and, excepting rabbits
from Australia, they show no general tendency to increase. The
extent to which these growing imports were associated with a
decline in value is shown in Table XVI.

The trend of the import trade in meat, live and dead (exclusive
of rabbits) , may be gathered from Table X VII. , in which are given
the annual average imports from the eight quinquennial periods
embraced between 1866 and 1905. An increase in live cattle
accompanied a decrease in live sheep and pigs, but the imports of
dead meat expanded fifteen-fold over the period,

The rate at which the trade in imported frozen mutton in-
creased as compared with the industry in home-grown mutton
is illustrated in the figures published annually by Messrs W.

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

407

Weddel and Company, from which those for 1885 and 1890 and
for each year from 1895 to 1906 are given in Table XVIII. The
home-grown is the estimated dead weight of sheep and lambs
slaughtered, which is taken at 40 % of the total number of sheep
and lambs returned each year in the United Kingdom. In the

TABLE XVI. — Average Values of Fresh Meat, Bacon and Hams
imported into the United Kingdom, 1891-1905 — per Cwt.

Year.

Fresh
Beef.

Fresh
Mutton.

Fresh
Pork.

Bacon.

Hams.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

1891

42 i

39 6

47 6

37 ii

46 4

1892

42 5

40 6

46 ii

40 10

47 4

1893

42 4

39 3

50 o

53 o

58 5

1894

40 o

37 1°

48 5

43 10

49 i

1895

39 o

35 2

46 i

39 o

44 ii

1896

37 10

32 7

45 ii

34 6

43 o

1897

38 5

3» 3

44 o

35 5

42 8

1898

38 2

29 7

41 10

36 2

39 6

1899

38 8

31 7

41 ii

35 10

41 5

1900

39 7

34 5

43 o

41 9

46 10

1901

39 6

36 7

43 4

47 i

48 8

1902

42 8

37 9

44 2

52 9

52 i

1903

4« 3

39 o

44 i

52 10

55 i

1904

37 i

39 3

45 2.

47 i

49 ii

1905

35 6

38 6

46 o

46 6

47 4

nported column is given the weight of fresh (frozen) mutton and
amb imported, plus the estimated dead weight of the sheep

nported on the hoof for slaughter. The quantity imported in
1899 was double that in 1890, and quadruple that in 1885. More-
over, in 1885 the imported product was only about one-seventh

TABLE XVII. — Average Annual Imports of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs,
and of Dead Meat, into the United Kingdom over eight ^-yearly
Periods.

Period.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

Dead Meat.

No.

No. •

No.

Cwt.

1866-1870

194.947

610,300

64,827

1,155,867

1871-1875

215,990

864,516

74,040

3-134,175

1876-1880

272,745

938,704

44,6i3

5,841,913

1881-1885

387,282

974,316

24-355

6,012,495

1886-1890

438,098

800,599

19,437

7,681,729

1891-1895

448,139

407,260

967

10,436,549

1896-1900

549,818

607,086

9i

15,785,354

1901-1905

510,468

319,272

30

17,384-366

much as the home-grown, whereas in 1890 it was more than

ne-fourth, and in 1906 close on two- thirds. This large import

rade in fresh meat, which sprang up entirely within the last

quarter of the igth century, has placed an abundance of cheap

nd wholesome food well within the reach of the great industrial

TABLE XVIII. — Home Product and Imports of Sheep and Mutton
into the United Kingdom — Thousands of Tons.

Year.

Home-
grown.

Imported.

Year.

Home-
grown.

Imported.

1885
1890

1895
1896
1897
1898
1899

322

339
319
329
327
333
339

47
92
157
164

175
182
187

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906

332
330
322
3i8
3"
312

313

179

191
191

2I01
185
195
207

opulations of the United Kingdom. At the same time it cannot
: gainsaid that it has opened the way to fraud. Butchers have
limed off upon their customers imported fresh meat as home-
own, and secured a dishonest profit by charging for it the prices
of the latter, which are considerably in excess of those of the
nported product.

Sale of Cattle by Live Weight.

In connexion with the internal live stock trade of Great Britain

attention must be directed to the Markets and Fairs (Weighing

of Cattle) Act 1891. The object of this measure is to replace the

1 In 1903 two of the principal sources of supply of mutton shipped

i excess of their exportable surplus, for which they suffered severely

1904 — hence the somewhat irregular movements after 1903.

old-fashioned system of guessing at the weight of an animal by
the sounder method of obtaining the exact weight by means of
the weighbridge. The grazier buys and sells cattle much less
frequently than the butcher buys them, so that the latter is
naturally more skilled in estimating the weight of a beast through
the use of the eye and the hand. The resort to the weighbridge
should put both on an equality, and its use tends to increase.
Under the act, as supplemented by an order of the Board of
Agriculture in 1905, there were in that year 26 scheduled places
in England and 10 in Scotland, or 36 altogether, from which
returns were obtained. The numbers of cattle (both fat and
store) weighed at scheduled places in 1893 and 1905" were
respectively 7-59 and 18 % of those entering those markets. The
numbers for Scotland are greater throughout than those for
England, 72 % of the fat cattle entering the scheduled markets in
Scotland in igos2 having been weighed, while in England the
proportion was only 20 %. Little use is made of the weighbridge
in selling store-cattle, sheep or swine. As the main object of
the act is to obtain records of prices, it follows that only in so
far as statements of the prices realized, together with the descrip-
tion of the animals involved, are obtained, is the full advan-
tage of the statute secured. In 1905 the average price per cwt.
for fat cattle in Great Britain was 325. nd. as compared with
355. 2d. in 1900.

Food-values and Early Maturity.

In the feeding experiments which have been carried on
at Rothamsted it has been shown that the amount consumed
both for a given live weight of animal within a given time, and
for the production of a given amount of increase, is, as current
food-stuffs go, measurable more by the amounts they contain
of digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents than
by the amounts of the digestible and available nitrogenous
constituents they supply. The non-nitrogenous substance (the
fat) in the increase in live weight of an animal is, at any rate in
great part, if not entirely, derived from the non-nitrogenous
constituents of the food. Of the nitrogenous compounds in food,
on the other hand, only a small proportion of the whole consumed
is finally stored up in the increase of the animal — in other words,
a very large amount of nitrogen passes through the body beyond
that which is finally retained in the increase, and so remains
for manure. Hence it is that the amount of food consumed to
produce a given amount of increase in live weight, as well as that
required for the sustentation of a given live weight for a given
time, should — provided the food be not abnormally deficient
in nitrogenous substance — be characteristically dependent on
its supplies of digestible and available non-nitrogenous con-
stituents. It has further been shown that, in the exercise of
force by animals, there is a greatly increased expenditure of
the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, but little, if any, of
the nitrogenous. Thus, then, alike for maintenance, for increase,
and for the exercise of force, 'the exigencies of the system are
characterized more by the demand for the digestible non-
nitrogenous or more specially respiratory and fat-forming con-
stituents than by that for the nitrogenous or more specially
flesh-forming ones. Hence, as current fattening food-stuffs
go — assuming, of course, that they are not abnormally low in
the nitrogenous constituents — they are, as foods, more valuable
in proportion to their richness in digestible and available non-
nitrogenous than to that of their nitrogenous constituents. As,
however, the manure of the animals of the farm is valuable
largely in proportion to the nitrogen it contains, there is, so far,
an advantage in giving a food somewhat rich in nitrogen, pro-
vided it is in other respects a good one, and, weight for weight,
not much more costly.

The quantity of digestible nutritive matter in 1000 Ib of
ordinary feeding-stuffs when supplied to sheep or oxen is shown
in Table XIX. This table is taken from Warington's Chemistry
of the Farm, igth edition (Vinton and Co.) , to which reference may
be made for a detailed discussion of the feeding of animals.

In the fattening of animals for the butcher the principle of
* Returns for only ten months were available for this year.

408

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

early maturity has received full recognition. If the sole purpose
for which an animal is reared is to prepare it for the block — and
this is the case with steers amongst cattle and with wethers
amongst sheep — the sooner it is ready for slaughter the less
should be the outlay involved. During the whole time the
animal is living the feeder has to pay what has been termed the
" life tax " — that is, so much of the food has to go to the main-
tenance of the animal as a living organism, independently of
that which may be undergoing conversion into what will sub-
sequently be available in the form of beef or mutton. If a bullock
can be rendered fit for the butcher at the age of two or three
years, will the animal repay another year's feeding? It has
been proved at the Christmas fat stock shows that the older a
bullock gets the less will he gain in weight per day as a result
of the feeding. With regard to this point the work of the Smith-
field Club deserves recognition. This body was instituted in
1798 as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being

TABLE XIX. — Digestible Matter in 1000 Ib. of various Foods.

Total
Organic
Matter.

Nitrogenous
Substances.

Fat.

Soluble
Carbo-
hydrates.

Fibre.

Albu-
minoids.

Amides,
etc.

Cotton cake (decorticated) .

691

374

18

128

158

13

„ (undecorticated)

422

15°

13

5°

177

32

Linseed cake

655

230

II

103

266

45

Peas

747

'75

25

12

499

36

Beans

733

196

28

12

446

51

Wheat1

786

92

13

15

656

10

Oats

600

81

7

45

441

26

Barley

715

70

4

19

607

15

Maize

786

73

6

44

651

12

Rice meal .

612

67

10

1 02

411

22

Wheat bran

585

90

20

27

426

22

Malt sprouts

68 1

114

71

ii

379

106

Brewers' grains

137

34

2

H

67

20

(dried) .

529

136

8

57

266

62

Pasture grass

156

19

ii

6

84

36

Clover (bloom beginning)

123

17

8

5

63

3«

Clover hay (medium) .

440

47

25

13

242

113

Meadow hay (best)

5"

60

18

13

269

151

„ (medium)

485

40

12

12

269

152

(poor)

460

29

5

10

242

174

Maize silage ....

124

i

7

7

75

34

Bean straw ....

412

40

6

211

155

Oat straw ....

38i

7

5

7

163

199

Barley straw ....

426

4

3

6

211

202

Wheat straw ....

351

4

4

ISO

193

Potatoes ....

213

5

9

i

195

3

Mangels (large)

89

i

8

1

74

6

(small) .

109

2

6

|

96

5

Swedes ....

87

2

7

i

71

6

Turnips . ....

68

I

5

i

56

5

changed to that of the Smithfield Club in 1802. The original
object — the supply of the cattle markets of Smithfield and other
places with the cheapest and best meat — is still kept strictly
in view. The judges, in making their awards at the show held
annually in December, at Islington, North London (since 1862),
are instructed to decide according to quality of flesh, lightness
of offal, age and early maturity, with no restrictions as to feeding,
and thus to promote the primary aim of the club in encouraging
the selection and breeding of the best and most useful animals
for the production of meat, and testing their capabilities in respect
of early maturity. At the first show, held at Smithfield in 1799,
two classes were provided for cattle and two for sheep, the prizes
offered amounting to £52 : ios. In 1839 the classes comprised
seven for cattle, six for sheep, and one for pigs, with prizes to
the amount of £300. By 1862 the classes had risen to 29 for
cattle, 17 for sheep and 4 for pigs, and the prize money to
£2072. At the centenary show in 1898 provision was made for
40 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 18 for pigs, and 7 for animals
to be slaughtered, whilst to mark the importance of the occasion
the prizes offered amounted to close upon £5000 in value. In

1 In the absence of experiments it is assumed that wheat is
digested like other foods of the same class.

1907 there were 38 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 20 for pigs,
and 1 2 for carcase competitors, and the value of the prizes was
£4113. The sections provided for cattle are properly restricted
to what may be termed the beef breeds; in the catalogue order
they are Devon, South Devon, Hereford, Shorthorn, Sussex,
Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Welsh, Highland,
Cross-bred, Kerry and Dexter, and Small Cross-bred.

It will be noticed that such characteristically milking breeds
as the Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey have no place here.
Provision is made, however, for all the well-known breeds of sheep
and swine. In the cattle classes, aged beasts of huge size and
of considerably over a ton in weight used to be common, but in
recent years the tendency has been to reduce the upper limit of
age, and thus to bring out animals ripe for the butcher in a shorter
time than was formerly the case. An important step in this
direction was taken in 1896, when the senior class for steers,
viz. animals three to four years old, was abolished, the maximum
age at which steers were allowed to compete
for prizes being reduced to three years. The
cow classes were abolished in 1897, and in the
schedule of the 1905 exhibition the classes for
each breed of cattle were (i) for steers not
exceeding two years old, (2) for steers above
two years and not exceeding three years old,
and (3) for heifers not exceeding three years
old. The single exception is provided by the
slowly-maturing Highland breed of cattle, for
which classes were allotted to (i) steers not
exceeding three years old, (2) steers or oxen
above three years old (with no maximum
limit), and (3) heifers not exceeding four
years old. As illustrating heavy weights,
there were in the 1893 show, out of 310 entries
of cattle, four beasts which weighed over a
ton. They were all steers of three to four
years old, one being a Hereford weighing 20
cwt. 2 qr. 4 Ib, and the others Shorthorns
weighing respectively 20 cwt. 2 qr., 20 cwt.
3 qr. 21 Ib, and 22 cwt. 2 qr. 18 ft). In the
1895 show, out of 356 entries of cattle, there
were seven beasts of more than a ton in
weight. They were all three to four years
old, and comprised four Shorthorns (top
weight 21 cwt. i qr. 18 Ib), one Sussex (22
cwt. 3 qr. 7 Ib), and two cross-breds (top
weight 20 cwt. 3 qr. 24 Ib). In the 1899 show,
with 311 entries of cattle, and the age limited
to three years, no beast reached the weight
of a ton, the heaviest animal being a cross-
bred(Aberdeen-Angus and Shorthorn) which,at
three years old, turned the scale at 19 cwt. i qr. 5 Ib. Out of
301 entries in 1905 the top weight was 19 cwt. i qr. 25 Ib in the
case of a Shorthorn steer. Useful figures for purposes of com-
parison are obtained by dividing the weight of a fat beast by
the number of days in its age, the weight at birth being thrown
in. The average daily gain in live weight is thus arrived at, and
as the animal increases in age this average gradually diminishes,
until the daily gain reaches a stage at which it does not afford
any profitable return upon the food consumed. At the centenary
show of the Smithfield Club in 1898 the highest average daily
gains in weight amongst prize-winning cattle were provided by a
Shorthorn-Aberdeen cross-bred steer (age, one year seven months;
daily gain 2-47 Ib); a Shorthorn steer (age, one year seven
months; daily gain, 2-44 Ib); and an Aberdeen-Shorthorn
cross-bred steer (age, one year ten months; daily gain, 2-33 Ib).
These beasts, it will be observed, were all under two years old.
Amongst prize steers of two and a half to three years old, on the
same occasion, the three highest daily average gains in live
weight were 2-07 Ib for an Aberdeen- Angus, 1-99 Ib for a Short-
horn-Aberdeen cross-bred and 1-97 Ib for a Sussex. In the sheep
section of the Smithfield show the classes for ewes were finally
abolished in 1898, and the classes restricted to wethers and

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

409

wether lambs, whose function is exclusively the production of
meat. At the 1905 show, sheep of each breed, and also cross-breds,
competed as (i) wether lambs under twelve months old, and (2)
wether sheep above twelve and under twenty-four months old.
The only exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing
Cheviot and mountain breeds, for which the second class was for
•ether sheep of any age above twelve months. Of prize sheep at
ie centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0-7 7 Ib per
,d given by Oxford-Hampshire cross-bred wether lambs, aged
ie months two weeks. In the case of wether sheep, twelve to
wenty-four months old, the highest daily increase was 0-56 Ib
per head as yielded by Lincolns, aged twenty-one months.
Within the last quarter of the igth century the stock-feeding
practices of the country were much modified in accordance with
these ideas of early maturity. The three-year-old wethers and
older oxen that used to be common in the fat stock markets
are now rarely seen, excepting perhaps in the case of mountain
breeds of sheep and Highland cattle. It was in 1875 that the
Smithfield Club first provided the competitive classes for lambs,
and in 1883 the champion plate offered for the best pen of sheep
of any age in the show was for the first time won by lambs, a
pen of Hampshire Downs. The young classes for bullocks were
established in 1880. The time-honoured notion that an animal
must have completed its growth before it could be profitably
fattened is no longer held, and the improved breeds which now

;st rival one another as regards the early period at which they
y be made ready for the butcher by appropriate feeding and
nagement.
n 1895 the Smithfield Club instituted a carcase competition
in association with its annual show of fat stock, and it has been
continued each year since. The cattle and sheep entered for this
competition are shown alive on the first day, at the close of which
they are slaughtered and the carcases hung up for exhibition,
with details of live and dead weights. The competition thus
constitutes what is termed a " block test," and it is instructive
in affording the opportunity of seeing the quality of the carcases
furnished by the several animals, and in particular the relative
proportion and distribution of fat and lean meat. The live
animals are judged and subsequently the carcases, and, though the
results sometimes agree, more often they do not. Tables are con-
structed showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and
the weight of the various parts that are separated from and not
included with the carcase. An abundance of lean meat and a
moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better
carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a
carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent. To
add to the educational value of the display, information as to the
methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would then be
possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the mode of its
manufacture. A point of high practical interest is the ratio of
carcase weight to fasted live weight, and in the case of prize-
winning carcases these ratios usually fluctuate within very narrow
limits. At the 1899 show, for example, the highest proportion of
the carcase weight to live weight was 68 % in the case of an
Aberdeen-Angus steer and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest
was 6 1 %, afforded alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred heifer
and a mountain lamb. A familiar practical method of estimating
carcase weight from live weight is to reckon one Smithfield stone
(8 Ib) of carcase for each imperial stone (14 Ib) of live weight.
This gives carcase weight as equal to 57 % of live weight, a
ratio much inferior to the best results obtained at the carcase
competition promoted by the Smithfield Club.

Breed Societies.

A noteworthy feature of the closing decades of the igth century
was the formation of voluntary associations of stockbreeders,
with the object of promoting the interests of the respective breeds
of live stock. As a typical example of these organizations the
Shire Horse Society may be mentioned. It was incorporated in
1878 to improve and promote the breeding of the Shire or old
English race of cart-horses, and to effect the distribution of sound
and healthy sires throughout the country. The society holds

annual shows, publishes annually the Shire Horse Stud Book and
offers gold and silver medals for competition amongst Shire
horses at agricultural 'shows in different parts of the country.
The society has carried on a work of high national importance,
and has effected a marked improvement in the character and
quality of the Shire horse. What has thus voluntarily been done
in England would in most other countries be left to the state, or
would not be attempted at all. It is hardly necessary to say that
the Shire Horse Society has never received a penny of public
money, nor has any other of the voluntary breeders' societies.
The Hackney Horse Society and the Hunters' Improvement
Society are conducted on much the same lines as the Shire Horse
Society, and, like it, they each hold a show in London in the
spring of the year and publish an annual volume. Other horse-
breeders' associations, all doing useful work in the interests of
their respective breeds, are the Suffolk Horse Society, the
Clydesdale Horse Society, the Yorkshire Coach Horse Society,
the Cleveland Bay Horse Society, the Polo Pony Society, the
Shetland Pony Stud Book Society, the Welsh Pony and Cob
Society and the New Forest Pony .Association. Thoroughbred
race-horses are registered in the General Stud Book. The Royal
Commission on Horse Breeding, which dates from 1887, is, as its
name implies, not a voluntary organization. Through the com-
mission the money previously spent upon Queen's Plates is
offered in the form of " King's Premiums " (to the number of
twenty-eight in 1907) of £150 each for thoroughbred stallions, on
condition that each stallion winning a premium shall serve not
less than fifty half-bred mares, if required. The winning stallions
are distributed in districts throughout Great Britain, and the use
of these selected sires has resulted in a decided improvement in
the quality of half-bred horses. The annual show of the Royal
Commission on Horse Breeding is held in London jointly and
concurrently with that of the Hunters' Improvement Society.

Of organizations of cattle-breeders the English Jersey Cattle
Society, established in 1878, may be taken as a type. It offers
prizes in butter-test competitions and milking trials at various
agricultural shows, and publishes the English Herd Book and
Register of Pure-bred Jersey Cattle. This volume records the
births in the herds of members of the society, and gives the
pedigrees of cows and bulls, besides furnishing lists of prize-
winners at the principal shows and butter-test awards, and
reports of sales by auction of Jersey cattle. Other cattle
societies, all well caring for the interest of their respective breeds,
are the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the
Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn Association, the Hereford Herd Book
Society, the Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, the South Devon
Herd Book Society, the Sussex Herd Book Society, the Long-
horned Cattle Society, the Red Polled Society, the English
Guernsey Cattle Society, the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle
Society, the Welsh Black Cattle Society, the Polled Cattle
Society (for the Aberdeen- Angus breed), the English Aberdeen-
Angus Cattle Association, the Galloway Cattle Society, the Ayr-
shire Cattle Herd Book Society, the Highland Cattle Society of
Scotland and the Dairy Shorthorn Association.

In the case of sheep the National Sheep Breeders' Association
looks after the interests of flockmasters in general, whilst most
of the pure breeds are represented also by separate organizations.
The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association may be taken
as a type of the latter, its principal object being to encourage the
breeding of Hampshire Down sheep at home and abroad, and to
maintain the purity of the breed. It publishes an annual Flock
Book, the first volume of which appeared in 1890. In this book
are named the recognized and pure-bred sires which have been
used, and ewes which have been bred from, whilst there are also
registered the pedigrees of such sheep as are proved to be eligible
for entry. Prizes are offered by the society at various agri-
cultural shows where Hampshire Down sheep are exhibited.
Other sheep societies include the Leicester Sheep Breeders'
Association, the Cotswold Sheep Society, the Lincoln Longwool
Sheep Breeders' Association, the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders'
Association, the Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and
Flock Book Society, the Southdown Sheep Society, the Suffolk

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

Sheep Society, the Border Leicester Sheep Breeders' Society, the
Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock
Book Society, the Incorporated Wensleydale Blue-faced Sheep
Breeders' Association and Flock Book Society, the Kent Sheep
Breeders' Association, the Devon Longwool Sheep Breeders'
Society, the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, the
Cheviot Sheep Society and the Roscommon Sheep Breeders'
Association.

The interests of pig-breeders are the care of the National Pig
Breeders' Association, in addition to which there exist the
British Berkshire, the Large Black Pig, and the Lincoln Curly-
Coated White Pig Societies, and the Incorporated Tamworth Pig
Breeders' Association.

The addresses of the secretaries of the various live-stock
societies in the United Kingdom are published annually in the
Live Stock Journal Almanac.

The Maintenance of the Health of Live Stock.

It was not till the closing decade of the igth century that the
stock-breeders of the United Kingdom found themselves in a
position to prosecute their industry free from the fear of the
introduction of contagious disease through the medium of store
animals imported from abroad for fattening on the native pas-
tures. By the Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 &6o Viet. c. 15)
it was provided that cattle, sheep and pigs imported into the
United Kingdom should be slaughtered at the place of landing.
The effect was to reduce to a minimum the risk of the introduction
of disease amongst the herds and flocks of the country, and at the
same time to confine the trade in store stock exclusively to the
breeders of Great Britain and Ireland. This arrangement makes
no difference to the food-supply of the people, for dead meat
continues to arrive at British ports in ever-increasing quantity.
Moreover, live animals are admitted freely from certain coun-
tries, provided such animals are slaughtered at the place of
landing. At Deptford, for example, large numbers of cattle and
sheep which thus arrive — mainly from Argentina, Canada and
the United States — are at once slaughtered, and so furnish a
steady supply of fresh-killed beef and mutton. The animals
which are shipped in this way are necessarily of the best quality,
because the freight on a superior beast is no more costly than on
an inferior one, and the proportion of freight to sale price is there-
fore less. With this superior description of butchers' stock all
classes of home-grown stock — good, bad and indifferent — have,
of course, to compete. The Board of Agriculture has the power
to close the ports of the United Kingdom against live animals
from any country in which contagious disease is known to exist.
This accounts for the circumstance that so few countries — none
of them in Europe — enjoy the privilege of sending live animals to
British ports. In 1900 the discovery early in the year of the
existence of foot-and-mouth disease amongst cattle and sheep
shipped from Argentina to the United Kingdom led to the issue
of an order by which all British ports were closed against live
animals from the country named. This order came into force on
the 3oth of April, and the result was a marked decline in the
shipments of live cattle and sheep from the River Plate, but a
decided increase in the quantity of frozen meat sent thence to the
United Kingdom.

The last quarter of the igth century witnessed an important
change in the attitude of public opinion towards legislative
control over the contagious diseases of animals. When, after
the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the
proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter
in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing
its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with public
indignation and denounced as barbarous. Views have undergone
profound modification since then, and the most drastic remedy
has come to be regarded as the most effective, and in the long
run the least costly. The Cattle Diseases Prevention Act 1866
(29 & 30 Viet. c. 2) made compulsory the slaughter of diseased
cattle, and permitted the slaughter of cattle which had been
exposed to infection, compensation being provided out of the
rates. The Act 30 & 31 Viet. c. 1 25, 1867, is of historical interest,

in that it contains the first mention of pleuro-pneumonia, and the
exposure in any market of cattle suffering from that disease
was made an offence. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
1869 (32 & 33 Viet. c. 70) revoked all former acts, and defined
disease to mean cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth
disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab and glanders, together with any
disease which the Privy Council might by order specify. The
principle of this act in regard to foreign animals was that of
free importation, with power for the Privy Council to prohibit
or subject to quarantine and slaughter, as circumstances seemed
to require. The act of 1869 was at that time the most complete
measure that had ever been passed for dealing with diseases
of animals. The re-introduction of cattle plague into England
in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 41 & 42 Viet. c. 74, 1878,
which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a principle the
landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, though free im-
portation or quarantine on the one hand and prohibition on the
other were provided for in exceptional circumstances. By an
order of council which came into operation in December 1878,
swine fever was declared to be a disease for the purposes of the
act of that year. It was not, however, till October 1886 that
anthrax and rabies were officially declared to be contagious
diseases for the purposes of certain sections of the act of 1878.
In 1884 the Act 47 & 48 Viet. c. 13 empowered the Privy Council
to prohibit the landing of animals from any country in respect
of which the circumstances were not such as to afford reason-
able security against the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease.
After one or two other measures of minor importance came the
Act 53 & 54 Viet. c. 14, known as the Pleuro-pneumonia Act
1890, which transferred the powers of local authorities to slaughter
and pay compensation in cases of pleuro-pneumonia to the Board
of Agriculture, and provided further for the payment of such
compensation out of money specifically voted by parh'ament.
This measure was regarded at the time as a marked step in
advance, and was only carried after a vigorous campaign in its
favour. In 1892 by the Act 55 & 56 Viet. c. 47 power was given
to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account
of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing
with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could
order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in contact
with these, and could pay compensation foranimals so slaughtered.
Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
J893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 43) swine fever in Great Britain was, from
the ist of November in that year, dealt with by the Board of
Agriculture in the same way as pleuro-pneumonia, the slaughter
of infected swine being carried out under directions from the
central authority, and compensation allowed from the imperial
exchequer. In 1894 was passed the Diseases of Animals Act
(57 & 58 Viet. c. 57), the word "contagious" being omitted
from the title. This was a measure to consolidate the Contagious
Diseases (Animals) Acts 1878-1893. In it "the expression
' disease ' means cattle plague (that is to say, rinderpest, or the
disease commonly called cattle plague), contagious pleuro-
pneumonia of cattle (in this act called pleuro-pneumonia),
foot-and-mouth disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, or swine fever
(that is to say, the disease known as typhoid fever of swine,
soldier purples, red disease, hog cholera or swine plague)." The
Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 & 60 Viet. c. 15) rendered
compulsory the slaughter of imported live stock at the place
of landing, a boon for which British stock-breeders had striven
for many years. The ports in Great Britain at which foreign
animals may be landed are Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull, Liver-
pool, London,\'Manchester and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Animals
from the Channel Islands may be landed at Southampton.

The Diseases of Animals.

Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 weekly
returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of
anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy),
pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties of
Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab.

Cattle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

411

Britain since 1877. In that year there were 47 outbreaks dis-
tributed over five counties and involving 263 head of cattle.

The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between
1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the

TABLE XX. — Outbreaks of Foot-and- Mouth Disease in Great Britain,
1877-1905.

Year.

Counties.

Out-
breaks.

Animals attacked.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Swine.

Other
Animals.

1877

55

858

5.640

7,405

2,099

1878

45

235

912

8,609

245

1879

29

137

261

15,681

5

1880

38

1,461

20,918

9,572

1,886

2

1881

49

4,833

59,484

117-152

6,330

80

1882

49

1,970

23,973

11,412

2,564

I

1883

75

18,732

219,289

217,492

24,332

32

1884

55

949

12,186

14-174

1, 860

I

1885

10

30

354

34

30

1886

i

i

10

1892

15

95

1,248

3,412

107

1893

2

2

30

1894

3

3

7

261

1900

9

21

214

50

2

1901

3

12

43

626

1902

i

I

2

' 118

years 1887 to 1891, 1895 to 1899 and 1903 to 1905 inclusive
are omitted, because there was no outbreak during those periods.
The disease is seen to have attained its maximum virulence in
1883.

Sheep-scab is a loathsome skin disease due to an acarian
parasite. Table XXI. shows the number of outbreaks and the
number of counties over which they were distributed from
1877 to 1905. The recorded outbreaks were more numerous
in the decade of the 'nineties than in that of the 'eighties, though
possibly this may have been due to greater official activity in
the later period. The largest number of sheep attacked was

TABLE XXI. — Outbreaks of Sheep-Scab in Great Britain,
1877-1905.

Year.

Counties.

Outbreaks.

Year.

Counties.

Outbreaks.

1877
1880
1885

77
70
69

3214
1556
1512

1890

1895
1900

1905

II
78
73

1506
3092

1939
918

68,713 (in 1877). It is compulsory on owners to notify the
authorities as to the existence of scab amongst their sheep. By
the Diseases of Animals Act (1903) powers to prescribe the dipping
of sheep, irrespective of the presence or otherwise of sheep scab,
were conferred upon the Board of Agriculture. ' An inspector
of the board or of the local authority was by the same act
authorized to enter premises and examine sheep. Each year
the disorder runs a similar course, the outbreaks dwindling to
a minimum in the summer months, June to August, and attaining
a maximum in the winter months, December to February. It
is chiefly in the " flying " flocks and not in the breeding flocks
that the disease is rife, and it is so easily communicable that a
drove of scab-infested sheep passing along a road may leave
behind them traces sufficient to set up the disorder in a drove
of healthy sheep that may follow. For its size and in relation
to its sheep population Wales harbours the disease to a far
greater extent than the other divisions of Great Britain.

The fatal disease known as anthrax did not form the subject of
official returns previous to the passing of the Anthrax Order of
1886. Isolated outbreaks are of common occurrence, and from
the totals for Great Britain given in Table XXII. it would appear
that there is little prospect of the eradication of this bacterial
disorder.

Glanders (including farcy) was the subject during the twenty-
four years 1877-1900 of outbreaks in Great Britain ranging
between a minimum of 518 in 1877 and a maximum of 1657 in
1892; in the former year 758 horses were attacked, and in the
latter 3001. A recrudescence of the disease marked the closing
years of the igth century, the outbreaks having been 748 in 1898,

853 in 1899 and 1119 in 1900. The counties of Great Britain
over which the annual outbreaks have been distributed have
ranged between 24 in 1890 and 52 in 1879. As a matter of fact,

TABLE XXII. — Outbreaks of Anthrax in Great Britain,
1895-1905.

Year.

Counties.

Outbreaks.

Animals attacked.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Swine.

Horses.

1895

66

434

604

158

140

32

1896

64

488

632

34

200

38

1897

67

433

521

39

284

38

1898

73

556

634

22

161

39

1899

67

534

634

69

253

3«

1900

74

571

668

40

204

44

1901

63

651

708

76

152

35

1902

71

678

746

50

192

44

1903

78

767

809

48

234

51

1904

77

1049

i"5

62

365

47

1905

84

970.

1001

53

210

53

however, the disease is strongly centred upon the metropolitan
area, more than half of the outbreaks being reported from the
county of London alone.

The Rabies order was passed in 1886, and the number of
counties in Great Britain in which cases of rabies in dogs were
reported in each subsequent year is shown in Table XXIII.
In addition there have been some cases of rabies in animals other
than dogs. The disease was very rife in 1895, but the extensive
application of the muzzling restrictions of the Board of Agri-
culture was accompanied by so steady a diminution in the

TABLE XXIII. — Cases of Rabies in Dogs in Great Britain,
1887-1902.

Year.

Counties.

Cases.

Year.

Counties.

Cases.

1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892

1893
1894

28

19

20
20
17

12

18
17

217
1 60
312
129
79
38
93
248

1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902

29

41
3°
10

4

2
I

4

672
438
151
17
9
6
I
13

prevalence of the disease, that it was thought the latter had been
extirpated. The entire revocation of the muzzling order, which
accordingly followed, proved, however, to be premature, and
it became necessary to reimpose it in the districts where it had
last been operative, namely, certain parts of South Wales. No
cases were reported in 1903, 1904 or 1905.

Pleura-pneumonia in Great Britain was dealt with by the
local authorities up to the year 1890. Between 1870 and 1889
the annual outbreaks had ranged between a minimum of 312
in 1884 and a maximum of 3262 in 1874, the largest number of
cattle attacked in any one year being 7983 in 1872. The largest
number of counties over which the outbreaks were distributed
was 72 in 1873. On the ist of September 1890 the Board of
Agriculture assumed powers with respect to pleuro-pneumonia
under the Diseases of Animals Act of that year. Their adminis-
tration was attended by success, for from 192 outbreaks in
Great Britain in 1891 the total fell to 35 in 1892 and to 9 in
1893. In the four subsequent years, 1894-1897, the outbreaks
numbered 2, i, 2. and 7 respectively. In January 1898
an outbreak was discovered in a London cow-shed. This
proved to be the last case in the igth century of what at one
time had been a veritable scourge to cattle-owners and a source
of heavy financial loss.

Between 1879 and 1892 inclusive, administration with regard
to swine-fever was entrusted to local authorities. The largest
number of outbreaks reported in any one of those years was
7926 in 1885, and the smallest 1717 in 1881. In 1893 the Board
of Agriculture took over the management, and Table XXIV.
shows the number of counties in which swine-fever existed, the
number of outbreaks confirmed and the number of swine
slaughtered by order of the board in each year since. The trouble
with this disease has been mainly in England, the outbreaks in

412

AGRICULTURE

[BRITISH

Wales and Scotland being comparatively few. What are termed

" swine-fever infected areas " are scheduled by the board when

and where circumstances seem to require, and the movement

TABLE XXIV. — Outbreaks of Swine Fever in Great Britain,

1894-1905.

Year.

Counties.

Outbreaks
confirmed .

Swine slaughtered as
diseased, or as having been
exposed to infection.

1894

73

5682

56,296

1895

73

6305

69,931

1896

77

5166

79,586

1897

74

2155

40,432

1898

72

25H

43,756

1899

7i

2322

30,797

1900

62

1940

17,933

1901

71

314°

1 5,237

1902

67

1688

8,263

1903

63

1478

7,933

1904

64

1196

5,603

1905

58

817

3,876

of swine within such areas is prohibited, much inconvenience to
trade resulting from restrictions of this kind. Frequently, more-
over, the exhibition of pigs at agricultural shows has to be
abandoned in consequence of these swine-fever regulations.

The Trade in Live Stock between Ireland and Great Britain.

The compulsory slaughter at the place of landing does not
extend to animals shipped from Ireland into Great Britain, and
this is a matter of the highest importance to Irish stock-breeders,
who find their best market close at hand on the east of St George's
Channel. Table XXV. shows the number of cattle, sheep and
pigs shipped from Ireland into Great Britain in each of the
fifteen years 1891-1905, the numbers of horses similarly
shipped being also indicated. On the average rather more than
half the total of cattle is made up of store animals for fattening
or breeding purposes, the fattening of Irish stores being a busi-
ness of considerable magnitude in Norfolk and other counties.
Calves constitute about one-twelfth of the total number of cattle.

TABLE XXV. — Imports of Live Stock from Ireland into Great
Britain, 1891-1905.

Year.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

Horses.

1891

630,802

893.175

503,584

33-396

1892

624,457

1,080,202

500,951

32,481

1893

688,669

1,107,960

456,571

30,390

1894

826,954

957.101

584.967

33-589

1895

791,607

652,578

547.220

34,56o

1896

681,560

737,306

610,589

39,856

1897

746,012

804,515

695.307

38,422

, 1898

803,362

833.458

588,785

38,804

1899

772,272

871,953

688,553

42,087

1900

745,519

862,263

715,202

35,6o6

1901

642,638

843.325

596,129

25,607

1902

959,241

1,055,802

637.972

25,260

1903

897,645

825,679

569,920

27,719

1904

772,363

739,266

505,080

27,500

1905

749,131

700,626

363,823

30,723

Most of the pigs sent from Ireland into Great Britain are fat,
the store pigs accounting for less than one-tenth of the total
number. The returns from Ireland under the Diseases of Animals
Acts 1894 and 1896 are less significant than those of Great
Britain. Thus, in the year ending June 1905, they included
4 outbreaks of anthrax, 219 of swine-fever and 343 of sheep-
scab, while there were no cases of rabies. Compared with the
export trade in live stock from Ireland to Great Britain the
reciprocal trade from Great Britain to Ireland is small, and is
largely restricted to animals for breeding purposes. Owing to
the reappearance of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain
early in 1900 the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and swine
therefrom into Ireland was temporarily suspended by the
authorities in the latter country.

Exports of Animals from the United Kingdom.
The general export trade of the United Kingdom in living
animals represented an aggregate average annual value over the

five years 1896-1900 of £1,017,000 as against £935,801 over the
five years 1901-1905. To these sums the value of horses alone
contributed about three-fourths, Belgium taking more than half
the number of exported horses. The export trade in cattle
sheep and pigs is practically restricted to pedigree animals
required for breeding purposes, and though its aggregate value

TABLE XXVI. — Quantities and Value of Home-bred Live Stock
exported from the United Kingdom, 1900-1905.

Year.

Horses.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

Other
Animals.

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905

30,038
27,612
30,032
34,798
32,955
47,708

2,742
1,648
2,428
2,736
3,3"
3,938

4,934
2,761
3,596
5,579
8,142
8,378

435
378
515
776
732
931

75.642
68,012
60,941
52,095
50,873
50,307

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905

£
681,927
605,699
635,661
734,598
581,339
875,647

£
"8,337
61,812

96,153
140,244
146,210
190,406

£
53,306
25,727
29,069
67,758
88,421
I33,4i3

£
3032
3437
5053
7053
7850
8024

£
45,241
45.476
56,691

48,335
43,868
41,061

is not large it is of considerable importance to stock-breeders, as
it is a frequent occurrence for buyers for export — to Argentina,
Australasia, Canada, the United States and elsewhere — to bid
freely at the sale rings, and often to pay the highest prices, thus
stimulating the sales and encouraging the breeding of the best
types of native stock. Details for the six years 1900-1905 are
summarized in Table XXVI.

Implements and Machinery.

It is the custom of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
to invite competitions at its annual shows in specified classes
of implements, and an enumeration of these will indicate the
character of the appliances which were thus brought into pro-
minence in the latter years of the igth and the early years of the
2oth century. These trials taking place, with few intermissions,
year after year serve to direct the public mind to the develop-
ment, which is continually in progress, of the mechanical aids
to agriculture. The awards here summarized are quite distinct
from those of silver medals which are given by the society in
the case of articles possessing sufficient merit, which are entered
as " new implements for agricultural or estate purposes."

In 1875, at Taunton, special prizes were awarded for one-
horse and two-horse mowing-machines, hay-making machines,
horse-rakes (self-acting and not self-acting), guards to the drums
of threshing-machines, and combined guards and feeders to the
drums of threshing-machines. In 1876, at Birmingham, the
competitions were of self-delivery reapers, one-horse reapers
and combined mowers and reapers without self-delivery. In

1878, at Bristol, the special awards were all for dairy appliances
—milk-can for conveying milk long distances, churn for milk,
churn for cream, butter-worker for large dairies, butter-
worker for small dairies, cheese-tub, curd knife, curd mill,
cheese-turning apparatus, automatic means of preventing
rising of cream, milk-cooler and cooling vat. A gold medal
was awarded for a harvester and self-binder (McCormick's). In

1879, at Kilburn, the competition was of railway waggons to
convey perishable goods long distances at low temperatures.
In 1880 at Carlisle, and in 1881 at Derby, the special awards
were for broadside steam-diggers and string sheaf-binders re-
spectively. In 1882, at Reading, a gold medal was given for a
cream separator for horse power, whilst a prize of 100 guineas
offered for the most efficient and most economical method of
drying hay or corn crops artificially, either before or after being
stacked, was not awarded. In 1883, at York, a prize of £50 was
?iven for a butter dairy suitable for not more than twenty cows,
tn 1884, at Shrewsbury, a prize of £100 was awarded for a sheaf-
binding reaper, and one of £50 for a similar machine. In 1885,
at Preston, the competitions were concerned with two-horse,
three-horse and four-horse whipple-trees, and packages for

BRITISH]

AGRICULTURE

conveying fresh butter by rail. In 1886, at Norwich, a prize of
£25 was awarded for a thatch-making machine. In 1887, at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a prize of £200 went to a compound portable
agricultural engine, one of £100 to a simple portable agricultural
engine, and lesser prizes to a weighing-machine for horses and
cattle, a weighing-machine for sheep and pigs, potato-raisers
and one-man-power cream separators. In 1888. at Nottingham,
hay and straw presses for steam-power, horse-power and hand-
power were the subjects of competition. In 1889, at Windsor,
prizes were awarded for a fruit and vegetable evaporator, a
paring and coring machine, a dairy thermometer, parcel post
butter-boxes to carry different weights, and a vessel to contain
preserved butter. In 1800, at Plymouth, competitions took
place of light portable engines (a) using solid fuel, (b) using
liquid or gaseous fuel, grist mills for use on a farm, disintegrators,
and cider-making plant for use on a farm. In 1891, at Doncaster,
special prizes were given for combined portable threshing and
finishing machines, and cream separators (hand and power).
In 1892, at Warwick, the competitions related to ploughs —
single furrow (a) for light land, (b) for strong land, (c) for
press drill and broad-cast sowing; two-furrow; three-furrow;
digging (a) for light land, (b) for heavy land; and one-way
ploughs. In 1893, at Chester, self-binding harvesters and
sheep-shearing machines (power) were the appliances respec-
tively in competition. In 1894, at Cambridge, the awards
were for fixed and portable oil engines, potato-spraying and
tree-spraying machines, sheep-dipping apparatus and churns.
In 1895, at Darlington, the competitions were confined to
hay-making machines and clover-making machines. In 1896,
at Leicester, prizes were awarded after trial to potato-
planting machines, potato-raising machines and butter-drying
machines. In 1897, at Manchester, special awards were made
for fruit baskets and milk-testers. In 1898, at Birmingham, a
prize of £100 was given for a self-moving vehicle for light loads,
£100 and £50 for self-moving vehicles for heavy loads, and £10
for safety feeder to chaff-cutter, in accordance with the Chaff-
cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897. In 1899, at Maidstone,
special prizes were offered for machines for washing hops with
liquid insecticides, cream separators (power and hand), machines
for the evaporation of fruit and vegetables, and packages for
the carriage of (a) soft fruit, (b) hard fruit. In 1900, at York,
the competitions were concerned with horse-power cultivators,
self-moving steam diggers, milking machines and sheep-shearing
machines (power and hand). In 1901, at Cardiff, competition
was invited in portable oil engines, agricultural locomotive oil
engines and small ice-making plant suitable for a dairy. In the
years 1903 and 1904 petrol motors adapted for ploughing and
other agricultural operations formed a prominent feature of the
exhibits.

The progress of steam cultivation has not justified the hopes
that were once entertained in the United Kingdom concerning
this method of working implements in the field. It was about
the year 1870 that its advantages first came into prominent
notice. At that time, owing to labour disputes, the supply of
hands was short and horses were dear. The wet seasons that set
in at the end of the 'seventies led to so much hindrance in the
work on the land that the aid of steam was further called for, and
it seemed probable that there would be a lessened demand for
horse power. It was found, however, that the steam work was
done with less care than had been bestowed upon the horse
tillage, and the result was that steam came to be regarded as an
auxiliary to horse labour rather than as a substitute for it. In
this capacity it is capable of rendering most valuable assistance,
for it can be utilized in moving extensive areas of land in a very
short time. Accordingly, when a few -days occur early in the
season favourable to the working of the land, much of it can be
got into a forward condition, whilst horses are set free for the
lighter operations. The crops can then be sown in due time,
which in wet years, and with the usual teams of horses kept on
a farm, is not always practicable. Much advantage arises from
the steam working of bastard fallows in summer, and after
harvest a considerable amount of autumn cultivation can be

done by steam power, thus materially lightening the work in the
succeeding spring. On farms of moderate size it is usual to hire
steam tackle as required, the outlay involved in the purchase
of a set being justifiable only in the case of estates or of very
big farms where, when not engaged in ploughing, or in culti-
vating, or in other work upon the land, the steam-engine may
be employed in threshing, chaff-cutting, sawing and many
similar operations which require power. The labour question
again became acute in the early years of the 2oth century, when,
owing to the scarcity of hands and the high rate of wages, self-
binding harvesters were resorted to in England for the ingather-
ing of the corn crops to a greater extent than ever before. For
the same reason potato-planting and potato-lifting machines
were also in greater requisition.

Agricultural Population and Wages.

The last half of the igth century witnessed a remarkable
diminution of the British rural population. The decrease has
assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that date the
supply of rural labour exceeded the demand. A large number of
agricultural labourers were thus only in partial employment, and
their withdrawal from the land was of minor importance as com-
pared with the shrinkage in the number of those permanently
employed. The following tables indicate the extent of rural
depopulation : —

Number of " Persons engaged in Agriculture " in the United
Kingdom, 1851-1901.

1851.

1861.

1871.

1881.

1891.

1901.

3,453-500

3,080,500

2,744,000

2,573,900

2,394-500

2,262,600

The number of " agricultural labourers and shepherds," which
affords a more precise index, declined in a still more marked degree.

1851.

1861.

1871.

1881.

1891.

1901.

1,110,311

1,098,261

923,332

830,452

756,557

609,105

The decrease in the demand for labour is attributable chiefly to
the reduction of the cultivated area and the laying down to pasture
of land once under the plough, and to the increasing use of agri-
cultural machinery. It may, however, be noticed that the period
1850-1903 was marked by a steady increase of the cash wages of
the farm labourer, as indicated in the following table from the Report
on the Earnings of Agricultural Labourers issued by the Board of
Trade in 1905.

Average Weekly Cash Wages of ordinary Agricultural Labourers
employed on certain Farms in England and Wales.

Year.

England and Wales,
69 farms.

Eastern counties,
12 farms.

s. d.

s. d.

1850

9 3i

8 8

1855

IO IlJ

ii 5

i860

10 II

10 8

1865

it 3

10 5

1870

II IOj

ii ii

1875

13 7,

12 III

1880

13 21

12 I

1885

13 I

ii 5

1890

13 °i

II Of

i895

13 2*

II 0

1900

14 5i

13 ii

1903

H 7

13 2j

(See also ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS.)
Agricultural Education.

In Great Britain agricultural education as a whole lacks the
scope and co-ordination which it has in some continental
countries. Centres at which higher agricultural education is
given are; however, numerous. The chief are: —
The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester
Aspatria Agricultural College, Carlisle.
Tamworth Agricultural College.

*Agricultural and Horticultural College, Uckfield, Sussex.
*Agricultural and Horticultural College, Holme Chapel,
Cheshire.

AGRICULTURE

[AMERICAN

*Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston, Derby.

"Harper-Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop.

^Lancashire County School, Harris Institute, Preston.

*University College of North Wales, Bangor.

"University of Leeds.

"Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

"Cambridge University.

"University College, Reading.

"South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.

"University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

"Agricultural Institute, Ridgmont (Bedfordshire County
Council).

"Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.

In the year 1904-1905 £10,600 was devoted by the Board of
Agriculture to agricultural instruction and experiments. Of this
sum the greater part was divided amongst the institutions
marked with an asterisk in the above list. The first three named
are private establishments. The county councils also expend
sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in dairy-work,
poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, horticulture,
agricultural experiments, agricultural lectures at various centres,
scholarships at, and grants to, agricultural colleges and schools;
the whole amount in 1904-1905 reaching £87,472.' The sum
spent by individual counties varies considerably. In 1904-1905
Lancashire (£8510), Kent (£5922) and Cheshire (£4310) spent
most in this direction. In some instances colleges are supported
entirely by one county, as is the Holmes Chapel College, Cheshire;
in others a college is supported by several affiliated counties, as in
the case of the agricultural department of the University College,
Reading, which acts in connexion with the counties of Berks,
Oxon, Hants and Buckingham. The organization and supply of
county agricultural instruction is often carried out through the
medium of the institution to which the county is affiliated. In
Scotland higher agricultural instruction is given at: —

Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College.
Edinburgh University, Agriculture Department.
West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow.
Aberdeen and North of Scotland Agricultural College.
University of St. Andrews.

A typical course at one of the higher colleges lasts for two years
and includes instruction under the heads of soils and manure,
crops and pasture, live stock, foods and feeding, dairy work,
farm and estate management and farm bookkeeping, surveying,
agricultural buildings and machinery, agricultural chemistry,
agricultural botany, veterinary science and agricultural ento-
mology. Experimental farms are attached to the colleges.

The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to those for higher
agricultural education. Schools for farmers' sons and daughters,
and others, answering to the fcoles pratiques d1 agriculture (see
FRANCE), are few, the principal being the Dauntsey Agricultural
School. Wiltshire, the Hampshire Farm School, Basing, and the
Farm School at Newton Rigg, Penrith, Cumberland, maintained
by the county councils of Cumberland and Westmorland. Occa-
sionally grammar schools have agricultural sides, and in evening
continuation schools agricultural classes are sometimes held.
Both elementary day schools and continuation schools are in
many cases provided with gardens in which horticultural teaching
is given.

In Ireland agricultural education is under the supervision of
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland, founded in 1899. Higher education is given at the Royal
College of Science, Dublin; the Albert Agricultural College,
Glasnevin; and the Munster Institute, Cork, for female students,
where dairying and poultry- keeping are prominent subjects.
Winter classes for boys over sixteen years of age are held at
centres in some counties, and there are winter schools of agri-
culture at Downpatrick, Monaghan and Mount Bellew (Co.
Galway); while lectures are given at farmers' meetings by

This sum was furnished out of a total of £693,851, forming the
residue grant allocated for the purposes of education to the various
county councils of England and Wales under the Local Taxation
(customs and Excise) Act 1890.

itinerant instructors. The Department carries on agricultural
experiment-stations at Athenry (Co. Galway), Ballyhaise (Co.
Cavan) and Clonakilty (Co. Cork), where farm apprentices are
received and instructed.

AGRICULTURE ix THE UNITED STATES

Agriculture has been the chief and most characteristic work
of the American people, that in which they have achieved the
greatest results in proportion to the resources at command,
that in which their economic superiority has been most strikingly
manifest. In ten years from 1 790, the mean population of the
period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first time
brought within the limits of settlement, crossed with roads and
bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, much
of it also cleared of primeval forest; and this in addition to
keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous settle-
ments, and building towns and cities, at a score of favoured
points. In the next decade, the mean number of inhabitants
being about 6,500,000, population extended itself over 98,000
sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an area eight times as large as
Holland. Between 1810 and 1820, besides increasing the density
of population on almost every league of the older territory,
besides increasing their manufacturing capital twofold, in spite
of a three years' war, the people of the United States advanced
their frontier to occupy 101,000 sq. m., the mean population
being 8,250,000. Between 1820 and 1830, 124,000 sq. m. were
brought within the frontier and made the seat of habitation
and cultivation; between 1830 and 1840, 175,000 sq. m.;
between 1840 and 1850, 215,000 sq. m. The Civil War, indeed,
checked the westward flow of population, though it caused no
refluence, but after 1870 great progress was made in the creation
of new farms and the development of old.

That which has allowed this great work to be done so rapidly
and fortunately has been, first, the popular tenure of the soil,
and, secondly, the character of the agricultural class. At no
time have the cultivators of the soil north of the Potomac and
Ohio constituted a peasantry in the ordinary sense of that term.
They have been the same kind of men, out of precisely the same
homes, generally with the same early training, as those who
filled the learned professions or who were engaged in manu-
facturing or commercial pursuits. Switzerland and Scotland
have, in a degree, approached the United States in this particular;
but there is no other considerable country where as much mental
activity and alertness has been applied to the cultivation of the
soil as to trade and manufactures.

But even the causes which have been adduced would have
Failed to produce such effects but for the exceptional inventive
ingenuity of the American. The mechanical genius which has
entered into manufacturing in the United States, the engineering
skill which has guided the construction of the greatest works
of the continent, have been far exceeded in the hurried " im-
provements " of the pioneer farm; in the housing of women,
children and live stock and gathered crops against the storms
of the first few winters; in the rough-and-ready reconnaissances
which determined the " lay of the land " and the capabilities
of the soil; in the preparation for the thousand exigencies of
primitive agriculture. It is no exaggeration to say that the
chief manufacture of the United States, prior to 1900, was the
manufacture of 5,740,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres.
The people of the United States, finding themselves on a
continent containing an almost limitless extent of land of fair
average fertility, having at the start but little accumulated
capital and urgent occasions for the economy of labour, have
elected to regard the land in the earliest stages of occupation
as practically of no value, and to regard labour as of high value.
In pursuance of this view they have freely sacrificed the land,
so far as was necessary, in order to save labour, systematically
cropping the fields on the principle of obtaining the largest
results with the least expenditure, limiting improvements to
what was demanded for immediate uses, and caring little about
returning to the soil an equivalent for the properties taken from
it in the harvests of successive years. But, so far as the northern

AMERICAN7]

AGRICULTURE

states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged wasteful
cultivation have in the main been applied, not to personal con-
sumption, but to permanent improvements, — not indeed to
improvements of the land, but to what were still more needed
in the situation, namely, improvements upon the land. The
first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in forms which
have vastly enhanced the productive power of the country.
The land, doubtless, as one factor of that productive power,
became temporarily less efficient than it would have been under
a conservative European treatment; but the joint product of
the three factors — land, labour and capital — was for the time
enormously increased. Under this regimen the fertility of the
land, of course, in time necessarily declined, sooner or later,
according to the nature of the crops grown and to the degree
of original strength in the soil. Resort was then had to new
fields farther west. The granary of the continent moved first
to western New York, thence into the Ohio valley, and then,
again, to the banks of the Mississippi. The north and south line
dividing the wheat product of the United States into two equal
parts was in 1850 drawn along the 82nd meridian (81° 58' 49").
In 1860 that line was drawn along the 86th (86° i' 38"), in 1870
along the 8pth (88° 48' 40"), in 1880 along the goth (90° 30' 46"),
in 1890 along the 93rd (93° 9' 18"), and' in 1900 along the 95th
(94° 59' 23"). Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the
earlier settlements joined in the movement across the face of
the continent. As the grain centre passed on to the west they
followed it, too restless by character and habit to find pleasure
in the work of stable communities. A second portion of the
inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon limited areas,
small crops, garden vegetables and orchard fruits, and in pro-
ducing butter, milk, poultry and eggs, for the supply of the
cities and manufacturing towns which had been built up out of
the abundant profits of the primitive agriculture. Still another
portion of the agricultural population gradually became occupied
in the more careful and intense culture of the cereal crops upon
the better lands, the less eligible fields being allowed to spring
up in brush and wood. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage
were resorted to; fertilizers were employed to bring up and to
keep up the soil ; and thus began the serious systematic agricul-
ture of the older states. Something continued to be done in
wheat, but not much. New York raised 13 million bushels
in 1850; thirty years later she raised n£ million bushels; and
fifty years later io| million bushels. Pennsylvania raised 15^
million bushels in 1850; in 1880 she raised 195 million bushels;
and in 1900 205 million bushels. More is done in Indian corn
(maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American
agriculture; still more is done relatively in buckwheat, barley
and rye. Pennsylvania, though the eleventh state in wheat
production in 1905, stood first in rye and second in buckwheat
(ninth in oats). New York was only twenty-first in wheat,
but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), fourth in rye. We do
not, however, reach the full significance of the situation until
we account for the fourth portion of the former agricultural
population, in noting how naturally and fortunately commercial
and manufacturing cities spring up in the sites which have been
prepared for them by the lavish expenditure of the enormous
profits of a primitive agriculture upon permanently useful im-
provements of a constructive character. These towns are the
gifts of agriculture.

Besides the extension of cultivated area, very little was
accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before
1850. With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation
were substantially the same as those of colonial days, and were
marked by crudeness, waste and a general adherence to rule-of-
thumb principles. The year 1850 roughly marks the beginning
of a period of improvement and development. The Irish famine
of 1846 and the German political troubles of 1848 were followed
by an unprecedented emigration to America of highly desirable
European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant
lands. The period from 1850 to 1870 was marked by a steady
owth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by
» Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amount

of productive energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended at the
same time to increase the value of farm labour and of farm
products and to extend the use of machinery in order to offset
the deficient labour supply. Agricultural machinery had been
employed before the war, but only to a very small extent. In
1864, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, twice as
many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to supply the
demand. Moreover, in the years 1860, 1861 and 1862 the wheat
crops of Great Britain and the European continent were failures,
while those of the United States, far removed from the theatre
of military operations, were unusually large. The wheat exports
to Great Britain in 1861 were three times as great as those of
any previous year, and the strong demand from abroad was an
additional stimulus to higher prices. In 1864 agricultural prices
were from too to 200 % higher than in 1861, while transportation
charges had only slightly advanced and in some instances had
actually decreased. In the middle of the war the farmers' profits
were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously.
This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged in
one of the world's most formidable wars has no counterpart in
modern history. In the decade from 1860 to 1870 there was a
steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural products and
in population. The value of the farm lands in the northern
states in 1870 exceeded that of 1860 by five dollars an acre. On
the other hand, the farm lands of the southern states had declined
in value to an almost equal amount; but after 1870 these states
also made substantial progress, and in 1880 they produced more
cotton than in 1860, when the greatest crop under the slave
system was grown.

Since 1870 the most important factors in this development
have been the employment of more scientific methods of pro-
duction and the more extensive use of machinery. The study
of soils with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops
and fertilizers; the increased attention given to diversified
farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful
growth of new plants (e.g. the date palm in Arizona and Cali-
fornia, and tea in South Carolina); tile drainage; the ensilage
of forage; more careful selection in breeding; the use of
inoculation to prevent Texas fever in cattle and cholera in
swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence of tuberculosis in
cows, of organic ferments to hasten the progress of butter-making,
of the " Babcock test " for ascertaining the amount of fat in
milk, of fungicides and insecticides to destroy fruit and vegetable
pests, — such are but a few manifestations of the spread of scien-
tific knowledge among the farming population of the United
States. Nearly every county has some- sort of agricultural
society; in 1899 there were about 1500 of these organizations,
some of which, especially those holding annual fairs, received
state aid.

With the improvement in technical processes of production
came the conquest of the arid regions of the western states.
Irrigation was first employed in the west by the Mormons in
1847; but as late as 1870 only about 20,000 acres had been
irrigated. In 1880 the irrigated area was approximately
i, 000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it increased
from 3,631,381 to 7,539.545 acres, a gain of 107-6 %. By
1902 there had been a still further increase to 9,478,852 acres,
a gain of 25- 7 % in three years. As many of the streams available
for irrigation purposes lie within more than one state, the control
of water supply is a proper matter for federal jurisdiction, and
in June 1902 Congress provided for an extensive system of
irrigation works in thirteen states and three territories. The
cost of the work is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of
government lands within the states and territories affected
by the act. The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on
the lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor
more than 160 acres, are required to make annual payments
to the government in proportion to the water service they have
received, until the original cost of the works has been met. The
first of these works, the so-called Truckee-Carson project, of
Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the end of that
year eight projects, in as many different states, were under

416

AGRICULTURE

[AMERICAN

construction; bids had been received for three more, and the
seven others had received the approval of the secretary of the
interior. With these initial undertakings it was estimated that
i ,000,859 acres could be reclaimed. In addition to supplying the
soils with water, means have been found of ridding them of their
alkali, or of rendering it harmless; and this is an element of
reclamation hardly less important than irrigation itself. A third
step in the reclamation of desert lands is arid farming — that is,
the adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount
of moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent,
of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region. Experiments
conducted in this direction in Utah produced promising results.

The development of farming machinery has kept pace with
the general progress in scientific agriculture. Although numer-
ous patents were issued for such machinery before 1850, its use,
with the exception of the cotton gin, was very restricted before
that date. Even iron ploughs were not in general use until
1842, and a really scientific plough was practically unknown
before 1870. Thirty years later the large farms of the Pacific
states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a
single operation by fifty-horse-power traction engines drawing
ploughs, harrows and press drills. Since 1850 there has been
a transition from the sickle and the scythe to a machine that in
one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the wheat,
and in five minutes after touching the standing grain has it
ready for the market. Hay-stackers, potato plantersand diggers,
feed choppers and grinders, manure-spreaders, check-row corn
planters and ditch-digging machines are some of the common
labour-saving devices. By the 28th of August 1907 the United
States Patent Office had issued patents for 13,212 harvesting
machines, 6352 threshers, 6680 harrows and diggers, 9649
seeders and planters, and 13,171 ploughs. In the manufacture
of agricultural machinery the United States leads the world.
The total value of the implements and machinery used by
farmers of the United States in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 1890
$494,247,467; in 1900 $761,261,550, a gain in this last decade
°f 54%- The total value of the implements and machinery
manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in 1880 $68,640,486;
in 1890 $81,271,651; in 1900 $101,207,428. These figures,
however, are a very poor indication of the actual use of
machinery, on account of the rapid decrease in prices following
its manufacture on a more extensive- scale and by improved
methods.

The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the
following figures: By the methods of 1830 it required 64 hours
and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3-71 to produce an acre
of wheat; by the methods employed in 1896 it required 2 hours
and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 cents. To produce
an acre of barley in 1830 required 63 hours of man-labour and
cost $3-59; in 1896 it required 2 hours and 43 minutes and cost
60 cents. An acre of oats produced by the methods of 1830
required 66 hours and 1 5 minutes of man-labour and cost $3 • 73 ;
the methods of 1893 required only 7 hours and 6 minutes and
cost $1-07. With the same unit of labour the average quantity
of all leading crops produced by modern methods is about five
times as great as that produced by the methods employed
in 1850, and the cost of production is reduced by one half.
From 1880 to 1900 the average number of acres of leading crops
per male worker increased from 23-3 to 31-0, or 34%; the
number of horses per worker from 1-7 to 2-3, or 35 %; and the
value of agricultural product per person employed from $286-82
to $454-37, or 58-4%.

There are numerous other factors that have operated to the
benefit of the agriculturist. Increased transportation facilities
and lower freight charges have widened his market. The pro-
cesses of canning, packing, preserving and refrigerating have
produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means for
the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise would
be lost. The utilization of by-products, as, for example, the
conversion of cotton seed into oil, fertilizers and food for live
stock, has become another source of profit.

Great economic and social changes have resulted from this

progress. There has been a great division of labour in agri-
culture. Makers of agricultural implements, of butter and
cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now classed
in the United States census reports as manufacturers, but all
their work was once done on the farm. The farmer is now more
of a specialist and more dependent on other industries than
formerly. He has changed from a producer for home con-
sumption or a local market to a producer for a world market.
Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic laws has lagged
behind his progress in scientific agriculture. The farming class
at times have experienced periods of great depression, largely
on account of their inability to adjust their crops to changing
conditions in the world's markets, and in such cases have been
prone to seek a remedy in radical legislation. Periods of agri-
cultural discontent at different times have been marked by the
political activity of the " Grangers " and of the " Farmers'
Alliance." and even by the formation of new political parties
such as the Greenback party in 1874 and the Populist or People's
party in 1892 — whose strength lay mainly in the agricultural
states. The new industrial conditions that produced com-
binations among manufacturers were much slower in their effect
upon the farming element, but gradually led to increasing
co-operation and to the organization of the growers of various
commodities for marketing their crops. The fruit growers of
California and the tobacco growers of Kentucky have furnished
interesting examples of such organizations. Under the improved
conditions there is less drudgery on the farm; the farmer does
more work, produces more, and yet has more leisure than
formerly. Better roads, rural free mail delivery, telephone and
electric lines are removing the isolation of country life, and to
some extent are diminishing the attractions of the cities for th<>
rural population.

Covering as it does the breadth of the North American con-
tinent, with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land surface, not including
Alaska and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in
farms and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing
every variety of soil and all the climatic life zones of the world,
except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United
States affords an important subject of study in respect of agri-
culture. Its cotton, wheat and meat are large factors in all
markets, and its many other agricultural products are distributed
throughout the civilized world. To the student the equipment
and methods of agriculture in the United States form as interest-
ing a subject of examination as do its resources and production.
In quantity, distribution and inter-relation of heat and moisture
— the chief factors in agricultural production — the United States
is greatly blessed. We find in this vast' territory all the agricul-
tural belts mapped by the biologist, producing all varieties of
cereals, fruits and breeds of live stock, whilst all kinds of soils,
adapted to different crops, are spread out at all altitudes from
8000 ft. down to sea-level.

The story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United
States can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by
the Census, the Agricultural and other government departments.

As a result of the great supply of available land the number of
farms in the United States increased between 1850 and
1900 from 1,449,073 to 5,739,657: their total acreage Fanal.
increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their
improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414,793,191 acres;
and their unimproved1 acreage from 180,528,000 to 426,408,355
acres. Table XXVII. exhibits the increases of number of farms,
total and improved acreage by decades.

The largest percentage of increase of improved land was 50-7,
from 1870 to 1880; the lowest was in the decade 1860 to 1870, the
period of the Civil War, and was 15-8. The chief cause of this
wonderful development of agriculture is the large area of cheap
public lands which has been available for immigrants and natives
alike. Up to 1906, under the Homestead Act of the 2Oth of May
1862, the number of entries, both final and pending, covered
185,385,000 acres. Between 1875 and 1905 the public and Indian
lands sold for cash and under homestead and timber culture laws, as
well as those allotted by scrip, granted to the colleges of agriculture

1 " Unimproved " land includes land which has never been
ploughed, mown or cropped, and also land once cultivated but now
overgrown with trees or shrubs.

AMERICAN]

AGRICULTURE

and mechanic arts and other institutions, and by military bounty
land warrants, and selected by states and railroad corporations,
covered about 430,000,000 acres. In addition to this, the states
and railroad corporations sold a large amount of land to farmers
of which we have no accurate record. This vast territory, greater

TABLE XXVII. — Percentage of Increase of Number and Acreage of
Farms by Census Decades.

The United States.

Number of
Farms.

Acreage.

Total.

Improved.

1850 to 1860
i860 „ 1870
1870 ,, 1880
1880 ,, 1890
1890 ,, 1900

41-1
30-1
50-7
13-9

257

38-7

O-I

3i-5
16-2
35-o

44'3
15-8
50-7
25-6
16-0

1850 to 1900

296-0

186-5

267-1

in extent than Germany and France combined, was added to
the farms of the country in thirty years. In many cases railroad
building has made the settlement of the public lands possible for
the first time, and the building of branch lines, by providing means
for transporting products to market, has greatly facilitated the
acquisition of other lands. The mileage of railways
increased 310-7 % bet ween 1 870 and 1905. The in-
teresting fact is that this increase corresponds
geographically to the increase in farms.

The agricultural statistics do not include any farm
of less than three acres unless it produced at least
$500 worth of products in the preceding year. The
census of 1900 showed that the average size of farms
was 146 acres, or nine acres more than in 1890 and
57 acres less than in 1850. This fact, however, does
not indicate a general tendency toward the con-
solidation of holdings. The increase in the average size of farms
in the whole country is due to the extension of grazing lands in
the Rocky Mountain region and in Texas, and to the enlarge-
ment of the wheat fields in the Mississippi valley. On the other
hand, in the southern states there has been a steady breaking up of
holdings and decrease in the average size of farms since the close
of the Civil War. In the New England states, where dairying has
become the leading agricultural industry, there was an increase of
2-2 acres in the size of farms during the decade 1890-1900. This
increase was more than offset by the decrease in the Atlantic states
from New York to Maryland inclusive (2-8 acres), where there has
been a subdivision of farms following the increased attention given
to the growing of fruits and vegetables for cities. The same tendency
is noted in the states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. As will be seen
from Table XXVIII., the average farm, which steadily diminished
in size from 1850 to 1880, increased between 1880 and 1900.

TABLE XXVIII. — Average Acreage of Farms and Proportion of
Improved Land therein.

Statisticians usually put it at 40 %, and this is probably more nearly
correct (Table XXX.).

The wages paid farm labourers, as ascertained by the Department
of Agriculture, are rather low compared with the average wages of
labour, but not lower than the wages of other unskilled labour. The
average monthly wage of the agricultural labourer, without board,
was $19-50 in 1870, $16-42 in 1880, $18-33 'n '890, $17-70 in 1895,
and $20-23 in 1899, when the maximum for any state was $45-10
in Nevada, the minimum $10-06 in South Carolina. The wages of
the American farm labourer were at this last date named (1899)
higher than for any other farm labourer save in Canada and the
British colonies of Australasia; though lower than wages paid in
American cities, they have greater purchasing power. J. R. Dodge,
in " Farm Labour in the United States " (vol. XL, Report of- Industrial
Commission on Agriculture, &c., 1901), says: " In addition to wages
the married labourer has a house free of rent, a garden, firewood,
pasturage and other perquisites. The enterprising labourer usually
becomes a tenant and afterwards a farm-owner."

The figures for farm capital and the value of agricultural products
are so vast that it is extremely difficult to put them in an intelligible
form. The farm capital of the United States reported by yaim Of
the census of 1900 reached $20,514,002,000, a sum more farms an</
than four times the capital invested in manufactures, products.
the main classes being, in round numbers: — Land,
fences and buildings, $16,674,690,000; machines and implements.

TABLE XXIX. — Number of Farms of Specified Tenure.

Year.

Number of
Farms.

Number
Owners.1

af farms o
Cash
Tenants.

aerated by

Share
Tenants.2

Percentaj
Owners.

re of farms t
Cash
Tenants.

>perated by

Share
Tenants.

1880
1890
1900

4,008,907
4,564,641
5,737,372

2,984,306
3,269,728
3,712,408

322,357
454,659
751,665

702,244
840,254
1,273,299

74-5
71-6
64-7

8-0

IO-O

13-1

17-5
18-4

22-2

Whole Farm.

Proportion of
Improved Land.

1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900

202 -6
199-2
153-3
J33-7
I36-5
146-6

38-5
40-1

46-3
53-1
57-4
49-3

he acreage of North Atlantic farms decreased from 112-6 in 1850

> 95-3 in 1890, and increased in 1890-1900 to 96-5 acres. In the
South Atlantic states the average was 376-4 acres in 1850, and there
has been steady decrease, so that in 1900 it was 108-4, or one-third
less than the average for the entire country. In the north central
states the averages of 1850 and 1900 were nearly the same (143-3
and 144-5 respectively), with the minimum (121-9 acres) in 1880.
The south central states averaged 291 acres in 1850, 321-3 in 1860,
144 in 1890, and 155-4 in J9OO. The maximum decade for the
western states was that ending in 1850 (694-9 acres), and the mini-
mum 1880 (312-9); and the average in 1900 was 386-1 acres.

Table XXIX. gives the number of farms, together with their
distribution, under different forms of tenure in the years 1880, 1890
and 1900.

The steady drift towards farm tenancy of late is believed to be
injurious to production; but it is impossible to prove this, so great
has been the aggregate increase in products.

The number of persons engaged in agriculture as a business in
Agri- I9°° was IO-38j.7.65, or 36 % of all persons in gainful

cultural occupations. It is interesting to note that 977,336 of these
occopa- were women. This is an increase of 2,667, 890 persons over
tloas. 1880. Thus, if the farm family is the same size as that of

the remainder of the population — it is probably slightly
larger — the agricultural population would be 36 % of the whole.

I. 14

$761,262,000; live stock $3,078,050,000. The products of the
farms in the census year 1899 were valued at $4,739,119,000.
Between 1850 and 1900 the aggregate farm capital increased 416 %.
The greatest increase of farm capital was between 1850 and 1860,
101 %; the next was the decade 1880-1890, when the increase was
32 %. Between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 28%.

TABLE XXX. — Number of Persons of Ten Years of Age and over in
the different Agricultural Pursuits in 1900.

Occupation.

Total Persons.

Dairymen and women
Farmers and farm superintendents .
Farm labourers
Gardeners, nurserymen and viticulturists
Lumbermen and raftsmen ....
Stock-raisers, herders, &c. ....
Turpentine-farmers and labourers .
Wood-choppers
Other pursuits

Total

10,875
5,674-875
4-410,877
61,788
72,020
84,988

24-737
36,075
5,530

10,381,765

The growth of farm area and of capital invested in agriculture was
followed by a proportionate increase in the chief crops (Table XXX I.) .

The distinguishing featnre of the period 1870-1880 was the rate
of increase of barley, Indian corn, wheat and oats. Since 1870 the
production of nearly all of the farm crops increased more rapidly
than the population, the most absolute proof of the substantial
prosperity of the people. The increase in population for the fifty
years from 1840 to 1890 was 267 %; from 1870 to 1880, 30 %; from
1 880 to 1890, 25 %; from 1890 to 1 900, 21 %; but the food and
other supplies far exceeded the demands of even this great population.

TABLE XXXI. — Production of certain Farm Crops from 1870 to 1905
— Millions of Bushels.

Indian Corn.

Wheat.

Oats.

Barley.

1870
1880
1890
1900

1905

1094
1717
1489
2105
2707

235
498

399
522

693

247
418

523
809

953

26
45
67

5?
136

Table XXXII. gives important facts with regard to the cereal
production of the United States between 1870 and 1905.

The average farm price of wheat declined, as is shown in that
table, from $1-05 per bushel for the decade 1870-1880 to 65-3
cents for the period 1890-1899. The farm prices of the other

1 Includes farms operated by owners, part-owners, owners and
tenants, and managers.

2 Tenants of farms rented for a share of the products.

418

AGRICULTURE

[AMERICAN

cereals declined less during the thirty years. Corn declined from
an average farm price of 42-6 cents per bushel for 1870-1880 to
34-4 cents in 1890-1899. The average production per acre shows
nothing conclusive with regard to the fertility of the soil of the
country. The expansion of the crop area usually causes a lowering
of the average yield per acre by distributing the culture, fertilizers,
&c., over more surface. Likewise the contraction of crop area will
usually increase the average yield per acre of the entire country.

TABLE XXXII.— Average Yield and Value of Cereal Crops in the United States, by Periods

of Years, 1870-1905.

Period.

Indian Corn.

Wheat.

Oats.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

1870 to 1880 . .
1880 1889 . .
1890 1899 . .
1900 1905 . .

1870 1880 . .
1880 1889 . .
1890 1899 . .
1900 1905 .

Dollars.
0-426
•393
•344
•440
Bai
0-738
•589
•433
•433

Bushels.
•^27-1
24-1
24-1
24-9
ley

22-1

21-7

23-3
25-9

Dollars.
1-05
•827
•653
•706
R
0-701
•622
•522
•570

Bushels.
12-4

I2-I
I3'I
13-6

ye
14-1
11-9
14-0
15-7

Dollars.
0-353
•3°9
•277

•318
Buck

0-715
•642

•507
•588

Bushels.
28-4
26-6
26-2

30-7
wheat

17-7

12-8

16-8
17-9

The average yield of wheat per acre was 12-4 bushels in the decade
1870-1880, and 13-1 in the period 1890-1899; of Indian corn,
27-1 in 1870-1880, and 24-1 in 1880-1899 continuously. Oats
fell off from 28-4 in 1870-1880 to 26-2 bushels per acre in 1890-
1899. The averages for the years 1900-1905 show an increase
over the previous decade both in yields and (with the exception of
the price of barley) in prices of all the cereals.

The agricultural returns for 1890-1905 may be taken as an

illustration of the cereal production of the United States. The
figures for wheat, oats and Indian corn are presented in Tables
XXXIII., XXXIV. and XXXV.

The acreage and production of wheat have steadily increased.
The acreage in Indian corn, the great American crop, reached its
highest in 1902, 94,043,613 acres, and its production its highest
figure in 1905, 2,707,993,540 bushels.

Producing as the United States does so much more than its people
can consume, its exports form a large per-
centage of some of the crops, as Table
XXXVI. shows.

Large portions of some of these crops, like
Indian corn and oats, are exported in the
form of animals and animal products (meats,
lard, hides, &c.). The hay crop is almost
entirely used in this way, and the tendency
is to convert more and more of these crops
into these higher-priced products. Still, the
time is far distant when domestic consump-
tion will come anywhere near overtaking
domestic production, especially of wheat
and the other cereals. The certain extension
of acreage with the growth of demand and
price, the increased use of agricultural im-
plements, and the improvement of methods
will be sure to keep up a large surplus for
export for many years to come. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture has found that for

home use there were required per head 5-5 bushels of wheat, 28-6
bushels of Indian corn, and 10-7 bushels of oats, the computations
being made from the figures for population, production and exports
for 1888-1892; in 1905, 6-15 bushels of wheat and wheat-flour,
28-59 bushels of Indian corn and corn-meal. The following number
of acres in these crops was required, therefore, to supply the home
demand for 1888-1892: — 0-43 of an acre in wheat, 1-15 acre in corn,
and 0-43 acre in oats per head of the population. Taking the year

TABLE XXXIII. — Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Wheat in the

United States in 1890-1905.

Year.

Acreage.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

Production.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
1st Dec.

Farm Value,
1st Dec.

Domestic Exports,
including Flour,
Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.

Acres.

Bushels.

Bushels.

Cents.

Dollars.

Bushels.

1890

36,087,154

n-l

399,262,000

83-8

334,773,678

106,181,316

1891

39,916,897

I5'3

611,780,000

83-9

513,472,711

225,665,812

1892

38,554430

13-4

515,949,000

62-4

322,111,881

191,912,635

1893

34,629,418

n-4

396,131,725

53-8

213,171,381

164,283,129

1894

34,882,436

13-2

460,267,416

49-1

225,902,025

144,812,718

1895

34,047.332

13-7

467,102,947

50-9

237.938,998

126,443,968

1896

34,618,646

12-4

427,684,346

72-6

310,602,539

145,124,972

1897

39,465,066

I3'4

530,149,168

80-8

428,547,121

217,306,005

1898

44,055.278

I5'3

675,148,705

58-2

392,770,320

222,694,920

1899

44,592,516

12-3

547.303,846

58-4

319,545,259

186,096,762

1900

42,495,385

12-3

522,229,505

61-9

323,515,177

215,990,073

1901

49,895,514

15-0

748,460,218

62-4

467,350,156

234,772,516

1902

46,202,424

H'5

670,063,008

63-0

422,224,117

202,905,598

1903

49,464,967

12-9

637,821,835

69-5

443,024,826

120,727,613

1904

44.074.875

12-5

552,399.517

92-4

510,489,874

44,112,910

1905

47,854,079

H-5

692,979,489

74-8

518,372,727

• •

TABLE XXXIV. — Acreage, Production, Value, Prices, Exports and Imports of Oats in the United States

in 1890-1905.

Year.

Acreage.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

Production.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
1st Dec.

Farm Value,
1st Dec.

Domestic Exports,
including Oatmeal,
Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.

Imports during
Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.

Acres.

Bushels.

Bushels.

Cents.

Dollars.

Bushels.

Bushels.

1890

26,431,369

19-8

523,621,000

42-4

222,048,486

1,382,836

41,848

1891

25,581,861

28-9

738,394,ooo

31-5

232,312,267

10,586,644

47,782

1892

27,063,835

24-4

661,035,000

31-7

209,253,611

2,700,793

49,433

1893

27.273,033

23-4

638,854,850

29-4

187,576,092

6,290,229

31,759

1894

27,023,553

24-5

662,036,928

32-4

214,816,920

1,708,824

330,317

1895

27,878,406

29-6

824,443,537

19-9

163,655,068

15,156,618

66,602

1896

27,565,985

25-7

707,346,404

18-7

132,485,033

37,725,083

893,908

1897

25,730,375

27-2

698,767,809

21-2

147,974-719

73,880,307

25,093

1898

25,777,110

28-4

720,906,643

25-5

186,405,364

33,534.264

28,098

1899

26,341,380

30-2

796,177,713

24-9

198,167,975

45,048,857

54.576

1900

27.364,795

29-6

809,125,989

25-8

208,669,233

42,268,931

32,107

1901

28,541,476

25-8

736,808,724

39-9

293,658,777

13,277,612

38,978

1902

28,653,144

34'5

987,842,712

30-7

303,584,852

8,381,805

150,065

1903

27,638,126

28-4

784,094,199

34'i

267,661,665

1 ,960,740

183,983

1904

27,842,669

32-1

894-395,552

31-3

279,900,013

8,394,692

55.699

1905

28,046,746

34-o

953,216,197

29-1

277,047,537

AMERICAN]

AGRICULTURE

TABLE XXXV. — Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Indian Corn in the
United Stales in 1890-1905.

419

Year.

Acreage.

Average
Yield per
Acre.

Production.

Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
1st Dec.

Farm Value,
1st Dec.

Domestic Exports,
including Corn-
Meal, Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.

Acres.

Bushels.

Bushels.

Cents.

Dollars.

Bushels.

1890

71,970,763

20-7

1 ,489,970,000

50-6

754-433,451

32,041,529

1891

76,204,515

27-0

2,060,154,000

40-6

836,439,228

.76,602,285

1892

70,626,658

23-1

1,628,464,000

39-4

642,146,630

47,121,894

1893

72,036,465

22-5

1,619,496,131

36-5

591,625,627

66,489,529

1894

62,582,269

19-4

1,212,770,052

457

554,719,162

28,585,405

1895

82,075,830

26-2

2,151,138,580

25-3

544-985,534

101,100,375

1896

81,027,156

28-2

2,283,875,165

21-5

491,006,967

178,817,417

1897

80,095,051

23-8

1,902,967,933

26-3

501,072,952

212,055,543

1898

77,721,781

24-8

1,924,184,660

28-7

552,023,428

117,255,046

1899

82,108,587

25-3

2,078,143,933

30-3

629,210,110

213,123,412

1900

83,320,872

25-3

2,105,102,516

357

751,220,324

181,405,473

1901

91,349,928

16-7

1,522,519,891

60-5

921,555,768

28,028,688

1902

94,043,613

26-8

2,523,648,312

4°-3

1,017,017,349

76,639,261

1903

88,091,993

25-5

2,244,176,925

42-5

952,868,801

58,222,061

1904

92,231,581

26-8

2,467,480,934

44-1

1,087,461,440

90,293,483

1905

94,011,369

28-8

2,707,993,540

41-2

1,116,696,738

••

890 as an illustration, this gave a surplus area in wheat of 1 1 ,264,478

cres, of 2,648,404 acres in Indian corn, and of 238,162 acres in oats.

Tables XXXVII. and XXXVIII. give the number, total value

nd average price of farm animals in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1906.

animals. The fluctuation in prices of mules has been parallel to
that for horses.

The returns for milch cows show an increase throughout the
period 1880-1899 in every year, with the exception of 1895-1899,

TABLE XXXVI.— Percentage of Crops Exported.
1878-1905.

Averages for Period

Crop.

Wheat

Indian corn

Rye

Oats

Barley

Potatoes .

Cotton

Annual Average.

1878-1882.

27-84

4-82

10-30

•37

1-55

•37

72-80

1888-1892.

17-68
3-49

-80

66-79

1894-1896.

15-96
5-39

12-21

2-22

I2-96

•30

73-60

1896-1904.

29-9
6-4

19-5
37

12-15
0-31

66-3'

1905-

7.99
3-66

6i-55

TABLE XXXVII. — Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1880-1906.

January I.

Horses.

Mules.

Milch Cows.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

1880
1890
1900
1906

11,201,800
14,213,837

13,537-524
18,718,578

$613,296,611
978,516,562
603,969,442
1,510,889,906

1,729,500
2,331,027
2,086,027
3,404,061

$105,948,319
182,394,099
111,717,092

334,680,520

12,027,000
15,952,883
16,292,360
19,793,866

$279,899,420
352,152,133
514,812,106

582,788,592

after which there was a steady rise in numbers. For
the first ten years the numbers increased 32-6 %, and
from 1890 to 1899, -2 %. The total value of milch
cows increased each year until 1884, then decreased
until 1891, with a gradual increase until the end of
the period. The farm price of milch cows rose from
$23-27 in 1880 to $31-37 in 1884, then fell to $21-40
in 1892, after which there was a steady increase to
$31-60 in 1899, and afterwards a slight fall, $29-44
being the average farm value on the ist of January
1906.

No marked changes in the numbers of sheep have
taken place. During the period 1880-1890 there was
an increase in numbers amounting to about 8-8 %.
After 1893 there was a rather steady decrease, with

fluctuations amount-
ing to a marked de-
pression after 1894.
This industry is very
susceptible to adverse
influences, and felt
keenly a depression in
the price of wool. The
increase began again in
1898, and in 1903 the
figure of 63,964,876

anuary I.

1880
1890
1900
1906

Other Cattle.

Number.

21,231,000
36,849,024
27,610,054
47,067,656

Value.

$341,761,154
560,625,137
689,486,260
746,171,709

Sheep.

Number.

40,765,900
44-336,072
41,883,065
50,631,619

Value.

$90,230,537
100,659,761
122,665,913
179,056,144

Swine.

Number.

34,034,100
51,602,780
37,079,356
52,102,847

Value.

$145-781,515
243,418,336
185,472,321
321,802,571

Total Value of
Farm Animals.

$1,576,917,556
2,418,766,028
2,228,123,134
3,675,389,442

was reached ; in
it was 50,631,619.
The numbers
values of swine
stantly fluctuate
the movement
value of

1906

and
con-
with

and

TABLE XXXVIII. — Average Value of Farm Animals in the
United States on 1st January, 1880-1906.

Year.

1880
',1890
1900
1906

Horses.

$5475
68-84
44-61
80-72

M ules.

$61-26
78-25
53-56
98-31

Milch
Cows.

$23-27
22-14
31-60
29-44

Other
Cattle.

$16-10
15-21
24-97
I5-85

Sheep.

Pa-ai

2-27
2-93

3-54

Swine.

$4-28
4-72
5-00
6-18

After the Civil War the number of horses increased and prices
gradually declined. In 1893 tne number of horses reached 16,206,802
(an increase of over 5,005,002 or 44-6 % over the number in 1880),
J in 1906, 18,718,578. The average farm price of horses increased
$54-75 in 1880 to $74-64 in 1884, after which there was a
ise to $31-51 in 1896, followed by a rise to $80-72 in 1906.
extension of street-car lines, and the substitution of cable and
electric power for that of horses, the use of bicycles and, later, of
automobiles, and the improvement of farm-machinery, in which
horses are less and less used as power-producers and steam is more
mon, have been factors in decreasing the demand for these

1 For 1899-1900 to 1904-1905

the Indian
corn crops. The returns
for 1890 (51,602,780)
showed a numerical increase of 51-6% over those of 1880; then
followed a steady decrease in numbers down to 1900 (37,079,356),
since which time there has been considerable increase, so that
in 1906 there were 52,102,847 — the maximum excepting 1901,
when there were 56,982,142 swine on farms. The movement
in values was similar to that in numbers. From $4-28 in 1880, the
average farm price of hogs increased steadily to $6-75 in 1883. The
lowest figure, $4-15, was reached in 1891, and after numerous
fluctuations it became $4-40 in 1899 and $7-78 in 1903; in 1906 it
was $6-18.

The total value of farm animals showed a steady increase from
1880 to 1890, with slight variations in 1885 and 1886. Following
1890 there was a steady decrease with the exception of slight in-
creases in 1892 and 1893. In 1880 the total value of farm animals
in the United States was $1,576,917,556. In 1890 it had increased
to $2,418,766,028, or 53-4 %. In 1896 the value had diminished to
$1,727,926,084 — a decrease of 28-6 % from the 1890 values, and an
increase of 9-6 % over those of 1880. The value in 1906 showed an
increase of 133 % over that of 1880.

The exports of live stock and its products have increased enor-
mously in recent years, both in quantity and value. This is especially
true of the exportation of beef, cattle and meat products. The
exports ot cattle increased from 182,750 in 1880 to 331,720 in 1895,
or 8ii %, and to 567,806 in 1905 or 210 % over 1880, and values

420

AGRICULTURE

[AMERICAN

from $13,340,000 in 1880 to $30,600,000 in 1895, an increase of
129 %, and to $40,590,000 in 1905 or 204 %. The average value of
cattle exported increased from $19 in 1870 to $73 in 1880 and $92
in 1895, decreasing to $71-50 in 1905. Only the best and heaviest
cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding a much higher
price than the average of the country.

The total value of farm animals exported from the United States
has fluctuated greatly. On the whole, however, the value increased
from $16,000,000 in round numbers in 1880 to $46,500,000 in 1905, or
190 %. Table XXXIX. shows the number and value of live animals
exported between 1880 and 1905.

Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production
of fruit and vegetables. Local market gardens are numerous in the

vicinity of all cities, and highly specialized " truck gardening,"
that is, the growing of early fruits and vegetables for transportation
to distant markets where the seasons are later, has made rapid
progress in the South Atlantic states. The census reports of 1900
use the potato acreage in these states as an index of the rate of
development of truck gardening; the southern potato being largely
a truck garden crop. In seven counties of Virginia the increase in
acreage from 1889 to 1899 was 100%; in eleven counties of North
Carolina, 314 %; in five counties of South Carolina, 134 %; in nine
counties of Georgia, 1 1 1 % ; in six counties of Florida, 309 % ; in
five counties of Alabama, 277 %. Irish and sweet potatoes are the
most important vegetables raised ; the North Central states leading
in the production of the former and the South Atlantic states in

TABLE XXXIX. — Number and Value of Farm Animals exported from the United States, 1880-1905.

Year
ending
30th

Horses.

Mules.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Swine.

Total Value.

June.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

Number.

Value.

1880

3.060

$675,139

5,198.

$532,362

182,756

$13,344,195

209,137

$892,647

83,434

$42 1 ,089

$15,865,432

1885

i,947

377,692

1,028

127,580

135,890

12,906,690

234,509

512,568

55,025

579,183

14.503,713

1890

3,501

680,410

3,544

447,108

394,836

31,261,131

67,521

243,077

91,148

909,042

33,540,768

1894

5,246

1,108,995

2,063

240,961

359,278

33,461,922

132,370*

832,763

1,553

14,753

35,659,394

1895

13,984

2,209,298

2,515

186,452

331,722

30,603,796

405,748

2,630,686

7,130

72,424

35,702,656

1900'

64,722

7,612,616

43,369

3,919,478

397,286

30,635,153

125,772

733,477

51,180

394,813

43,295,537

1901'

82,250

8,873,845

34,405

3,210,267

459,218

37,566,980

297,925

1,933,000

22,318

238,465

51,822,557

1902'

103,020

10,048,046

27,586

2,692,298

392,884

2^,902,212

358,720

i ,940,060

8,368

88,330

44,670,946

1903

34,007

3,152,159

4,294

521,725

402,178

29,848,936

176,961

1,067,860

4.031

40-923

34,631,603

1904

42,001

3,189,100

3,658

412,971

593,409

42,256,291

301,313

1,954,604

6,345

53,78o

47,866,746

1905

34,822

3,175-259

5-826

645,464

567,806

40,598,048

268,365

1,687,321

44,496

414,692

46,520,784

the production of the latter. The growth of the Irish potato
industry is shown by the following table :—

Year.

Acreage.

Yield (bushels).

1870
1880
1890
1900
1905

1,325.119
1,842,510
2,651,579
2,611,054
2,996,757

114,775,000
167,659,570
148,289,696
210,926,897
260,741,294

The production of sweet potatoes, as reported in census years,
was as follows : —

Year.

Acreage.

Yield (bushels).

1869
1879
1889
1899

444,817
524,588
537,447

21,709,824
33,378,693
43,950,261
42,526,696

The total acreage in vegetables reported in 1899 was 5,753,191
or 2 % of the acreage in all crops; the value of the yield was
$242,170,148 or 8-3 % of the value of all crops.

The value of the fruit crop of 1899 was $131,423,517; the value of
orchard fruits was $83,751,840; of grapes, $14,090,937; of small
fruits, $25,030,877 ; of sub-tropical fruits, $8,549,863. The develop-
ment of fruit-growing during the decade 1889-1899 appears from
the following table : —

Crop.

Yield (bushels).

1889.

1899.

Apples
Apricots .
Cherries .
Peaches .
Pears
Plums and Prunes

143,105,689
1,001,482
1,476,719
36,367,747
3,064,375
2,554,392

175-397,626
2,642,128
2,873,499
IS.433,6232
6,625,417
8,764,032

In 1899 California contributed 21.5 % of the fruit crop; New
York, 12-1%; Pennsylvania, 7-5%; Ohio, 6-8%; and Michigan
4-5 %•

Agricultural Education.

The agricultural schools of the United States owe their origin
to the movement against the old classical school and in favour
of technical education which began in most civilized nations
about the middle of the igth century. A rapidly growing
country with great natural resources needed men educated in
the sciences and arts of life, and this want was first manifested

1 The demand for horses for the British troops in South Africa
affected these years.

1 Decrease due to a severe frost in the winter of 1898-1899, which
destroyed the peach crop in most of the states.

in the United States by a popular agitation on behalf of agri-
cultural schools. A number of so-called agricultural schools
were started between 1850 and 1860 in the eastern and middle
states, where the movement made itself most felt, but without
trained teachers and suitable methods they accomplished very
little. They were only ordinary schools with farms attached.
The second constitution of the state of Michigan, adopted in
1850, provided for an agricultural school, and this was the first
one established in the United States. The General Assembly
of the state of Pennsylvania incorporated the Farmers' High
School, now the State College, in 1854. Maryland incorporated
her agricultural college in 1856, and Massachusetts chartered
a school of agriculture in the same year. The agitation, which
finally reached Congress, led to the establishment of the so-called
" land-grant " or agricultural colleges. The establishment of
these colleges was due chiefly to the wisdom and foresight of
Justin S. MorrDl, who introduced the first bill for their endow-
ment in the House of Representatives on the i4th of December
1857, saw the latest one approved by the president on the 3oth of
August 1890, and is justly known, therefore, as the father of the
American agricultural colleges. The first act for the benefit of
these colleges, passed in 1862, was entitled " An Act donating
public lands to the several states and territories which may
provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic
arts," and granted to each state an amount of land equal to
30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress to
which the state was entitled at that time. The object of the
grant was stated to be " the endowment, support and main-
tenance of at least one college " (in each state), " where the
leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and
classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic
arts ... in order to promote the liberal and practical educa-
tion of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and pro-
fessions in life." The total number of acres of land granted
to the states under this act was 10,320,843, of which by far the
greater part is sold. This grant has produced an endowment
fund amounting to $12,045,629. The land still unsold in 1905
amounted to 844,164 acres, valued at $4,168,746. The invested
land-grant funds yielded these colleges a total annual income
of $855,083 in 1905.' Including the United States appropriation
under a supplementary act of 1890, commonly known as the
Second Morrill Act, which now gives each college $25,000 a year,
the interest on the land-grant and all other invested funds, all
state appropriations and other sources of revenue, these colleges
had in 1904-1905 a total income of $11,659,955. Sixty-six

AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

421

institutions had been organized under this act up to 1905, of
which sixty- three maintain courses in agriculture; twenty-one
are departments of agriculture and engineering in state univer-
sities; twenty-seven are separate colleges of agriculture and
mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized in various
other ways. Separate schools for persons of African descent
had been established under this act in sixteen southern states.
These colleges take students prepared in the common schools
and give them a course of from two to four years in the sciences
pertaining to agriculture. Many of them offer short courses,
varying from four to twelve weeks in length, in agriculture,
horticulture, forestry and dairying, which are largely attended.
Agricultural experiment stations are connected with all the
colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' institutes, farmers'
reading clubs and correspondence classes.

The agricultural experiment stations of the United States
grew up in connexion with the agricultural colleges. Several
of the colleges early attempted to establish separate departments
for research and practical experiments, on the plan of the German
stations. The act establishing the Agricultural College of Mary-
land required it to conduct " a series of experiments upon the
cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the latitude
and climate of the state of Maryland." This was the first sug-
gestion of an experiment station in America, but resulted in
little. The first experiment station was established at Middle-
town, Connecticut, in 1875, partly under state aid, partly
through a gift from Orange Judd, partly in connexion with the
Sheffield Scientific School, which from 1863 to 1892 was the
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the state of Con-
necticut, and partly under control of Wesleyan University,
which contributed the use of its chemical laboratory; in 1877
it was removed to New Haven. The state of Connecticut made
in 1875 an appropriation of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum)
for this school — the first state appropriation of the kind. The
state of North Carolina established, on the i2th of March 1877,
an agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in
connexion with its state university. The Cornell University
experiment station was organized by that institution in 1879.
The New Jersey station was organized in 1880 and the station
of the University of Tennessee in 1882. From these beginnings
the experiment stations multiplied until, when Congress passed
the National (or Hatch) Experiment Station Act in 1887, there
were seventeen already in existence. The Hatch Experiment
Station Act, so called from the fact that its leading advocate was
William Henry Hatch (1833-1896) of Missouri, appropriated
$15,000 a year to each agricultural college for the purpose of
conducting an agricultural experiment station. The object of
the stations was declared to be, " to conduct original researches
or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals;
the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the
remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful
plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative
advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying
series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trqes for acclima-
tion; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition
of manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to
test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the
adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the com-
position and digestibility of the different kinds of food for
domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved
in the production of butter and cheese; and such other re-
searches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural
industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed
advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs
of the respective states or territories." The stations were
authorized to publish annual reports and also bulletins of pro-
gress for free distribution to farmers. The franking privilege
was given to these publications. The office of experiment
f stations, in the Department of Agriculture, was established in
1888 to be the head office and clearing-house of these stations.
Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation in all the
states and territories, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and

the Philippines. Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, New Jersey
and New York each maintain separate stations, supported
wholly or in part by -state funds; Louisiana has a station for
sugar, and Missouri for fruit experiments. Excluding all branch
stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United
States is sixty, and of these fifty-five receive the national appro-
priation. The total income of the stations during 1904 was
$1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national
government and the remainder was derived from societies,
fees for analyses of fertilizers, sale of products, &c. The stations
employed 795 persons in the work of administration and re-
search; the chief classes being — directors, 71; chemists, 163;
agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 41; besides numerous horti-
culturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, bacteriologists,
dairymen, weather observers and irrigation experts. The
stations publish annual reports and bulletins, besides a large
number of " press " bulletins, which are reproduced in the
agricultural and county papers. They act as bureaus of informa-
tion on all farm questions, and carry on an extensive corre-
spondence covering all conceivable questions. Their mailing
lists aggregate half a million names. In addition to the experi-
ment stations there is in nearly every state an officer or a special
board whose duty is to look after its agricultural interests.
Eighteen states, one territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine
Islands have a single official, usually called the Commissioner
of Agriculture. Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii,
have Boards of Agriculture. Information concerning the
Agricultural Department of the United States will be found
under AGRICULTURE, BOARD or.

See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also CATTLE,
HORSE, PIG, SHEEP, &c.; DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, HORTI-
CULTURE, FRUIT AND FLOWER-FARMING, POULTRY AND POULTRY-
FARMING; SOIL, GRASS AND GRASSLAND, MANURE, DRAINAGE
OF LAND, IRRIGATION, SOWING, REAPING, HAY AND HAY-
MAKING, PLOUGH, HARROW, THRESHING.

LITERATURE. — Besides the contemporary works cited in the text,
see the article " Agricultura " in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Antiquities (1890), and the article " Agriculture " in I. A.
Barrel's Dictionnaire d' Agriculture (1885-1892); R. E. Prothero,
Pioneers and Progress of English Farming (1888); sections on agri-
culture by W. J. Corbett, R. E. Prothero and W. E. Bear in Traill's
Social England (1901-1904); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture
and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793 (7 vols., 1866-1902) ;
W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce during
the Early and Middle Ages (2 vols., 1905 and 1907); D. M'Donald,
Agricultural Writers from Sir Walter of Henley to Arthur Young,
1200-1800 (London, 1908); H. Rider Haggard, Rural England,
2 vols. (1902) ; Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, ed. by C. E. Green
and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1907-1908); Cyclopaedia of American
Agriculture, ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York and London, 1907-1908) ;
W. S. Harwood, The New Earth (New York, 1906) ; T. B. Collins,
The New Agriculture (New York, 1906) ; Journals of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England and other agricultural societies.
Amongst general works on practical agriculture the following may
be mentioned: — Stephens's Book of the Farm, 3 vols., revised by
J. Macdonald (Edinburgh, 1908) ; William Fream, Elements of
Agriculture (London, 1905); Rural Science Series, ed. by L. H.
Bailey (New York and London, 1895, &c.) ; Morton's Handbooks of
the Farm (London); R. Wallace, Farm Livestock of Great Britain
(Edinburgh, 1907) ; Youatt's Complete Grazier, rewritten by W.
Fream (London, 1900) ; E. V. Wilcox, Farm Animals (New York,
1907). (W. FR. ; R. TR.)

AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. The Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, in England, owes its foundation to the establishment
of a veterinary department of the privy council in 1865, when the
country was ravaged by cattle plague. An order in council
abolished the name " veterinary department " in 1883 and sub-
stituted that of " agricultural department," but no alteration was
effected in the work of the department, so far as it related to
animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for Great Britain)
was formed under an act of parliament of that year, and the
immediate control of the agricultural department was transferred
from the clerk of the privy council to the secretary of the Board
of Agriculture, where it remains.

A minister of agriculture had for years been asked for in the
interests of the agricultural community, and the functions of this
office are discharged by the president of the Board of Agriculture

422

AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

and Fisheries, whose appointment is a political one, and may or
may not carry with it a seat in the cabinet. The board consists
of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries
of state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the ex-
chequer, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the
secretary for Scotland. The establishment consists of a pre-
sident, secretary, assistant secretaries, &c. The salary of the
president is £2000 a year, and that of the secretary £1500 a year.

The Board of Agriculture on its establishment took over from
the privy council the responsibilities of the Contagious Diseases
(Animals) Acts, besides the comprehensive duties of the Land
Commission. The board, through its intelligence division, col-
lects and prepares statistics relating to agriculture and forestry,
and in 1904 appointed a number of honorary agricultural corre-
spondents throughout the country for the purpose of bringing
to the notice of the board any special circumstances affecting the
practice of agriculture, horticulture and forestry, or the transport
of farm, garden and fcrest produce in their districts. The land
division of the board prepares the annual agricultural and produce
returns, and the three divisions, the animals, intelligence and
land, take proceedings under the following acts: — the Diseases of
Animals Acts, the Markets and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Acts,
the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1809, the Merchandise
Marks Acts 1887 to 1905, the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act
1893, the Tithe Acts 1836 to 1891, the Copyhold Act 1894, the
Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1899, the Agricultural Holdings Acts
1883 to 1900, the Drainage and Improvement of Land Acts, the
Universities and College Estates Acts 1858 to 1898, the Glebe
Lands Act 1888, &c. The board also has charge of the inspection
of schools (not being public elementary schools) in which technical
instruction is given in agriculture or forestry, and institutes such
experimental investigations as may be deemed conducive to the
progress of agriculture and forestry.

The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom is under the
control of the board, as well as the arrangements for the advert-
isement and sale of the publications of the Geological Survey.
In 1903 the powers and duties formerly vested in the commis-
sioners of the Office of Works, relating to the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, were transferred to the board. The various
departments of the board are (i) chief clerk's branch and indoor
branch of animals division; (2) outdoor branch of the animals
division; (3) veterinary department; (4) fisheries branch; (5)
intelligence department; (6) educational branch; (7) accounts
branch; (8) inclosure and common branch; (9) copyhold and
tithe branch; (10) statistical branch; (n) law branch; (12)
survey, land improvement and land drainage branch.

In 1903, in pursuance of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
Act 1903, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regula-
tion Acts and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were
transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture,
and its name was changed to its present form. The Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers much
the same ground. The Annual Report of the Proceedings of the
Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Acts for 1902
contains a full account of its powers and duties.

In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are looked
after — in New South Wales, by an under-secretary for mines
and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of the executive
council who holds the portfolio of lands and agriculture; in
Queensland, by an under-secretary for agriculture; in New
Zealand, by a minister for lands and agriculture; in Canada (see,
for more detail, the article Canada, Canadian Agriculture), by
a minister for agriculture (the various provinces have also depart-
ments of agriculture). The government of India has a secretary
of revenue and agriculture. Cape Colony has a secretary for
• agriculture, a member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony
the director of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal,
the minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council,
and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a
director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a
conservator of forests. Cyprus has a director of agriculture.

United States. — The Department of Agriculture dates its rank
as an executive department from 1889. It was first established
as a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commis-
sioner in charge. In addition to the commissioner there were
appointed a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintend-
ent of a propagatory and experimental farm. Its scope was then
somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the
appointment of a botanist in 1868, a microscopist in 1871, the
creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of animal
industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural experiment
stations throughout the country in 1887. In 1889 the department
became an executive department, the principal official being
designated Secretary of Agriculture, with a seat in the president's
cabinet. His salary is $8000 a year. The secretary is now
charged with the supervision of all business relating to the agri-
cultural and productive industries. The fisheries have a separate
bureau, and the public lands and mining interests are cared for
in the Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions,
all the productive interests are looked after by the Department of
Agriculture. The department now comprises (i) the weather
bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue
of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for
the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the gauging
and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature and rain-
fall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and other interests; the
display of frost and cold waves signals; and the distribution of
meteorological information in the interest of agriculture and
commerce; (2) the bureau of animal industry, which makes
investigations as to the existence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia
and other dangerous and communicable diseases of live stock,
superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original
investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases,
and reports on the conditions and means of improving the animal
industries of the country; (3) the bureau of plant industry,
which studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its
work is classified under the general subjects of pathological
investigations, physiological investigations, taxonomic investiga-
tions, agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and
seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest service,
which is occupied with experiments, investigations and reports
dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of
information upon forestry matters; (5) the bureau of chemistry,
which investigates methods proposed for the analysis of plants,
fertilizers and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as
pertain in general to the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of
soils, which is entrusted with the investigation, survey and map-
ping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the
rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils ; and the investi-
gation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation of
tobacco in the different tobacco districts; (7) the bureau of
entomology, which obtains and disseminates information regard-
ing insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of biological
survey, which studies the geographic distribution of animals and
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also
investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and
recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial, and the
destruction of injurious, species; (9) the division of accounts and
disbursements; (10) the division of publications; (n) the bureau
of statistics, which collects information as to the condition,
prospects and harvests of the principal crops, and of the number
and status of farm animals. It records, tabulates and co-
ordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution and
consumption, and issues monthly and annual crop reports for the
information of producers and consumers. The section of foreign
markets makes investigations and disseminates information
concerning the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign
markets for the agricultural products of the United States; th
bureau also makes investigations of land tenures, cost of pr
ducing farm products, country life education, transportation and
other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the office
of experiment stations which represents the department in it
relations to the experiment stations which are now in operatic

AGRIGENTUM

423

in all the states; it collects and disseminates general information
regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations, and publishes
accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad; it
also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids in the conduct
of co-operative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and
work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assist-
ance as will best promote the purposes for which they were
established; it conducts investigations relative to irrigation
and drainage; (14) the office of public roads, which collects
information concerning systems of road management, conducts
investigations regarding the best method of road-making, and
prepares publications on this subject.

In the following countries there are state departments of agri-
culture:— Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture and
public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture), Denmark,
France, Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy, Japan
(agriculture and commerce), Prussia (agriculture, woods and forests),
Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden.

AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'A.Kpayas, mod. Girgenti (?.».)), an
ancient city on the south coast of Sicily, 2^m. from the sea.
It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian settle-
ment) by colonists from Gela about 58-2 B.C., and, though the
lastest city of importance founded by the Greeks in Sicily, soon
acquired a position second to that of Syracuse alone, owing
to its favourable situation for trade with Carthage and to the
fertility of its territory. Pindar (Pyth. xii. 2) calls it xaXXiora
Pportav TToXiwi'. The buildings for which it is famous all belong
to the first two centuries of its existence. Phalaris, who is said
to have roasted his enemies to death in a brazen bull (Pindar,
Pyth. i. 184), ruled as tyrant from 570 to 554. What form of
government was established after his fall is uncertain; we know
only that, after a long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473) ;
but his son Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war
with Hiero in 472 and a democracy established. In the struggle
between Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the city remained
absolutely neutral. Its prosperity continued to increase (its
population is given at over 200,000) until in 405 B.C., despite
the help of the Siceliot cities, it was captured and plundered
by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely re-
covered. It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with settlers
from Velia in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant Phintias
(289-279) it had regained some of its power. In the First Punic
War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and the
Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War by the
Romans (210). But it still retained its importance as a trading
and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period, exporting
not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and sulphur.
In the local museum are tiles used for stamping cakes of sulphur,
which show that the mines, at any rate from the 3rd century,
were imperial property leased to contractors.

The site is one of great natural strength and remarkable
beauty, though quite unlike that of other Greek cities in Sicily.
The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge with two
summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by the modern
town (985 ft.), while the easternmost, which is slightly higher,
bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its identification
in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as described by
Polybius, who places upon it the temple of Zeus Atabyrius (the
erection of which was attributed to the half mythical Phalaris)
and that of Athena.1 It must be confessed that the available
space (about 70X20 yds.) on the eastern summit (where there
are some remains of ancient buildings) is so small that there
would be only room for a single temple, which must have been
occupied by the two deities jointly, if the new theory is correcl
(see Notizie degll scavi, 1902, 387 and reft). In the modern town
on the other hand, the remains of one temple are to be seen in
the church of S. Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally
ipposed to have occupied the site of the cathedral, though no

1 E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891), i. 433, accept
le name " Rock of Athena " and yet puts the acropolis on the site
the modern town, arguing further that the cathedral hill was an
ropolis within an acropolis (II. and XVII.).

AGRIGENTUM
(Girgenti)

Wall.

Contours at intervals of

10 metres = 32 -8 feet.

traces of it are visible. But whichever of these two summits
was the acropolis proper,2 it is certain that both were included
in the circuit of the city walls. On the north both summits are
defended by cliffs; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat
abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on
which the town stood, while the western summit is separated
from .this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas
[mod. Drago], the deep ravine of which forms the western
boundary and defence of the city. On the east of the city is
the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio], from which the city
took its name and which, though shallower than that of the
Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack, and the two
unite a little way to the south of the town; at the mouth was
the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned.

The most famous remains of the ancient city are the temples,
the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs at
the south end of the city. All are built in the Doric style, of
the local porous stone, which is of a warm red brown colour, full
of fossil shells and easily corroded when exposed to the air. It
should be noted that their traditional names, with the exception
of that of Zeus and that of Asclepius, have no foundation in
fact, while the attribution of the temple in antis, into the cello,
of which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain.3
They are described in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die
griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1899),
138-184. Of all these temples the oldest is probably that of
Heracles, while the best preserved are those of Hera and Con-
cordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter, indeed,

2 Some writers place Kamikos, the city of the mythical Sican
Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears to
have lain to the north-west, possiblyat Caltabellotta, lom. north-east
of Sciacca. We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a fortified post of
Acragas- (E. A. Freeman, Hist, of Sic. i. 495).

3 The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery o
votive terra-cottas, representing Demeter and Kore in the neigh-
bourhood, while the conjecture that it .was dedicated to the river-
god Acragas rests on its position above the river, in the valley of which ,
indeed, a statue which may represent the deity has been discovered.

424

AGRIMONY— AGRIPPA

lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation to its conversion
into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory II., bishop of Girgenti.
Both temples belong to the best period of the Doric style and
are among the finest in existence. In front of the former, as
in front of those of Heracles and Zeus, stood a huge altar for
burnt offerings, as long as the facade of the temple itself. The
cetta of the temple of Heracles underwent considerable modifica-
tions in Roman times, and the discovery in it of a statue of
Asclepius seems to show that the cult of this deity superseded
the original one.

In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures of
Atlas), 25 ft. in height, are noticeable. They seem to have stood
in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside wall and to
have supported the epistyle. The collapse both of this temple
and of that of Heracles must be attributed to an earthquake;
many fallen blocks of the former were removed in 1756 for the

construction of the harbour of Porto Empedocle. The four
columns erected on the site of the temple of Castor and Pollux
are a modern (and incorrect) restoration in which portions of
two buildings have been used. Of that of Hephaestus only two
columns remain, while of that of Asclepius, a mile to the south
of the town, an anta and two pillars are preserved. It was in
the latter temple that the statue of the god by Myron stood;
it had probably been carried off to Carthage, was given to the
temple by P. Scipio Africanus from the spoils of that city and
aroused the cupidity of Verres.

The other remains within the city walls are of surprisingly
small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Nicolo is
the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the 2nd century B.C.,
27 J ft. long (including the porch) by 23 J ft. wide; and not far off
on the east is a large private house with white tesselated pave-
ments, probably pre-Roman in origin but slightly altered in

Demeter

(Acragas?).

Hera
Lacinia.

Con-
cordia.

Heracles.

Zeus.

Castor
and
Pollux.

Unnamed
near
Castor
and
Pollux.

Hephae-
stus.

Asclepius.

Athena.

Length excluding

steps '

90?

I25i

I29i

220

361

Breadth

4°i

55*

83

'73i

67-

•it

,'o'i

>ie

Length of cella .

93

156

S32

91

v •

2

^o

Breadth of cella .

32!

31*

45i

H4i

33

Height of columns

with capitals .

21

22

33

62§?

I9l

Diameter of

columns at

bottom

4*

4i

6*

14

4

5

,1

. 4?

Original number of

3

*TB

columns .

34

34

38

38

34

Class . . .

In antis.

Perip-
teros
hexa-

Perip-
teros
hexa-

Peripteros
hexastylos.

Pseudo
peripteros
hepta-

Peripteros
hexastylos.

Peripteros
hexastylos.

Prostyles
pseudo-
peripteros.

Perip-
teros.

Approximate date

450 B.C.

stylos.
480-440

stylos.
440-420

5OO B.C.

stylos.
450 B.C.

338-210

after 338

before 210

488-472

B.C.

B.C.

B.C.

B.C.

B.C.

B.C.

the Roman period (R. P. Jones and E. A. Gardner in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, xxvi., 1906, 207). Foundations of other
buildings are to be seen in other parts of the site, but of little
interest. The huge fishpond, spoken of by Diodorus as being
7 stadia in circumference (xi. 25), is to be seen at the south-west
corner of the city; it is an enormous excavation in the rock
with drains in its sides, at the bottom of which there is now a
flourishing orange garden.

The line of the city walls can be distinctly traced for most of
the circuit, but the actual remains of them are inconsiderable.
On the east and west the ravines already mentioned afforded,
in the main, a sufficient protection, so that a massive wall was
unnecessary, while near the south-eastern angle a breastwork
was formed by the excavation of the natural rock,12 which in
later times was honeycombed with tombs. E. A. Freeman
attributes the southern portion of the walls to Theron (Hist,
of Sic. ii. 224), but the question depends upon the date of the
temple of Heracles; and if Koldewey and Puchstein are right
in dating it so early as 500 B.C., it is probable that the wall was
in existence by that time. Close to this temple on the west is
the site of the gate known in later times as the Porta Aurea,
through which the modern road passes, so that no traces now
remain.

Tombs of the Greek period have mainly been found on the
west of the town, outside the probable line of the walls, between
the Hypsas and a small tributary, the latter having been spanned
by a bridge, now called Ponte dei Morti, of which one massive
pier, 45 ft. in width, still exists. Just outside the south wall
is a Roman necropolis, with massive tombs in masonry, and a
Christian catacomb, and a little farther south a tomb in two
stories, a mixture of Doric and Ionic architecture, belonging
probably to the 2nd century B.C., though groundlessly called

1 Dimensions in English feet.

2 Polybius ix. 27 «ir<u T& T«XOJ 4jr2 Trirpos &KpoT
ft l£v aiiro<t>vout g

the Tomb of Theron. A village of the Byzantine period has
been explored at Balatizzo, immediately to the south of the
modern town (Nolizie degli Scam, 1900, 511-520). The walls
of the dwellings are entirely cut out of the natural rock.

See J. Schubring, Historische Topographic von Akragas (Leipzig,
1870); R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, op. cit.; C. Hulsen in Paul
Wissowa, Encyclopddie, i. 1187. (T. As.)

AGRIMONY (from the Lat. agrimonia, a transformation
&pytn<jivri, a word of unknown etymology), a slender perennial
herb (botanical name, Agrimonia Eupatoria, natural order
Rosaceae), 15 to 3 ft. high, growing in hedge-banks, copses and
borders of fields. The leafy stem ends in spikes of small yellow
flowers. The flower-stalk becomes recurved in the fruiting
stage, and the fruit bears a number of hooks which enable it to
cling to rough objects, such as the coat of an animal, thus ensur-
ing distribution of the seed. The plant is common in Britain
and widely spread through the north temperate region. The
underground woody stem is astringent and yields a yellow dye.

The name has been unsystematically given to several other
plants; for instance: bastard, Dutch, hemp or water agrimony
(Eupatorium cannabinum) ; noble or three-leaved agrimony
(Anemone hepatica); water agrimony (Bidens); and wild
agrimony (Potenlilla anserina).

AGRIONIA, an ancient Greek festival, which was celebrated
annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere, in honour of
Dionysus Agrionius, by women and priests at night. The women,
after playfully pretending for some time to search for the god,
desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the Muses.
The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas, king of Orcho-
menus, having despised the rites of the god, were seized with
frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children. At this festival
it was originally the custom for the priest of the god to pursue
a woman of the Minyan family with a drawn sword and kill her.
(Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 102, Quaest. Graecae 38.)

AGRIPPA, a sceptical philosopher, whose date cannot

ft

of
ial
:er

AGRIPPA

425

accurately determined. He must have lived later than
Aenesidemus, who is generally said to have been a contemporary
of Cicero. To him are ascribed the five tropes (irevre rpoiroi)
which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude
of the later ancient sceptics. The first trope emphasizes the
disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points; know-
ledge comes either from the senses or from reason. Some
thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense;
others that the things of reason alone are known; and so on.
It follows that the only wise course is to be content with an
attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to deny. The
second trope deals with the validity of proof; the proof of one
so-called fact depends on another fact which itself needs demon-
stration, and so on ad infinitum. The third points out that the
data of sense are relative to the sentient being, those of reason
to the intelligent ; mind; that in different conditions things
themselves are seen or thought to be different. Where, then, is
the absolute criterion? Fourthly, if we examine things fairly,
we see that in point of fact all knowledge depends on certain
hypotheses, or facts taken for granted. Such knowledge is
fundamentally hypothetical, and might well be accepted as
such without the labour of a demonstration which is logically
invalid. The fifth trope points out the impossibility of proving
the sensible by the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to estab-
lish the intelligible in its turn by the sensible. Such a process
is a vicious circle and has no logical validity. A comparison of
these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article
AENESIDEMUS shows that scepticism has made an advance into
the more abtruse questions of metaphysics. The first and the
third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes, and the
other three systematize the more profound difficulties which
new thinkers had developed. Aenesidemus was content to
attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa 'goes
further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever. His
reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons which by
their very nature are not susceptible of disproof.

See Diogenes Laertius x. 88, and Zeller's Greek Philosophy. Also
the articles SCEPTICISM; AENESIDEMUS.

AGRIPPA, HEROD, I. (c. 10 B.C.-A.D. 44), king of Judea, the
son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the
Great, was born about 10 B.C. His original name was Marcus
Julius Agrippa. Josephus informs us that, after the murder
of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court of
Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and placed
him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon won. On
the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly extrava-
gant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with debt.
After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle, who had
married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos (Overseer
of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with a large sum of
money; but his uncle being unwilling to continue his support,
Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon after returned to Rome,
where he was welcomed by Tiberius and became the constant
campanion of the emperor Gaius (Caligula), then a popular
favourite. Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a
slave whom he had made free, to express a wish for Tiberius'
death and the advancement of Gaius, was betrayed to the
emperor and cast into prison. In A.D. 37 Caligula, having
ascended the throne, heaped wealth and favours upon Agrippa,
set a royal diadem upon his head and gave him the tetrarchy
of Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip, the son of Herod
the Great, had formerly possessed. To this he added that held
by Lysanias; and Agrippa returned very soon into Judea to
'take possession of his new kingdom. In A.D. 39 he returned
to Rome and brought about the banishment of Herod Antipas,
to whose tetrarchy he succeeded. On the assassination of Cali-
gula (A.D. 41) Agrippa contributed much by his advice to main-
tain Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, while he
made a show of being in the interest of the senate. The emperor,
in acknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the
kingdom of Chalcis in Lebanon was at his request given to his
brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest princes

of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in extent that
held by Herod the Great. He returned to Judea and governed
it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. His zeal, private and
public, for Judaism is celebrated by Josephus and the rabbis;
and the narrative of Acts xii. gives a typical example of it.
About the feast of the Passover A.D. 44, James the elder, the
son of Zebedee and brother of John the evangelist, was seized
by his order and put to death. He proceeded also to lay hands
on Peter and imprisoned him. After the Passover he went to
Caesarea, where he had games performed in honour of Claudius,
and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue
for peace. According to the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gor-
geously arrayed, received them in the theatre, and addressed
them from a throne, while the audience cried out that his was
the voice of a god. But " the angel of the Lord smote him,"
and shortly afterwards he died " eaten of worms." The story
in Acts differs slightly from that in Josephus, who describes
how in the midst of his elation he saw an owl perched over his
head. During his confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been
interpreted as portending his speedy release, with the warning
that should he behold the same sight again he would die within
five days. He was immediately smitten with violent pains,
and after a few days died. Josephus says nothing of his being
" eaten of worms," but the discrepancies between the two
stories are of slight moment. A third account omits all the
apocryphal elements hi the story and says that Agrippa was
assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power.
See articles in Ency. Bibl. (W. J. Woodhouse), Jewish Ency. (M.
Brann), with further references; N. S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa
(New York, 2nd ed., 1898); Gratz, Geschichte d. Juden, iii. 318-361.

AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and like
him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about A.D. 27,
and received the tetrarchy of Chalcis and the oversight of the
Temple on the death of his uncle Herod, A.D. 48. In A.D. 53 he
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him other
provinces instead of it. In the war which Vespasian carried on
against the Jews Herod sent him 2000 men, by which it appears
that, though a Jew in religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the
Romans, whose assistance indeed he required to secure the peace
of his own kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of
Trajan, A.D. 100. He was the seventh and last king of the family
of Herod the Great. It was before him and his sister Berenice
(q.v., 8.2) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.).
He supplied Josephus with information for his history.

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 B.C.), Roman states-
man and'general, son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augus-
tus, was of humble origin. He was of the same age as Octavian
(as the emperor was then called), and was studying with him at
Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44)
arrived. By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome.
Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius,
brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia
(40). Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitanians
in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the
Germans. On his return he refused a triumph but accepted the
consulship (37). At this time Sextus Pompeius, with whom war
was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy.
Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for his ships,
which he accomplished by cutting through the strips of land
which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming
an outer harbour; an inner one was also made by joining the
lake Avernus to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius xlviii. 49 ; Pliny, Nat.
Hist, xxxvi. 24). About this time Agrippa married Pomponia,
daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius Atticus. Having been
appointed naval commander-in-chief he put his crews through a
course of training, until he felt in a position to meet the fleet of
Pompeius. In 36 he was victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and
received the honour of a naval crown for his services. In 33 he
was chosen aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting
great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring" and building
aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constfucting
baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also first gave

426

AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM

a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. The em-
peror's boast that he had found the city of brick but left it of
marble (" marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset,"
Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety have been uttered
by Agrippa. He was again called away to take command of the
fleet when the war with Antony broke out. The victory at
Actium (31), which gave the mastery of Rome and the empire of
the world to Octavian, was mainly due to Agrippa. As a token
of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his
niece Marcella (28). We must suppose that his wife Pomponia
was either dead or divorced. In 27 Agrippa was consul for the
third time, and in the following year the senate bestowed upon
Octavian the emperial title of Augustus. Probably in com-
memoration of the battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated
the Pantheum still in existence as La Rotonda. The inscription
on the portico states that it was erected by him during his third
consulship. His friendship with Augustus seems to have been
clouded by the jealousy of his father-in-law Marcellus, which was
probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of
Augustus, who feared his influence with her husband. The result
was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governor-
ship of Syria — a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact
he only sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at
Lesbos. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a
year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could
not dispense with his services. It is said that by the advice of
Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely to him
by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to
divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia (21), the widow of
Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty and abilities and her
shameless profligacy. In 19 Agrippa was employed in putting
down a rising of the Cantabrians in Spain. He was appointed
governor of Syria a second time (17), where his just and prudent
administration won him the respect and good-will of the pro-
vincials, especially the Hebrew population. His last public
service was the bloodless suppression of an insurrection in
Pannonia (13). He died at Campania in March of the year
following his fifty-first year. Augustus honoured his memory
by a magnificent funeral.

Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography.
Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design of having a complete
survey of the empire made was carried out. From the materials
at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on
marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade
built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings an autobiography,
now lost, is referred to. Agrippa left several children; by
Pomponia, a daughter Vipsania, who became the wife of the
emperor Tiberius; by Julia three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar
and Agrippa Postumus, and two daughters, Agrippina the elder,
afterwards the wife of Germanicus, and Julia, who married
Lucius Aemilius Paullus.

See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv. ; Suetonius, Augustus; Velleius Pater-
culus ii. ; Josephus, Antiq. Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2; Turnbull, Three
Dissertations, one of the characters of Horace, Augustus and Agrippa

(1740); Frandsen, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Etude
sur Marcus Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e i suoi
tempi (1901); D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung and Bedeutung

der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine
Zeit, vol. i. 762 foil., ii. 432 foil.

AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486-
IS3S)> German writer, soldier, physician, and by common
reputation a magician, belonged to a family many members of
which had been in the service of the house of Habsburg, and was
born at Cologne on the i4th of September 1486. The details of
his early life are somewhat obscure, but he appears to have
obtained a knowledge of eight languages, to have studied at the
university of Cologne and to have passed some time in France.
When quite young he entered the service of the German king,
Maximilian I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enter-
prise in Catalonia. He probably served Maximilian both as
soldier and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was
not satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take
a lively interest in theosophy and magic. In 1509 he went to the

university of D61e, where he lectured on John Reuchlin's De
Verbo mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges of heresy to
be brought against him, and he was denounced by a monk named
John Catilinet in lectures delivered at Ghent. As a result Agrippa
was compelled to leave Dole; proceeding to the Netherlands he
took service again with Maximilian. In 1510 the king sent him
on a diplomatic mission to England, where he was the guest of
Colet, dean of St Paul's, and where he replied to the accusations
brought against him by Catilinet. Returning to Cologne he
followed Maximilian to Italy in 1 5 1 1 , and as a theologian attended
the council of Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in opposi-
tion to a council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in Italy
for seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis of
Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Savoy,
probably occupied in teaching theology and practising medicine.
In 1515 he lectured at the university of Pavia on the Pimander
of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly ter-
minated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of France.
In 1518 the efforts of one or other of his patrons secured for
Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator, or syndic,
at Metz. Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon-brought him into
collision with the monks, and his defence of a woman accused
of witchcraft involved him in a dispute with the inquisitor,
Nicholas Savin. The consequence of this was that in 1520
he resigned his office and returned to Cologne, where he stayed
about two years. He then practised for a short time as a
physician at Geneva and Freiburg, but in 1524 went to Lyons
on being appointed physician to Louise of Savoy, mother of
Francis I. In 1528 he gave up this position, and about this time
was invited to take part in the dispute over the legality of the
divorce of Catherine of Aragon by Henry VIII.; but he pre-
ferred an offer made by Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent
of the Netherlands, and became archivist and historiographer
to the emperor Charles V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened
his position, and the publication of some of his writings about
the same time aroused anew the hatred of his enemies; but
after suffering a short imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived
at Cologne and Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of Wied,
archbishop of Cologne. By publishing his works he brought him-
self into antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop
the printing of De occulta philosophia. He then went to France,
where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for some disparaging
words about the queen-mother; but he was soon released, and
on the i8th of February 1535 died at Grenoble. He was married
three times and had a large family. Agrippa was a man of great
ability and undoubted courage, but he lacked perseverance
and was himself responsible for many of his misfortunes. In
spite of his inquiring nature and his delight in novelty, he re-
mained a Catholic, and had scant sympathy with the teaching
of the reformers. His memory was nevertheless long defamed
in the writings of the monks, who placed a malignant inscrip-
tion over his grave. Agrippa 's work, De occulta philosophia, was
written about 1510, partly under the influence of the author's
friend, John Trithemius, abbot of Wiirzburg, but its publication
was delayed until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp. It is
a defence of magic, by means of which men may come to a
knowledge of nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea
of the universe with its three worlds t>r spheres. His other
principal work, De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum el Artiunt
atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, was written about 1527
and published at Antwerp in 1531. This is a sarcastic attack
on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned men.
In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown up
around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes for a
return to the primitive belief of the early Christian church. He
also wrote De Nobilitate et Praecellentia Feminei Sexus, dedicated
to Margaret. of Burgundy, De matrimonii Sacramento and other
smaller works. An edition of his works was published at Leiden
in 1550 and they have been republished several times.

See H. Morley, Life of H. C. Agrippa (London, 1856); A. Prost,
Les Sciences et les arts occultes au X VI. siecle: Corneille Agrippa, sa vie
et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1881) ; A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Pans, 1856).

AGRIPPINA— AGUESSEAU

427

I

AGRIPPINA, the " elder," daughter of Marcus Vipsanius
Agrippa by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of
Augustus and the wife of Germanicus. She accompanied her
husband to Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted
after the death of Augustus (A.D. 14). Three years later she

JLS in the East with Germanicus (q.v.), who died at Antioch in 19,
isoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso, governor
ol Syria. Eager to avenge his death, she returned to Rome and
boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid
iublic infamy Piso committed suicide. Tiberius and his favourite
:janus feared that her ambition might lead her to attempt
secure the throne for her children, and she was banished to
ie island of Pandataria off the coast of Campania, where she
ied on the iSth of October 33, starved to death by herself, or,
rding to some, by order of Tiberius. Two of her sons, Nero
d Drusus, had already fallen victims to the machinations of
janus. Agrippina had a large family by Germanicus, several
whom died young, while only two are of importance —
.grippina the . " younger " and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded
^berius under the name of Caligula. It is remarkable that,
though Tiberius had ordered the execution of his elder
irothers, by his will he left Caligula one of the heirs of the
Empire. Agrippina was a woman of the highest character
and exemplary morality. There is a portrait of her in the
Capitoline Museum at Rome, and a bronze medal in the British
Museum representing the bringing back of her ashes to Rome
by order of Caligula.

See Tac. Ann. i.-vi.; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius Ivii.
6, Iviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs of the Life of
Igrippina (1804); Burkhard, Agrippina, des Agrippa Tochter
(1846) ; Stahr, Romische Kaiserfrauen (1880).

AGRIPPINA, the "younger" (A.D. 16-59), daughter of
ermanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and
icther of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the
Rhine, afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae
(mod. Cologne). Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy.
By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was
the mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was
Passienus Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning. Assisted
by the influential freedman Pallas, she induced her uncle the
emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina, and
adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of Britan-
nicus. Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured
the throne for her son, with the intention of practically ruling
m his behalf. Being alarmed at the influence of the freedwoman
.cte over Nero, she threatened to support the claims of the
Ightful heir Britannicus. Nero thereupon murdered the young
prince and decided to get rid of his mother. Pretending a re-
nciliation, he invited her to Baiae, where an attempt was
iade to drown her on a vessel especially constructed to founder.
As this proved a failure, he had her put to death at her country
house. Agrippina wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by
'acitus (Ann. iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's
'itannicus.

See Tac. Ann. xii., xiii., xiv. ; Dio Cassius lix.-lxi. ; Suetonius,
'era, 34; Stahr, Agrippina, die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die
femoiren der Kaiserin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson, The
ife and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903) ; also article NERO.

AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near
Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotera, in fulfilment of a vow
ade by the city, before the battle of Marathon, to offer in
rifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in
be conflict. The number being so great, it was decided to offer
> goats yearly.

See Plutarch, De Malignitate Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab.
2. 12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; Schol. on Aristophanes, Equites,

AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity
the W. coast of Porto Rico. Pop. (1899) 6425. It has a
fairly good and safe anchorage, and is the commercial outlet for
a very fertile agricultural district. The town is attractively
situated and well built, and is connected by railway with Maya-
guez, 20 m. distant, and also with Ponce and San Juan. The

neighbouring district produces sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle,
cocoanuts, oranges and lemons. The bay is supposed to have
been first visited by Columbus (November 1493), though the
town was not founded until 1775.

AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis de Las Marismas
del Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1784-1842),
Spanish banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on
the 2gth of June 1784. He began life as a soldier, fighting with
distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side of
Joseph Bonaparte. After the battle of Baylen (1808) he entered
the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and aide-de-camp
to Marshal Soult. He was exiled in 1815, and immediately
started business as a commission-agent in Paris, where, chiefly
through his family connexions in Havana and Mexico, he
acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable him to undertake
banking. The Spanish government gave him full powers to
negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 1831; and Ferdinand
VII. rewarded him with the title of marquis, the decorations
of several orders and valuable mining concessions in Spain.
Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having
become possessed of large estates in France, including the chateau
Margaux, famous for its wine, he was naturalized as a French
citizen. He died at Gijon in Spain on the i4th of April 1842,
leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid
collection of pictures which at his death was bought by the
French government.

AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded
N., E. and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco.
Pop. (est. 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census
years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m. The state occupies
an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra
Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de Laurel, eastward to
the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern districts.
It is well watered by numerous small streams and one larger
river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has a mild healthy
climate with a moderate rainfall. The fertile valleys of the
north and west are devoted to agriculture and the plains to stock-
raising. Indian corn, flour, cattle, horses, mules and hides are
exported to the neighbouring states. Mining industries are
still undeveloped, but considerable progress has been made in
manufactures, especially of textile fabrics. The state has good
railway communications and a prosperous trade. The capital,
Aguascalientes, named from the medicinal hot springs near it,
is a flourishing commercial and manufacturing city. Pop. (est.
1900) 35,052. It has cotton factories, smelting works, potteries,
tanneries, distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories. It is a
station on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north-
west of the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico
on the Gulf of Mexico. The city is well built, has many fine
churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric
lights. The surrounding district is well cultivated and produces
an abundance of fruit and vegetables. Other prominent towns
of the state are Rincon de Romos (or Victoria de Calpulalpam),
Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first having more and the
others less than 5000 inhabitants.

AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc. febris, fever), the common
name given to a form or stage of malarial disease; the ague fit
is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the word is also loosely
used for any such paroxysm. Simple ague is of much the same
type whether in temperate or tropical climates, and may take
various forms (quotidian, tertian, quartan), passing into " re-
mittent fever." The symptoms are discussed, together with
causation, &c., in the article MALARIA. For " brow-ague "
see NEURALGIA.

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D' (1668-1751), chancellor
of France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents, was
born at Limoges, of a family of the magistrature. His father,
Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the parlement
of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth of view who,
after holding successively the posts of intendant of Limousin,
Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to Paris as coun-
cillor of state, appointed director-general of commerce and

428

AGUILAR— AHAB

manufactures in 1695, president of the council of commerce in
1 700 and a member of the council of the regency for finance. By
him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into affairs and
brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with Jansenism.
He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is apparent
in both the legal writings and legislative work of the chancellor.
When little more than twenty-one years of age he was, through
his father's influence with the king, appointed one of the three
advocates-general to the parlement of Paris; and the eloquence
and learning which he displayed in his first speech gained him
a very high reputation. D'Aguesseau was in fact the first great
master of forensic eloquence in France.

In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and in this
office, which he filled for seventeen years, he gained the greatest
popularity by his defence of the rights of the Gallican Church
in the Quietist troubles and in those connected with the bull
Unigenitus (see JANSENISM). In February 1717 he was made
chancellor by the regent Orleans; but was deprived of the seals
in January of the following year and exiled to his estate of
Fresnes in Brie, on account of his steady opposition to the
projects of the famous John Law, which had been adopted by
the regent and his ministers. In June 1720 he was recalled to
satisfy public opinion; and he contributed not a little by the
firmness and sagacity of his counsels to calm the public dis-
turbance and repair the mischief which had been done. Law
himself had acted as the messenger of his recall; and it is said
that d'Aguesseau's consent to accept the seals from his hand
greatly diminished his popularity. The parlement continuing its
opposition to the registering of the bull Unigenitus, d'Aguesseau,
fearing a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaurne
Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force
the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile of the
magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the power
of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement alone.
The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base compliance
with the favourite. He certainly opposed Dubois in other
matters; and when Dubois became chief minister d'Aguesseau
was deprived of his office (March i, 1722).

He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which he
always spoke with delight. The Scriptures, which he read and
compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence of his
own and other countries, formed the subjects of his more serious
studies; the rest of his time was devoted to philosophy, literature
and gardening. From these occupations he was recalled to
court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in 1727, and on the
1 5th of August was named chancellor for the third time, but
the seals were not restored to him till ten years later. During
these years he endeavoured to mediate in the disputes between
the court and the parlement. When he was at last reinstated
in office, he completely withdrew from all political affairs, and
devoted himself entirely to his duties as chancellor and to the
achievement of those reforms which had long occupied his
thoughts. He aimed, as others had tried before him, to draw
up in a single code all the laws of France, but was unable to
accomplish his task. Besides some important enactments
regarding donations, testaments and successions, he introduced
various regulations for improving the forms of procedure, for
ascertaining the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater
uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several
provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the history of
French jurisprudence, and have placed the name of d'Aguesseau
in the same rank with those of L'H6pital and Lamoignon. As
a magistrate also he was so conscientious that the due de Saint-
Simon in his Memoirs complained that he spent too much time
over the cases that came before him.

In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau
retired from the duties without giving up the rank of chancellor.
He died on the gth of February of the following year.

His grandson, HENRI CARDIN JEAN BAPTISTE, MARQUIS
D'AGUESSEAU (1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parle-
ment of Paris and deputy in the Estates- General. Under the
Consulate he became president of the court of appeal and later

minister at Copenhagen. He was elected to the French Academy
in 1787.

Of d'Aguesseau's works the most complete edition is that of the
eminent lawyer Jean Marie Pardessus, published in 16 vols. (1818-
1820); his letters were edited separately by Rives (1823); a selec-
tion of his works, (Euvres choisies, was issued, with a biographical
notice, by E. Falconnet in 2 vols. (Paris, 1865). The far greater
part of his works relate to matters connected with his profession,
but they also contain an elaborate treatise on money; several
theological essays ; a life of his father, which is interesting from the
account which it gives of his own early education; and Metaphysical
Meditations, written to prove that, independently of all revelation
and all positive law, there is that in the constitution of the human
mind which renders man a law to himself.

See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et des outrages du chancelier
d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le Chancelier d'Aguesseau
(Paris, 1860; 2nd ed., 1863); Charles Butler, Mem. of Life of H. F.
d'Aguesseau, &c. (1830).

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter
of a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 1816. Her
works consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The Vale of
Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847). She also wrote, in
defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of Judaism
(1842) and other works. Her services were acknowledged
gratefully by the " women of Israel " in a testimonial which they
presented shortly before her death, which took place at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main on the i6th of September 1847.

AGUILAR, or AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river Cabra,
and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,236.
Aguilar " of the Frontier " was so named in the middle ages
from its position on the border of the Moorish territories, which
were defended by the castle of Anzur, now a ruin; but the
spacious squares and modern houses of the existing town retain
few vestiges of Moorish dominion. The olives and white wine
of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain, although the wine, which
somewhat resembles sherry, is known as Montilla, from the
adjacent town of that name. Salt springs exist in the neigh-
bourhood, and to the south there are two small lakes, Zonar
and Rincon, which abound in fish.

AGUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province
of Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a
railway from Huercal-Overa. Pop. (1900) 15,868. Aguilas is
built on the landward side of a small peninsula, between two
bays — the Puerto Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west,
and the Puerto Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to
shipping in rough weather, on the north-east. It is the chief
outlet for the Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron
ore and other mineral products of the neighbourhood. It has
also some trade in fruit and grain. The imports consist chiefly
of coal. In 1904, 296 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this
port.

AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet,
was born in 1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine.
He removed to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won
considerable popularity with a collection of poems entitled
Ecos nacionales (1849). His Elegias y Armonlas (1863) was no
less successful, but his Sdliras (1874) and Estaciones del ano (1879)
showed that his powers were declining. He wrote under the
obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of liberal-
ism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in force,
leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming
personality. He became director of the national archaeological
museum at Madrid, where he died on the ist of July 1881.

AGUILLON (AGUILONIUS), FRANCOIS D' (1566-1617),
Flemish mathematician. Having entered the Society of Jesus
in 1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douai
and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. He wrote a treatise
on optics in six books (Antwerp, 1613), notable for containing
the principles of stereographic projection.

AHAB (in Heb. 'ak'db, " father's brother "), king of Israel,
the son and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about
875 B.C. (i Kings xvi. 29-34). He married Jezebel, the daughter
of the king of Sidon, and the alliance was doubtless the means
of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury

'AHAI— AHASUERUS

429

in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace and
founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourish-
ing commerce of Phoenicia.1 The material prosperity of his
reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a century
before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his
marriage involved. Although he was a worshipper of Yahweh,
as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5 seq.), his wife
was firmly attached to the worship of the Tyrian Baal, Melkart,
and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building
a temple in honour of Baal in Samaria. This roused the in-
dignation of those prophets whose aim it was to purify the
worship of Yahweh (see ELIJAH). During Ahab's reign Moab,
which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary;
Judah, with whose king, Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage,
was probably his vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have
had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external
sources is the battle at Karkar (perhaps Apamea), where Shal-
maneser II. of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes
from Cilicia, N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian
desert (854 B.C.). Here Ahabbu Sir'lai (Ahab the Israelite) with
Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are
allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being
reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are
comparatively .large and possibly include forces from Tyre,
Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory,
but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849
and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to
show that he met with no lasting success. According to the
Old Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had
previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings,
who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year
obtained a remarkable victory over him at Aphek, probably
in the plain of Sharon ( i Kings xx.). A treaty was made whereby
Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from
Ahab's father (i.e. Omri, but see xv. 20, 2 Kings xiii. 25), and
trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted.
A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii. 33-xiii. 34)
condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction
of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on
the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went
to recover Ramoth-Gilead and was mortally wounded (xxii.).
He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram).

It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these
events (LXX. places i Kings xxi. immediately after xix.). How
the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common
enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records,
are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality
of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact ithat it has been
suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote " Ahab " for his son
" Jehoram " (Kamphausen, Chronol. d. hebr. Kon., Kittel), and
that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has
been questioned (Horner, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1898, p. 244)."
Whilst the above passages in i Kings view Ahab not unfavour-
ably, there are others which give a less friendly picture. The
tragic murder of Naboth (see JEZEBEL), an act of royal encroach-
ment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused
the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found
their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic
teaching of more than one age. (See KINGS.) His denunciation
of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship
of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a period
which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which
Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure.

The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in
Mic. vi. 16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and
the reference to the incidents at the building of Jericho (i Kings
rvi. 34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar

'Ahab's ivory palace found its imitators (i Kings xxii. 39; Am.
iii. 15). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenicians from
Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor.

8 See the discussions by Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 91 seq., and by
Whitehouse, Diet. Bib. i. 53.

in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at
this period.3 This has in fact been confirmed by excavation in
Palestine.

Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the
time of the Babylonian exile (Jer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.)

'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown.
He was author of Quaestiones (Sheilloth), a collection of homilies
(at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and ethics. This is
recorded to have been the first work written by a Jewish scholar
after the completion of the Talmud.

AHASUERUS (the Latinized form of the Hebrew w'nijpro;;'
in LXX. 'Aaffovrjpos, once in Tobit 'Acruij/jos), a royal Persian
or Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old
Testament and in one of the books of the Apocrypha. In every
case the identification of the person named is a matter of
controversy.

In Dan. ix. i Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede, who
" was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans " after the
conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this Darius
was is one of the most difficult questions in ancient history.
Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately succeeded
by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire. Darius may
possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of Babylon, but
this view is not favoured by Dan. vi. i, vi. 25, for Darius (v. 31) is
said to have been sixty-two years old at the time (638 B.C.) . This
would make him contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which
agrees with Tob. xiv. 15, where we read " of the destruction of
Nineveh, which Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus took captive."
As a matter of fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were
the conquerors of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of
Nebuchadrezzar. Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon,
appoint a governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas,
the son of Mardonius. The truth is, no doubt, as Prof. Sayce
points out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly
historical. As Prof. Driver says, " tradition, it can hardly be
doubted, has here confused persons and events in reality dis-
tinct " (Literature of the Old Test. (6) p. 500).

In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to
whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing the
rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of
the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane historians —
in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius; in the other,
Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius — led in the past (Ewald, &c.)
to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses (529-522 B.C.),
son of Cyrus. The name Khshayarsha, however, has been found
in Persian inscriptions, and has been thought to be equivalent to
the Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) of the Greeks. On Babylonian tablets
both the forms Khishiarshu and Akkashiarshi occur amongst
others. Modern scholars, therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of
Ezra with Xerxes.

In the book of Esther the king of Persia is called
Ahasuerus (rendered in LXX. " Artaxerxes " throughout). The
identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, the
son and successor of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus,
deserves little consideration. Most students are agreed that he
must be a monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than
Artaxerxes I. ; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes
and Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleged, among
other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom it
could be said, as in Esther i. i, that he " reigned from India even
unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty pro-
vinces "; and that it was also the distinction of Darius that
(Esther x. i) he laid " a tribute upon the land and upon the isles
of the sea " (cf. Herod, iii. 89). In support of the identification
with Xerxes it is alleged (i) that the Hebrew 'Ahashverosh is
the natural equivalent of the old Persian Khshayarsha, the true
name of Xerxes; (2) that there is a striking similarity of
character between the Xerxes of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus
of Esther; (3) that certain coincidences in dates and events

'See Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 46 sqq.; Haddon, Study
of Man, pp. 347 sqq.; P. Sartori, Zeitschr. fiir Ethnologic, 1898,
pp. I seq.

430

AHAZ— AHMAD IBN HANBAL

corroborate this identity, as, e.g., the feast in the king's third
year (cf. Esther i. 3 with Herod, vii. 8), the return of Xerxes
to Susa in the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of
Ahasuerus at Shushan in the same year of his. To this it may
be added that the interval of four years between the divorce of
Vashti and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the
intervention of an important series of events fully occupying
the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece.

See articles " Ahasuerus " in the Encyclopaedia Siblica, Hastings'
Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedia ; S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit.
vfthe Old Test. ; Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer Bibellexikon (1893).

AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds "), son of Jotham, grand-
son of Uzziah or Azariah and king of Judah. After the death
of Menahem, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun),
king of Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid
siege to Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets
upon the throne. At the same time the Edomites recovered
Elath on the Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also
2 Chron. xxviii. 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated. Notwith-
standing the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. 1-17), Ahaz lost heart and
used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser IV., who
after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power of Syria,
taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah, which led to
further despoliation of the temple. It was as a vassal that Ahaz
presented himself to the Assyrian king at Damascus, and he
brought back religious innovations (2 Kings xvi. io sqq.; for
the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new ideas to which he pro-
ceeded to give effect. His buildings are referred to in 2 Kings
xx. n, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps Jer. xxii. 15: " art thou a true king
because thou viest with Ahaz " (see the LXX.). Ahaz was
succeeded by his son Hezekiah.

On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith,
Relig. of Semites (2), pp. 485 sqq. ; and on his reign, idem, Prophets of
Israel (2), pp. 415 sqq. On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (cf. 2 Chron. xxviii. 3)
see MOLOCH. See further ISAIAH and JEWS.

AHAZIAH (" he whom Yahweh sustains "), the name of two
kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (i) Ahaziah,
8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of Ahab, and reigned
for less than two years. On his accession the Moabites refused
any longer to pay tribute. Ahaziah lost his life through a fall from
the lattice of an upper room in his palace, and it is stated that
in his illness he sent to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron;
his messengers, however, were met by Elijah, who bade them
return and tell the king he must die (2 Kings i. 2-17; cf. Luke ix.
54-56). (2) Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son of Jehoram
and Ahab's daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year. He is
described as a wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu,
son of Nimshi. He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah.

AHENOBARBUS (" brazen-bearded "), the name of a plebeian
Roman family of the gens Domitia. The name was derived from
the red beard and hair by which many of the family were dis-
tinguished. Amongst its members the following may be
mentioned: —

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, tribune of the people
104 B.C., brought forward a law (lex Domitia de Sacerdoliis) by
which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by
the people in the comilia tributa (seventeen of the tribes voting)
instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by Sulla, re-
vived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed by Marcus
Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria, ii. 7; Suetonius,
Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in 103,
consul in 96 and censor in 92 with Lucius Licinius Crassus the
orator, with whom he was frequently at variance. They took
joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established
Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to
public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. n).

Lucius DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, husband
of Porcia the sister of Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and enemy
of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party.
At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided with
him against Caesar. He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49 he was
appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul.

After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian
troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although
treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia
(Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After
its surrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was slain in the
flight after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he commanded the
right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bellum Civile, i., ii., Hi.;
Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82).

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, accom-
panied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been
pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's
assassination he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in
43 was condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated
in the plot. He obtained considerable naval successes in the
Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the
mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony, who
made him governor of Bithynia. He took part in Antony's
Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke
out between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony,
but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over to
Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31). He died
soon afterwards(Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv., v.).
His son was married to An tonia, daughter of Antony, and became
the grandfather of the emperor Nero. .

See Drumann, Geschichte Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe.vol. iii. pp.14 ff.

AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for " brother of foolishness, " i.e.
foolish!), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's
bodyguard. He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheba
(see 2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to
have some bearing on his policy. He was one of David's most
trusted advisers, and his counsel was " as though one inquired
of the word of God." He took a leading part in Absalom's
revolt, and his defection was a severe blow to the king, who
prayed that God would bring his counsel to " foolishness."

The subsequent events are rather obscure. At Ahithophel's
advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his claim
to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf. ABNER).
The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested; the
advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows that the
king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan (2 Sam. xvi.
20-23, xvii. 1-4,. 22). Inconsistent with this is the account of
the intervention of Hushai, whose counsel of delay (in order to
gather all Israel " from Dan to Beersheba "), in spite of popular
approbation, was not adopted, and with this episode is con-
nected the tradition that the sagacious counsellor returned to
his home and, having disposed of his estate, hanged himself.
Instances of suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. SAUL),
and it is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not
refused. (See further ABSALOM; DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS or.)

AflMAD IBN flANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily
and after his death, of the Hanbalite school of canon law, was
born at Bagdad in A.H. 164 (A.D. 780) of parents from Merv but
of Arab stock. He studied the Koran and its traditions (hadtth,
sunna) there and on a student journey through Mesopotamia,
Arabia and Syria. After his return to Bagdad he studied under
ash-Shafi'I between 195 and 198, and became, for his life, a
devoted Shafi-'ite. But his position in both theology and law
was more narrowly traditional than that of ash-Shafi'I; he
rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox or heretical in its
conclusions, and stood for acceptance on tradition (naql) only
from the Fathers. (See further on this, MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
and MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) In consequence, when al-Ma'mun
and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-Wathiq tried to force upon
the people the rationalistic Mo'tazilite doctrine that the Koran
was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most prominent and popular
theologian who stood for the old view, suffered with others
grievous imprisonment and scourging. In 234, under al-Mota-
wakkil, the Koran was finally decreed uncreated, and Ibn
Hanbal, who had come through this trial better than any of
the other theologians, enjoyed an immense popularity with the
mass of the people as a saint, confessor and ascetic. He died
at Bagdad in 241 (A.D. 855) and was buried there. There was

AHMAD SHAH— AHMEDABAD

431

PA-i
I

much popular excitement at his funeral, and his tomb was known
and visited until at least the i4th century A.D.

On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty thou-
sand selected traditions, see Goldziher in ZDMG, 1. 465 ff. For his
life and works generally see W. M. Patten, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and
the Mihna; C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arab. Lit. i. 181 ff . ;
F. Wustenfeld, Schafi'iten, 55 ff . ; M'G. de Slane's transl. of Ibn
Khallikan, i. 44 ff. ; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology,
1 10, 157, index. (D. B. MA.)

AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty
in Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary
chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a boy Ahmad fell into the
hands of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept
prisoner at Kandahar. In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir
Shah, who soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of
cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of
Nadir in 1747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the
Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily
persuaded the native tribes to assert their independence and
accept him as their sovereign. He was crowned at Kandahar
in October 1747, and about the same time he changed the name
of his tribe to Durani. Two things may be said to have con-
tributed greatly to the consolidation of his power. He inter-
fered as little as possible with the independence of the different
tribes, demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute
and military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged
in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed of the
Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to intercept a
consignment of treasure on its way to the shah of Persia, he had
all the advantages which great wealth can give. He first crossed
the Indus in 1748, when he took Lahore; and in 1751, after a
feeble resistance on the part of the Mahommedan viceroy, he
became master of the en tire Punjab. In 17 50 he took Nishapur,
and in 1752 subdued Kashmir. His great expedition to Delhi
was undertaken in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great
Mogul for the recapture of Lahore. Ahmad entered Delhi with
his army in triumph, and for more than a month the city was
given over to pillage. The shah himself added to his wives a
princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his
son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and
Sirhind. As his viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom
he had all confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus
when the Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city,
killed the Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a
tool of his own, upon the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed
lemselves of these circumstances to endeavour to possess them-
selves of the whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more
than once to cross the Indus in order to protect his territory
from them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his
garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of the
Punjab, but on the 6th of January 1761 they were totally routed
by Ahmad in the great battle of Panipat. In a later expedition
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten
estwards immediately afterwards in order to quell an insur-
tion in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and
mad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining- the
immand of the Punjab. After lengthened suffering from a
rrible disease, said to have been cancer in the face, he
ied in 1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had
:ounded.

AHMED I. (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
ahommed III., whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first
ttoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his
lajority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he
lowed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who
entually succeeded him. In the earlier part of his reign he
gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by his
subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession
>th in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for
rkey, and her prestige received its first check in the peace
Sitvatordk, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid
iy Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure
.ring the remainder of his reign, which ended in 1617, and

demoralization and corruption became as general throughout
the public service as indiscipline in the ranks of the army. The
use of tobacco is said to have been introduced into Turkey during
Ahmed I.'s reign.

AHMED II. (1643-1695), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman II. in 1691. His chief
merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand vizier. But
a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained a crushing
defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under Prince Louis
of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during the four years
of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed
died, worn out by disease and sorrow.

AHMED III. (1637-1736), sultan of Turkey, son of Mahommed
IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his
brother Mustafa II. He cultivated good relations with England,
in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded
a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden, after his defeat
at Poltava (1709). Forced against bis will into war with Russia,
he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to
breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his Grand Vizier
Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding
near the Pruth (1711). In the treaty which Russia was compelled
to sign Turkey obtained the restitution of Azov, the destruction
of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar
should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the
Poles or the Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms
was so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a
renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the
Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which Turkey
was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands of Austria
(1717). Through the mediation of England and Holland the
peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718), by which Turkey
retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost Hungary.
A war with Persia terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt
of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed in September 1730.
He died in captivity some years later.

AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD, a city and district of British
India in the northern division of Bombay. The city was once
the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it
still ranks next to Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent
of its architectural remains. It was founded by Ahmad Shah
in A.D. 1411 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had pre-
ceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of
marble, brought from a distance. The Portuguese traveller
Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in A.D. 1511 and 1514, described
Ahmedabad as " very rich and well embellished with good
streets and squares supplied with houses of stone and cement."
In Sir Thomas Roe's time, A.D. 1615, " it was a goodly city as
large as London." During the course of its history it has passed
through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of revival.
From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1512 to 1572
it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat; from
1572 to 1709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul emperors;
from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with their decline; and from
1818 onwards it has again increased under British rule.

The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that
Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan
and Jain architecture. Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples
in order to build his mosques with the material. The Jama
Masjid itself, which he built in A.D. 1424, with its three hundred
pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted into
a mosque (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Plate III., fig. 1 5) . One of
the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of Hathi Singh out-
side the Delhi gate, which was built only in 1848, and is a stand-
ing monument to the endurance of Jain architectural art The
external porch, between two circular towers, is of great magnifi-
cence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer court,
with sixteen cells on either side. In the centre of this court is
a domed porch of the usual form with twenty pillars. The
court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories
in height. This inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary.
James Fergusson wrote of this temple that " each part increases

432

AHMEDNAGAR — AHMED VEFIK

in dignity to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its
courts or from outside, it possesses variety without confusion,
and an appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which
it was intended." But perhaps the most unique sight in
Ahmedabad is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree
marble work. The design is an imitation of twining and inter-
laced branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer than
anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi.

The modern city of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank
of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by walls en-
closing an area of about 2 sq. m. Its population in 1901
was 185,889. It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda
railway, 309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge
into Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both
trade and manufacture. Its native bankers, shopkeepers and
workers are all strongly organized in gilds. It has cotton mills
for spinning and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories
for ginning and pressing cotton. Other industries include the
manufacture of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery,
paper and shoes. The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native
proverb, hangs on three threads — silk, gold and cotton; and
though its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly,
they are still moderately flourishing. The military cantonment,
3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the
northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal.

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDABAD lies at the head of the Gulf of
Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar. Area 3816 sq. m.
The river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east
to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal streams
that water the district. The north-eastern portion is slightly
elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually sink into
a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western extremity.
With the exception of this latter portion, the soil is very
fertile, and some parts of the district are beautifully wooded.
The population in 1901 was 795,967, showing a decrease of 14 %
in the decade, due to the effects of famine. The principal
crops are millets, cotton, wheat and pulse. The district is
traversed by the Bombay and Baroda railway, and has two
seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of which has given its
name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool market. It
suffered severely in the famine of 1899-1900.

AHMEDNAGAR, or AHMADNAGAR, a city and district of
British India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank
of the river S'na. The town is of considerable antiquity, having
been founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a
more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new
monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 1636.
In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the place by bribing,
the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it was ceded by the
Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao Sindhia. During the
war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar was invested by a
British force under General Wellesley and captured. It was
afterwards restored to the Mahrattas, but again came into the
possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms of the
treaty of Poona. The town has rapidly advanced in prosperity
under British rule. Several mosques and tombs have been con-
verted to the use of British administration. The old industries
of carpet- weaving and paper-making have died out; but there
is a large trade in cotton and silk goods, and in copper and brass
pots, and there are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
Ahmednagar is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian
Peninsula railway, 218 m. from Bombay, and a military
cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th
division of the western army corps. The population in 1901
was 43,032.

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDNAGAR is a comparatively barren tract
with a small rainfall. The area is 6586 sq. m. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6 % in the
decade, due to the results of famine. The bulk of the population
consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the agricul-
turists. On the north the district is watered by the Godavari
and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the north-east

by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on the east by
the Sephani, which flows through the valley below the Balaghat
range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and its tributary
the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the Bhima, flows
through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. The principal crops are
millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat. The district suffered from
drought in 1896-1897, and again in 1899-1900.

AHMED TEWFIK, PASHA (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist,
was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha. He was at first in the army,
but left the service in 1862; four years later he entered the
diplomatic service, being employed at various European capitals.
He became minister at Athens in 1883 and ambassador in Berlin
in 1884. He was appointed minister for foreign affairs (Kharijie
Naziri) in 1896.

AHMED VEFIK, PASHA (1819-1891), Turkish statesman and
man of letters, was born in Stambul in 1819. He was the son of
Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge d'affaires in Paris, an
accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore, attached, in the
capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid Pasha's diplomatic
mission to Paris in 1834. Reshid took Ahmed with him and
placed him at school, where he remained about five years and
completed his studies. He then returned to Constantinople, and
was appointed to a post in the bureau de traduction of the ministry
for foreign affairs. While thus employed he devoted his leisure
to the translation of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to the
compilation of educational books — dictionaries, historical and
geographical manuals, &c. — for use in Turkish schools, with the
object of promoting cultivation of the French language among
the rising generation. In 1847 he brought out the first edition
of the Salnameh, the official annual of the Ottoman empire.
Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in the
Danubian principalities, and held that office till early in 1851
when he was sent to Persia as ambassador — a post which suited
his temperament, and in which he rendered good service to his
goverment for more than four years. Recalled in 1855, he was
sent on a mission to inspect the eastern frontiers, and on his
return was appointed member of the Grand Council of Justice,
and was entrusted with the revision of the penal code and the
code of procedure. This work occupied him until the begin-
ning of 1860, when he was sent as ambassador to Paris, for the
special purpose of averting the much-dreaded intervention of
France in the affairs of Syria. But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frank-
ness, irascibility and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for
European diplomacy. He offended the French government; his
mission failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861. None the
less his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated
in Paris. On his return he was appointed minister of the Evkaf,
but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for a few months. He
was then for a brief period president of the Board of Audit, and
subsequently inspector of the Anatolian provinces, where he was
engaged for more than three years. His next appointment was
that of director-general of customs, whence he was removed to
the office of musteshar of the grand vizierate, and in the following
year entered the cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of public
instruction, but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of
State and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented
Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St Peters-
burg. He was president of the short-lived Turkish parliament
during its first session — March 19 to June 28, 1877 — and at
its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where he rendered
invaluable aid to the Red Cross Society. On his recall, at the
beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of public instruction
in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and on the abolition of
the grand vizierate (February 5, 1878) he became prime minister
and held office till about the middle of April, when he resigned.
Early in the following year he was appointed vali of Brusa, where
he remained nearly four years, and rendered admirable services
to the province. The drainage of the pestilent marshes, the
water-supply from the mountains, the numerous roads, the
suppression of brigandage, the multiplication of schools, the vast
development of the silk industry through the substitution of
mulberry plantations for rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral

AHOM— AHRENS

433

springs of Chilli, the introduction of rose-trees and the produc-
tion of otto of roses — all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he
became so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was
thought advisable that he should be taken away secretly by
night from the konak in Brusa and brought to his private
residence on the Bosporus. A few days after his return he was
in appointed prime minister (December i, 1882), but Ahmed
'efik demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that
e should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that a
umber of persons in the sultan's entourage should be dismissed,
pon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December, revoked the irade
f the ist of December, and appointed Said Pasha prime minister,
'or the rest of his life Ahmed Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was
ctically a prisoner in his own house; and eventually he died,
the ist of April 1891, of a renal complaint from which he had
ing been a sufferer. Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist. He spoke
id wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English,
German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian. From all these
languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote no
original work. His splendid library of 15,000 volumes contained
priceless manuscripts in many languages. In his lifetime he
appreciably aided the progress of education; but, as he had no
following, the effects of his labour and influence in a great measure
faded away after his death. In all his social and family relations
Ahmed Vefik was most exemplary. His charity knew no bounds.
He was devoted to his aged mother and to his one wife and
children. To his friends and acquaintances he was hospitable,
courteous and obliging; his conversation was intellectual and
refined, and in every act of his private life he manifested the
spirit of a true gentleman. At home his habits, attire and mode
of life were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in
European society; he had strong English proclivities, and
numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate
friends. In public life his gifts were almost sterilized by pecu-
liarities of- temperament and incompatibility with official sur-
roundings; and his mission as ambassador to Persia and his
administration of Brusa were his only thorough successes. But
his intellectual powers, literary erudition and noble character
made him for the last forty years of his life a conspicuous figure
eastern Europe. (E. W.*)

AHOM, or AHAM, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the Assam
•alley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the com-
mencement of the i pth century, the dominant race in that
country. The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and
Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai race.
The name is believed to be a corruption of the word " A-sam,"
the latter part of which is identical with " Shan " (properly
Sham ") and with " Siam." Under their king Su-ka-pha
icy invaded Assam (?.».) from the East in the year A.D. 1228,
giving their name to the country. For a century and a half from
1228 the successors of Su-ka-pha appear to have ruled un-
disturbed over a small territory in Lakkimpur and Sibsagar
stricts. The extension of their power westward down the
ey of the Brahmaputra was very gradual, and its success
was by no means uniform. In the time of Aurangzeb the Ahom
kings held sway over the entire Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya
to near Goalpara, and from the skirts of the southern hills to
the Bhutia frontier on the north. The dynasty attained the
height of its power under Rudra Singh, who is said to have
ascended the throne in 1695. In the following century the power
of the Ahoms began to decay, alike from internal dissensions
and the pressure of outside invaders. The Burmese were called
in to the assistance of one of the contending factions in 1810.
Having once obtained a foothold in the country, they established
their power over the entire valley and ruled with merciless bar-
barity, until they were expelled by the British in 1824-1825.
In the census of 1901 the total Ahom population in Assam was

/turned at 178,049.
The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar
to the Shan tribes, which may be briefly described as an organ-
ized system of personal service in lieu of taxation. Their
gion was pagan, being quite distinct from Buddhism; but

:

th
g"

12

disu
dist
vail

in Assam they gradually became Hinduized, and their kings
finally adopted Hindu names and titles. They believed that
there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or earth,
only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a formless
Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape as a huge
crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the waters. In turn
other animals took shape, the last being two golden spiders from
whose excrement the earth gradually rose above the surrounding
ocean. Pha then formed a female counterpart of himself, who
laid four eggs, from which were hatched four sons. One of these
was appointed to rule the earth, but died and became a spirit.
His son also died and became the national household deity of-
the Ahoms. The origin of mankind is connected with a flood-
legend. The only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagra-
tion that followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed.
From the latter there grew a gigantic gourd. This was split
open by a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save
the lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the
progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishe
and plants. The kings claimed independent divine origin.

The religion and language have both died out, being only
preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among
them the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has
been lost. The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of
which is still in existence. Their historic sense was very fully
developed, and many priests and nobles maintained bu-ran-jis
(i.e. " stores of instruction for the ignorant "), or chronicles,
which were carefully written up from time to time. A few of
these have been translated, but as yet no European scholar
possesses knowledge sufficient to enable him to study these
valuable documents at first hand.

The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch
of the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any
record. It bears much the same relationship to Siamese and
Shan that Latin does to Italian. It is more nearly related to
modern Siamese than to modern Shan, but possesses many
groups of consonants which have become simplified in both.
It is a language of the isolating class, in which every word is a
monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun or as a
verb according to its context and its position in a sentence.
In the order of words, the genitive follows the noun it governs,
and, as usual in such cases, the relations of time and place are
indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes. The meanings of the
monosyllables were differentiated, as in the other Tai languages
and in Chinese, by a system of tones, but these were rarely
indicated in writing, and the tradition regarding them is lost.
The language had an alphabet of its own, which was clearly
related to that of Burmese.

See E. A. Gait, A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906). For the
language see The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. ii. (Calcutta, 1906)
(contains grammar and vocabulary) ; G. A. Grierson, " Notes on
Ahom," in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenliindischen Gesell-
schaft, vol. Ivi., 1902, pp. I ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary,
with specimens), and An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation
and a vocabulary of the Ahom language," in the Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. 181 ff. (G. A. GR.)

AHR, a river of Germany. It is a left-bank tributary of the
Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel mountains,
and having a total length of 55 m. It flows at first through
rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its course,
from the village of Altenahr, over which tower the ruins of the
castle of Ahr, or Are (loth century), is full of romantic beauty.
It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities of the
lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality.

AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1809-1881), German
philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June 1809.
After studying at Gottingen (1826-1829) under K. O. Mtiller
and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational appoint-
ments,, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director of the
Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great success
for thirty years. He died on the 25th of September 1881. His
most important work is De Graecae Linguae Dialectis (1839-1843,
new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889), which, although unfortunately

434

AHRIMAN— AICKIN

incomplete, dealing only with Aeolic and Doric, and in some
respects superseded by modern research, will always remain a
standard treatise on the subject. He also published Bucolicorum
Graecorum Reliquiae (1855-1859); studies on the dialects of
Homer and the Greek lyrists; on Aeschylus; and some excellent
school-books. A volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was
published in 1891, which also contains a complete list of his
writings.

AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apei/idwos in Aristotle, or 'Apetjuavr/s in
Agathias; in the Avesta, Angro Mainyush) — " the Destructive
Spirit ") , the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine
of Zoroaster. The name does not occur in the Old Persian
inscriptions. In the Avesia he is called the twin-brother of the
Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit of
Ormazd or with Ormazd himself. He is the all-destroying Satan,
the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd, exists since
the beginning of the world. Eventually, in the great world
catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and disappear. The
later sect of the Zervanites held that both were visible manifesta-
tions of the primeval principle Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time).
(See ZOROASTER.)

AHRWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of
railway. Pop. 5000. It is a town of medieval aspect and is
surrounded by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates
in good repair. There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245).
A convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature
on a hill to the south. The trade is almost exclusively confined
to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district.

AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American
Indians of the Wakashan stock. They are settled on the west
coast of Vancouver, British Columbia. The chief tribes included
are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht,
Ahansaht and Ehatishaht. The confederacy numbers some
3500.

AHTENA (" ice people '.'), the name of an Athapascan tribe
of North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River,
Alaska.

See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington,
1907).

AHVAZ, a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on
the left bank of the river Karun, 48 m. S. of Shushter, in 31° 18'
N., 49° E. It has been identified with the Aginis of Nearchus,
500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what was once
an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city vast
remains are left, extending several miles along the bank of the
river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a bridge
and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals and water-
mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There are also
the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great strength, which was
thrown across the river for the purposes of irrigation. The band
was 1 1 50 yds. in length and had a diameter of 24 ft. at its base.
Remains of massive structure are still visible, and many single
blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in thickness. Ahvaz reached
the height of its prosperity in the i2th and ijth centuries and
is now a collection of wretched hovels, with a small rectangular
fort in a state of ruin, and an Arab population of about 400.
Since the opening of the Karun to foreign commerce in October
1888, another settlement called Benderi Nassiri, in compliment
to the Shah Nassir ed din (d. 1896), has been established on a
slight elevation overlooking the river at the point below the
rapids where steamers come to anchor, about one mile below
Ahvaz. It has post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some
mercantile firms, a British vice-consul (since 1004) and a
Russian consular agent (since 1902) are established there. The
new caravan road to Isfahan, opened for traffic in 1000, promised,
if successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance.

AI [Sept. 'Ayyai, 'Ayyat and Tot; Vulg. Hai\, a small
royal city of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel. The meaning of
the name may be " the stone heap "; but it is not necessarily
a Hebrew word. Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and
Bethel (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3) ; but it is chiefly noted for its capture

and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-5, viii. 1-29), who made it
" a heap for ever, even a desolation." It is mentioned by Isaiah
(x. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii. 28; Neh. vii. 32),
but then probably was not more than a village. In the later
Hebrew writings the name sometimes has a feminine form,
Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31). The definite article is
usually prefixed to the name in Hebrew. The site was known,
and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time of Eusebius and
Jerome (Onomast., s.v. 'Ayyai). Dr E. Robinson was unable
to discover any certain traces of either name or ruins. He
remarks, however (Bib. Researches, ed. 1856, i. p. 443), that it
must have been close to Bethel on account of Biblical narrative
(Josh. viii. 1 7) . A little to the south of a village called Deir Di wan,
and one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of an
ancient place called Khirbet Haiydn, indicated by reservoirs hewn
in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn stone.
This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with all the in-
timations as to its position. It has also been identified with
a mound now called el-Tell (" the heap "), but though the name
of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is suggestive, it is in
the wrong direction from Bethel. In this view recent authorities,
such as G. A. Smith, generally coincide.

See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123;
1874, P- 62; 1878, pp. 10, 132, 194; 1881, p. 254. (R. A. S. M.)

AI BONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of Guayama,
Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan and Ponce,
25 m. E.N.E. of the latter. It is the, capital of a municipal
district of the same name. Pop. (1899) of the town, 2085; of
the district, 8596. The town is about 2200 ft. above sea level,
and owing to its cool climate and freedom from malaria it has
been chosen as an acclimatizing station and sanatorium for
foreigners. It is surrounded by coffee plantations, and tobacco
of excellent quality is raised in the vicinity. The town was
considerably damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of
August 1899.

AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848- ), French
poet and dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February
1848. His father, Jean Aicard, was a journalist of some dis-
tinction, and the son early began his career in 1867 with Les
Jeunes Croyances, followed in 1870 by a one-act play produced at
the Marseilles theatre. His poems include: Les Rebellions et les
apaisemenls (1871); Poemes de Provence (1874), and La Chanson
de I' enfant (1876), both of which were crowned by the Academy;
Miette et Nore (1880), a Provencal idyll; Le Lime d'heures de
I'amour (1887); Jesus (1896), &c. Of his plays the most suc-
cessful was Le Pere Lebonnard (1890), which was originally
produced at the Theatre Libre. Among his other works are the
novels, LeRoide Camargue{ 1890), L'A me d'unenfant (1898) and
Tatas (1901), Benjamine (1906) and La Venus de Milo (1874),
an account of the discovery of the statue from unpublished
documents.

AICHINGER, GREGOR (c. -1565-1628), one of the greatest
German composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the
Fugger family of Augsburg in 1584. In 1599 he went for a two
years' visit to Rome. This was for musical and not for ecclesi-
astical reasons, though he had taken orders before his appointment
under Fugger. Proske, in the preface to vol. ii. of his Musica
Divina, calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give
him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.
Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and
somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology.

AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared in
London in 1765 as Dick Amlet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy at
Drury Lane. He acted there, send at Covent Garden, until 1792.
His repertory consisted of over eighty characters, and among his
best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and Jaques in As You Like
It. His success in impassioned declamatory r61es obtained for
him the nickname of " Tyrant."

His younger brother JAMES AJCKIN (d. 1803) was playing lead-
ing parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre,
when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the
discharge of a fellow-actor. He therefore went to London, and

AIDAN— AIDS

435

from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drury Lane Company
and for some years a deputy manager. He quarrelled with John
Philip Kemble, with whom, in 1792, he fought a bloodless duel.

AIDAN (d. 606), king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada, was
the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after th
death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at lona
by St Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain in
dependence on the Irish Dalriada, but coming into collision with
his southern neighbours he led a large force against jEthelfrith
king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated at a place called
Daegsanstane, probably in Liddesdale.

See Bede, Historiae Ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum, edited by
Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita S. Columbae, edited
by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894).

AIDAN, or ^DAN, first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk of Hii
lona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria, at the
equest of King Oswald, A.D. 634-635. He restored Christianity,
nd in accordance with the traditions of Irish episcopacy chose
he island of Lindisfarne, close to the royal city of Bamborough,
( his see. Although he retained the Irish Easter, his character
ad energy in missionary work won him the respect of Honorius
nd Felix. He survived Oswald, and died shortly after the
lurder of his friend Oswine of Deira, on the 3ist of August 651,
the 1 7th year of his episcopate.
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. Plummer), iii. 3, 5, 17, 25.
AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or, perhaps, field-
sistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general, who acts
his confidential secretary in routine matters. In Great
Britain the office of aide-de-camp to the king is given as a reward
an honorary distinction. In many foreign armies the word
djutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant general for a
oyal aide-de-camp. The common abbreviation for aide-de-camp
i the British service is " A.D.C.," and in the United States " aid."
governors, such as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also,
a rule, officers on their staffs with the title and functions of
aides-de-camp.

AIDIN, (i) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including the
ancient Lydia, Ionia, Caria and western Lycia. It derives its
name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the richest
and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey. The seat of
government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the valley of
the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m. E.S.E. of Smyrna. It is
called also Giizel Hissar from the beauty of its situation on the
lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along the course of the ancient
Eudon. It is the capital of a sanjak. It was taken by the
Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh, late in the I3th century, and about
1390, when ruled by Isa Bey, a descendant of the first-named,
acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty. In the Seljuk period it was
a secondary city under the provincial capital, Tireh (q.v.). In
the 1 7th century it came under the power of the Karasmans of
Manisa and remained so till about 1820. Aidin is on the Smyrna-
Dineir railway, has large tanneries and sweetmeat manufac-
tories, and exports figs, cotton and raisins. It was greatly
damaged by an earthquake in 1899. On a neighbouring height
are to be seen the ruins of the ancient Tralles (q.v.), the site to
which the name Gtizel Hissar was particularly given by the
Seljuks. Aidin is the seat of a British consular agent. As there
are considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and Jews among
the inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and
synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.)
AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta. From
the town of Caltanisetta it is 22 m. E.S.E. direct (18 m. S.S.W. of
the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41 m. W. of Catania).
Pop. (1901) 8548. There are some interesting churches of the
i4th century (see E. Mauceri in L'Arte, 1906, 17). On the Serra
Orlando, a mountain not far off, are the extensive remains of an
unknown city, the finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering
destruction from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized
excavations.

See P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso di Scienze Storiche, vol. v. 178
(Rome, 1904).

AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the service due
to a lord from his men, and appear to have been based upon the

principle that they ought to assist him in special emergency
or need. The occasions for demanding them and the amount
to be demanded would thus be matters of dispute, while the
loose use" of the term to denote many different payments in-
creases the difficulty of the subject.

Both in Normandy and in England, in the I2th century, the
two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could
demand " aid," were (i) the knighting of his eldest son, (2) the
marriage of his eldest daughter; but while in England the third
occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in Normandy, his pay-
ment of " relief " on his succession, it was, according to the
Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from captivity. By
its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an " aid " from his
barons on these three occasions alone — and then only a " reason-
able " one— except by " the common counsel " of his realm.
Enormous importance has been attached to this provision, as
establishing the principle of taxation by consent, but its scope
was limited to the barons (and the city of London), and the word
" aids " was omitted from subsequent issues of the charter. The
barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from their feudal
tenants only the above three customary aids. The last levy by
the crown was that of James I. on the knighting of his eldest
son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter (1613).

From at least the days of Henry I. the term " aid " was also
applied (i) to the special contributions of boroughs to the king's
revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military service due from
the crown's knights. Both these occur on the pipe roll of 1 130,
the latter as auxilium milUum (and possibly as auxilium comi-
tatus). The borough " aids " were alternatively known as
" gifts " (dona), resembling in this the " benevolences " of later
days. When first met with, under Henry I., they are fixed
round sums, but under Henry II. (as the Dialogue on the Exchequer
explains) they were either assessed on a population basis by
crown officers or were sums offered by the towns and accepted
by them as sufficient. In the latter case the townsfolk were
collectively responsible for the amount. The Great Charter, as
stated above, extended specially to London the limitation on
baronial " aids," but left untouched its liability to tallage, a
lower and more arbitrary form of taxation, which the towns
shared with the crown's demesne manors, and which London
resisted in vain. The two exactions, although distinct, have
to be studied together, and when in 1296-1297 Edward I. was
Forced to his great surrender, he was formerly supposed by
historians to have pledged himself, under De tallagio non conce-
dendo, to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of
Siis people. It is now held, however, that he limited this con-
cession to " aides, mises," and " prises," retaining the right to
tallage. Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it was provided that
the nation should not be called upon " to make any common
aid or sustain charge " except by consent of parliament. The
aids spoken of at this period are of yet another character,
namely, the grant of a certain proportion of all " movables "
(i.e. personal property), a form of taxation introduced about
n 88 and now rapidly increasing in importance. These sub-
sidies were conveniently classed under the vague term " aids,"
as were also the grants made by the clergy in convocation, the
;erm covering both feudal and non-feudal levies from -the
ligher clergy and proportions not only of " movables " but of
ecclesiastical revenues as well.

The "knight's aid" of 1130 spoken of above is probably
dentical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest cus-
tumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent what
was known in England as " scutage." Even in England the
)hrase " quando Rex accipit auxilium de militibus " occurs in
1 1 66 and appears to be loosely used for scutage.
The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand
aid " from their tenants on various grounds, such as their
ndebtedness to the Jews, as is well seen in the Norfolk fragments
of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs (1170).

Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature paid in
early days to the sheriff for his service. It was the subject of
a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1163.

436

AIGRETTE— AIGUILLON

AUTHORITIES. — Stubbs' Constitutional History and Select Charters ;
M'Kechnie's Magna Carta ; Pollock and Maitland's History of English
Law ; Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond ; Dialogus de Scaccario
(Oxford, 1892); Madox's History of the Exchequer; Round's Feudal
England, and The Commune of London; The Pipe Rolls (Record
Commission and Pipe Roll Society). (J. H. R.)

AIGRETTE (from the Fr. for egret, or lesser white heron),
the tufted crest, or head-plumes of the egret, used for adorning
a woman's head-dress, the term being also given to any similar
ornament, in gems, &c. An aigrette is also worn by certain
ranks of officers in the French army. By analogy the word is
used in various sciences for feathery excrescences of like appear-
ance, as for the tufts on the heads of insects, the feathery down
of the dandelion, the luminous rays at the end of electrified
bodies, or the luminous rays seen in solar eclipses, diverging
from the moon's edge.

AIGUES-MORTES, a town of south-eastern France, in the
department of Card 25 m. S.S.W. of Nimes, on a branch line
of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3577.
Aigues-Mortes occupies an isolated position in the marshy plain
at the western extremity of the Rhone delta, 23 m. from the
Golfe du Lion. It owes its celebrity to the medieval fortifications
of remarkable completeness with which it is surrounded. They
form a parallelogram 596 yds. long by 149 yds. broad, and con-
sist of crenellated walls from 25 to 36 ft. in height, dominated
at intervals by towers. Of these, the Tour de Constance, built
by Louis IX., is the most interesting; it commands the north-
western angle of the ramparts, and contains two circular,
vaulted chambers, used as prisons for Protestants after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. The remainder of the
fortifications were built in the reign of Philip III. Aigues-
Mortes is the meeting-place of several canals connecting it with
Beaucaire, with Cette, with the Lesser Rhone and with the
Mediterranean, on which it has a small port. Fishing and the
manufacture of soda are the chief industries with which the
town is connected. It has trade in coal, oranges and other fruits,
and in wine. In the surrounding country there are important
vineyards, which are preserved from disease by periodical sub-
mersion. There is a statue in the town in memory of Louis IX.
who embarked from Aigues-Mortes in 1248 and 1270 for the
seventh and eighth crusades. To further the prosperity of the
town a most liberal charter was granted to it, and in addition
the trade of the port was artificially fostered by a decree re-
quiring that every vessel navigating within sight of its lights
should put in there. This ordinance remained in force till the
reign of Louis XIV.

AIGUILLE (Fr. for needle), the sharp jagged points above
the snow-line, standing upon the massif of a mountain split by
frost action along joints or planes of cleavage with sides too
steep for snow to rest upon them. Aiguilles are thus the forms
remaining from the splitting up of the high ridges with house-
roof structure into detached pinnacles. »

AIGUILLETTE (Fr. diminutive of aiguille, a needle; the
obsolete English form is " aglet "), originally a tag of metal,
often made of precious metals and richly chased, attached to
the end of a lace or ribbon, and pointed, so as to pass more easily
through eyelet holes. The term was, in time, applied to any
bright ornament or pendant for the dress made of metal, and
is now specially used of ornamental cords and tags of gold and
silver lace, worn on naval and military uniforms. The aiguillette
is fastened to the shoulder, the various cords hanging down
therefrom being fastened at their other end on the front of the
coat.

AIGUILLON, EMMANUEL ARMAND DE WIGNEROD DU
PLESSIS DE RICHELIEU, Due D' (1720-1782), French states-
man, nephew of the marechal de Richelieu, was born on the 3ist
of July 1720. He entered the army at the age of seventeen, and
at the age of nineteen was made colonel of the regiment of Brie.
He served in the campaigns in Italy during the War of the
Austrian Succession, was seriously wounded at the siege oi
Chateau-Dauphin (1744), was taken prisoner (1746) and was
made marlchal de camp in 1748. His marriage in 1740 with
Louise Felicite de Brehan, daughter of the comte de P161o,

coupled with his connexion with the Richelieu family, gave
lim an important place at court. He was a member of the
so-called parti devot, the faction opposed to Madame de Pompa-
dour, to the Jansenists and to the parlement, and his hostility
to the new ideas drew upon him the anger of the pamphleteers.
[n 1753 he was appointed commandant (governor) of Brittany
and soon became unpopular in that province, which had retained
a large number of privileges called " liberties." He first came
nto collision with the provincial estates on the question of the
royal imposts (1758), but was then blamed for his inertia in
;he preparation of a squadron against England (1759), and
inally alienated the parlement of Brittany by violating the
srivileges of the province (1762). In June 1764 the king, at
the instance of d'Aiguillon, quashed a decree of the parlement for-

ding the levying of new imposts without the consent qf the
estates, and refused to receive the remonstrances of the parlement
against the duke. On the nth of November 1765 La Chalotais,
the procureur of the parlement, was arrested, but whether at
the instigation of d'Aiguillon is not certain. The conflict between
d'Aiguillon and the Bretons lasted two years. In the place of the
parlement, which had resigned, d'Aiguillon organized a tribunal
of more or less competent judges, who were ridiculed by the
pamphleteers and ironically termed the bailltage d'Aiguillon.
In 1768 the duke was forced to suppress this tribunal, and
returned to court, where he resumed his intrigue with the parti
devot and finally obtained the dismissal of the minister Choiseul
(December 24, 1770). When Louis XV., acting on the advice
of Madame Dubarry, reorganized the government with a view
to suppressing the resistance of the parlements, d'Aiguillon was
made minister of foreign affairs, Maupeou and the Abbe Terray
(1715-1778) also obtaining places in the ministry. The new
ministry, albeit one of reform, was very unpopular, and was
styled the " triumvirate." All the failures of the government
were attributed to the mistakes of the ministers. Thus
d'Aiguillon was blamed for having provoked the coup d'etat of
Gustavus III., king of Sweden, in 1 772, although the instructions
of tke comte de Vergennes, the French ambassador in Sweden,
had been written by the minister, the due de la Vrilliere.
D'Aiguillon, however, could do nothing to rehabilitate French
diplomacy; he acquiesced in the first division of Poland, re-
newed the Family Compact, and, although a supporter of the
Jesuits, sanctioned the suppression of the society. After the
death of Louis XV. he quarrelled with Maupeou and with the
young queen, Marie Antoinette, who demanded his dismissal
from the ministry (1774). He died, forgotten, in 1782. In no
circumstances had he shown any special ability. He was more
fitted for intrigue than for government, and his attempts to
restore the status of French diplomacy met with scant success.

See Memoir es du ministere du due d'Aiguillon (3rd ed., Paris and
Lyons, 1792), probably written by J. L. Soulavie. On d'Aieuillpn's
governorship of Brittany see Carre, La Chalotais et le due d'Aiguillon
(Paris, 1893); Marion, La Bretagne et le due d'Aiguillon (Paris,
1898) ; and Barthelemy Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais
(Paris, 1901-1902). The three last have full bibliographies. See
also Flammermont, Le Chancelier Maupeou et les parlements (Paris,
1883) ; Frederic Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis (Paris, 1884).

AIGUILLON, MARIE MADELEINE DE WIGNEROD DU
PONT DE COURLAY, DUCHESSE D' (1604-1675), daughter of
Cardinal Richelieu's sister. In 1620 she married a nephew of the
constable de Luynes, Antoine de Beauvoir du Roure, sieur de
Combalet, who died in 1622. In 1625, through her uncle's
influence, she was made a lady-in-waiting (dame d'atour) to the
queen-mother, and in 1638 was created duchess of Aiguillon.
She did not marry a second time, although Richelieu wished to
marry her to a prince — either to the comte de Soissons or to the
king's brother. After the death of the cardinal (1642) she retained
her honours and titles, but withdrew from the court, and devoted
herself entirely to works of charity. She entered into relations
with Saint Vincent de Paul and helped him to establish the
hospital for foundlings. She also took part in organizing the
General Hospital and several others in the provinces. She died
on the I7th of April 1675. She was the patroness of Corneille,
who in 1636 dedicated to her his tragedy of The Cid.

AIGUN— AILLY

437

See E. Flechier, Oraison funebre de Mme. Marie de Wignercd,
duchesse d'Aiguillon; Bonneau-Avenant, La duchesse d'Aiguillon
(1879); Memoires de Saint-Simon, ed. by A. de Boislisle (1879
et seq.).

AIGUN, or AIHUN (also Sakhalyan-ula-khoto), a town of China
province Hei-lung-kiang, in northern Manchuria, situated on
the right bank of the Amur, in a fertile and populous region,
20 m. below Blagovyeshchensk, where it occupies nearly 2 m.
on the bank of the river. There is a palisaded fort in the
middle of the town, inside of which is the house of the fu-tit
(governor). Its merchants carry on an active local trade in
grain, mustard, oil and tobacco, and some of its firms supply
the Russian administration with grain and flour. During the
" Boxer " rising of 1900 it was, for a few weeks, the centre of
military action directed against the Russians. The population,
of some 20,000, includes a few hundred Mussulmans. The town
was founded first on the left bank of the Amur, below the mouth
of the Zeya, but was abandoned, and the present town was
founded in 1684. It was here that Count Muraviev concluded,
in May 1857, the Aihun treaty, according to which the left bank
of the Amur was conceded to Russia.

AIKEN, a city ajid the county-seat of Aiken county, South
Carolina, U.S.A., 17 m. E.N.E. of Augusta, Georgia. Pop. (1890)
2362; (1900) 3414 (2131 of negro descent) ; (1910) 3911. It
is served by the Southern railway, and by an electric line con-
necting with Augusta. Aiken is a fashionable winter resort,
chiefly frequented by Northerners, and is pleasantly situated
about 500 ft. above sea level in the heart of the famous sand-hill
and pine-forest region of the state. The dry and unusually
equable temperature (mean for winter 50° F., for spring 57° F.,
and for autumn 64° F.) and the balmy air laden with the frag-
rance of the pine forests have combined to make Aiken a health
and pleasure resort; its climate is said to be especially bene-
ficial for those afflicted with pulmonary diseases. There are
fine hotels, club houses and cottages, and the Palmetto Golf
Links near the city are probably the finest in the southern
states; fox-hunting, polo, tennis and shooting are among the
popular sports. There are some excellent drives in the vicinity.
The city is the seat of the Aiken Institute (for whites) and the
Schofield Normal and Industrial School (for negroes). There
are lumber mills, cotton mills and cotton-gins; and cotton,
farm products and artificial stone are exported. Considerable
quantities of aluminium are obtained from the kaolin deposits
in the vicinity. The city's water supply is obtained from
artesian wells. Aiken ,vas settled in the early part of the igth
century, but was not incorporated until 1835, when it was
named in honour of William Aiken (1806-1887), governor of
the state in 1844-1847, and a representative in Congress in
1851-1857-

AIKIN, ARTHUR (1773-1854), English chemist and mineralo-
gist, was born on the igth of May 1773, at Warrington in Lanca-
shire. He studied chemistry under Priestley and gave attention
to the practical applications of the science. To mineralogy he
was likewise attracted, and he was one of the founders of the
Geological Society of London, 1807, and honorary secretary,
1812-1817. To the transactions of that society he contributed
papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire coalfield, &c. Later
he became secretary of the Society of Arts, and in 1841 treasurer
of the Chemical Society. In early life he had been for a short
time a Unitarian minister. He was highly esteemed as a man
of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in London
on the isth of April 1854.

PUBLICATIONS. — Journal of a Tour through North Wales and part
of Shropshire; with observations in Mineralogy and other branches
of Natural History (London, 1797) ; A Manual of Mineralogy (1814;
ed. 2, 1815); A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy (with his
brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814).

AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822), English doctor and writer, was
born at Kibworth-Harcourt, and received his elementary
education at the Noncomformist academy at Warrington,
where his father was tutor. He studied medicine in the univer-
sity of Edinburgh, and in London under Dr William Hunter.
He practised as a surgeon at Chester and Warrington. Finally,

he went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D. (1780), and in 1784.
established himself as a doctor in Yarmouth. In 1792 he re-
moved to London, where he practised as a consulting physician.
But he concerned himself more with the advocacy of liberty of
conscience than with his professional duties, and he began at
an early period to devote himself to literary pursuits. In con-
junction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld (q.ii.), he published a
popular series of volumes entitled Evenings at Home (6 vols.,
1792-1795), excellently adapted for elementary family reading,
which were translated into almost every European language.
In 1798 Dr Aikin retired from professional life and devoted
himself with great industry to various literary undertakings,
among which his General Biography (10 vols., 1799-1815) holds
a conspicuous place. Besides these, he published Biog. Memoirs
of Medicine (1780); Lives of John Selden and Archbishop Usher
(1812) and other works. He edited the Monthly Magazine from
1796 to 1807, and conducted a paper called the Athenaeum from
1807 to 1809, when it was discontinued. Aikin died in 1822.

His daughter, LUCY AIKIN (1781-1864), born at Warrington
on the 6th of November 1781, had some repute as a historical
writer. After producing various books for the young, and a
novel, Larimer (1814), she published in 1818 her Memoirs of the
Court of Queen Elizabeth, which passed through several editions.
This was followed by Memoirs of the Court of James I. (1822),
Memoirs of the Court of Charles I. (1833) and a Life of Addison
(1843). Miss Aikin died at Hampstead, where she had lived for
forty years, on the 2gth of January 1864.

See a Memoir of John Aikin, with selections of his miscellaneous
pieces (1823), by his daughter; and the Memoirs, Miscellanies and
Letters of Lucy Aikin (1864), including her correspondence (1826-
1842) with William Ellery Channing, edited by P. H. Le Breton.

AIRMAN, WILLIAM (1682-1731), British portrait-painter, was
born at Cairney, Forfarshire. He was intended by his father for
the bar, but followed his natural bent by becoming a pupil under
Sir John Medina, the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In
1707 he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three years, after-
wards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712
returned home. In Edinburgh, where he practised as a portrait-
painter for some years, he enjoyed the patronage of the duke of
Argyll; and on his removal to London in 1723 he soon obtained
many important commissions. Perhaps his most successful
work was the portrait of the poet Gay. He also painted por-
traits of himself, Fletcher of Saltoun, William Carstares and
Thomson the poet. The likenesses were generally truthful and
the style was modelled very closely upon that of Sir Godfrey
Kneller. Aikman held a good position in literary society and
counted among his personal friends Swift, Pope, Thomson, Allan
Ramsay, Somervile and Mallet.

AILANTHUS (more correctly ailanius, from ailanto, an
Amboyna word probably meaning " Tree of the Gods," or

Tree of Heaven "), a genus of trees belonging to the natural
order Simarubaceae. The best known species, A. glandulosa,
Chinese sumach or tree of heaven, is a handsome, quick-growing
tree with spreading branches and large compound leaves, re-
sembling those of the ash, and bearing numerous pairs of long
pointed leaflets. The small greenish flowers are borne on
3 ranched panicles; and the male ones are characterized by
having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and
each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle.
The wood is fine grained and satiny. The tree, which is a native
of China and Japan, was introduced into England in 1751 and
is a favourite in parks and gardens. A silk spinning moth, the
ailanthus moth (Bombyx or Philosamia cynthia), lives on its
eaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry
silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth is common
near many towns in the eastern United States; it is about
5 in. across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown,
with white markings. Other species of ailanthus are: A.
'mberbiflora and A. punctata, important Australian timber-trees;
and A . excelsa, common in India.

AILLY, PIERRE D' (1350-1420), French theologian, was born
at Compiegne in 1350 of a bourgeois family, and studied in Paris

438

AILLY

at the celebrated college of Navarre. He became a licentiate of
arts in 1367, procurator of the French " nation " in 1372, bachelor
of theology in 1372, and licentiate and doctor in that faculty
in 1381.

Since 1378 Western Christendom, in consequence of the election
of the two popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., had been divided
into two obediences. In the spring of 1379 Pierre d'Ailly, in
anticipation even of the decision of the university of Paris, had
carried to the pope of Avignon the " role " of the French nation,
but notwithstanding this prompt adhesion he was firm in his
desire to put an end to the schism, and when, on the 2oth of May
1381, the university decreed that the best means to this end was
to try to gather together a general council, Pierre d'Ailly sup-
ported this motion before the king's council in the presence of the
duke of Anjou. The dissatisfaction displayed shortly after by
the government obliged the university to give up this scheme,
and was probably the cause of Pierre d'Ailly's temporary retire-
ment to Noyon, where he held a canonry. There he continued
the struggle for his side in a humorous work, in which the parti-
sans of the council are amusingly taken to task by the demon
Leviathan.

After his return to Paris, where from 1384 onwards he filled
the position of master of the college of Navarre, and took part in
a violent campaign against the chancellor of Notre-Dame, he was
twice entrusted with a mission to Clement VII. in 1388 to defend
the doctrines of the university, and especially those concerning
the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, against the preaching
friar Jean de Montson, and in 1389 to petition in the name of the
king for the canonization of the young cardinal Peter of Luxem-
burg. The success which attended his efforts on these two
occasions, and the eloquence which he displayed, perhaps con-
tributed to his choice as the king's almoner and confessor. ,. At the
same time, by means of an exchange, he obtained to the highest
dignity in the university, becoming chancellor of Notre-Dame de
Paris.

When in 1394 Benedict XIII. succeeded Clement VII. at
Avignon, Pierre d'Ailly was entrusted by the king with a mission
of congratulation to the new pontiff. His obsequious language
on this occasion, and the favours with which it was rewarded,
formed a too violent contrast to the determined attitude of the
university of Paris, which, tired of the schism, was even then
demanding the resignation of the two pontiffs. Pierre d'Ailly
himself had not long before taken part in the drawing up of a
letter to the king in which the advantages of this double abdica-
tion were set forth, but since then his zeal had seemed to cool a
little. None the less, on his return from Avignon, he again in
the presence of the king enlarged upon the advantages offered by
the way which the university commended. But the suspicions
aroused by his conduct found further confirmation when he
caused himself — or allowed himself — to be nominated bishop of
Le Puy by Benedict XIII. (April 2, 1395). The great number
of benefices which he held left room for some doubt as to his dis-
interestedness. Henceforward he was under suspicion at the
university, and was excluded from the assemblies where the union
was discussed.

Some time afterwards Pierre d'Ailly became bishop of Cambrai
(March 19, 1397) by the favour of the pope, who had yielded no
whit, and, by virtue of this position, became also a prince of the
empire. In order to take possession of his new see, he had to
brave the wrath of the duke of Burgundy, override the resistance
of the clergy and bourgeoisie, and even withstand an armed
attack on the part of several lords; but his protector, the duke
of Orleans, had his investiture performed by Wenceslaus, king of
the Romans. The latter, though a partisan of the pope of Rome,
took the opportunity of enjoining on Pierre d'Ailly to go in his
name and argue with the pope of Avignon, a move which had as
its object to persuade Benedict XIII. to an abdication, the
necessity of which was becoming more and more evident. How-
ever, the language of the bishop of Cambrai seems on this occasion
to have been lacking in decision; however that may be, it led to
no felicitous result.

France next tried to bring violent pressure to bear to conquer

the obstinacy of Benedict XIII. by threatening a formal with-
drawal from his obedience. Pierre d'Ailly, who, in spite of his
attachment to the pope, had been carried away by the example of
the kingdom, was among the first who, in 1403, after experience
of what had happened, counselled and celebrated the restoration
of obedience. He was sent by Charles VI. on an embassy to
Benedict XIII. and seized this opportunity of lavishing on the
pontiff friendly congratulations mingled with useful advice. Two
years later, before the same pontiff, he preached in the city of
Genoa a sermon which led to the general institution, in the
countries of the obedience of Avignon, of the festival of the
Holy Trinity.

At the ecclesiastical council which took place at Paris in 1406
Pierre d'Ailly made every effort to avert a new withdrawal from
the obedience and, by order of the king, took the part of defender
of Benedict XIII., a course which yet again exposed him to attacks
from the university party. The following year he and his disciple
Gerson formed part of the great embassy sent by the princes to
the two pontiffs, and while in Italy he was occupied in praise-
worthy but vain efforts to induce the pope of Rome to remove
himself to a town on the Italian coast, in the neighbourhood of his
rival, where it was hoped that the double abdication would take
place. Discouraged by his failure to effect this, he returned to
his diocese of Cambrai at the beginning of 1408. At this time he
was still faithful to Benedict XIII., and the disinclination he felt
to joining the members of the French clergy who were on the
point of ratifying the royal declaration of neutrality excited the
anger of Charles VI. 's government, and a mandate, which was
however not executed, ordered the arrest of the bishop of
Cambrai.

It was not till after the cardinals of the two colleges had led to
the convocation of the general council of Pisa that Pierre'd'Ailly
renounced the support of Benedict XIII., and, for want of a better
policy, again allied himself with the cause which he had cham-
pioned in his youth. In the council lay now, to judge from his
words, the only chance of salvation; and, in view of the require-
ments of the case, he began to argue that, in case of schism, a
council could be convoked by any one of the faithful, and would
have the right to judge and even to depose the rival pontiffs.
This was, in fact, the procedure of the council of Pisa, in which
Pierre d'Ailly took part. After the declaration of the deposition
of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. it went on to the election of
Alexander V. (June 26th, 1409). This pope reigned only ten
months; his successor, John XXIII., raised Pierre d'Ailly to the
rank of cardinal (June 6, 1411), and further, to indemnify him
for the loss of the bishopric of Cambrai, conferred upon him the
administration of that of Limoges (November 3, 1412), which
was shortly after exchanged for the bishopric of Orange. He also
nominated Pierre d'Ailly as his legate in Germany (March 18,

1413)-

Forgetting these benefits, the cardinal of Cambrai was one of
the most formidable adversaries of John XXIII. at the council of
Constance. Convinced as he was of the necessity for union and
reform, he contributed more than any one to the adoption of the
principle that, since the schism had survived the council of Pisa,
it was necessary again to take up the work for a fundamental
union, without considering the rights of John XXIII. any more
than they had those of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. From
this point of view Pierre d'Ailly, together with his compatriot
Cardinal Fillastre, took the preponderating part during the first
few months. Afterwards, seeing the trend of events, he showed
some uneasiness and hesitation. He refused, however, to under-
take the defence of John XXIII., and only appeared in the trial of
this pope to make depositions against him, which were sometimes
of an overwhelming character.

Among the important matters which claimed his attention at
Constance may be mentioned also the condemnation of the errors
of Wycliffe and the trial of John Huss. The reading in public
of his two treatises De Potestate ecdesiastka and De Reformatione
Ecdesiae revealed, besides ideas very peculiar to himself on the
reform and constitution of the church, his design of reducing the
power of the English in the council by denying them the right of

AILSA CRAIG— AIN

439

forming a separate nation (October i-November i, 1416). By
this campaign, which exposed him to the worst retaliation of the
English, he inaugurated his role of " procurator and defender of
the king of France."

When at last the question arose of giving the Christian world a
new pope, this time sole and uncontested, Pierre d'Ailly defended
the right of the cardinals, if not to keep the election entirely in
their own hands, at any rate to share in the election, and he
brought forward an ingenious system for reconciling the preten-
sions of the council with the rights of the Sacred College. In this
way was elected Pope Martin V. (November n, 1417), and the
task of Pierre d'Ailly was at last finished.

The predominance of the Anglo-Burgundians in France having
made it impossible for him to stay there, he went to Avignon to
end his days in melancholy calculations arising from the calami-
ties of which he had been the witness, and the astrological
reckonings, in which he found pleasure, of the chances for and
against the world coming to an end in the near future. He died
on the gth of August 1420.

Pierre d'Ailly's written works are numerous. A great part of
them was published with the works of Gerson (by Ellies du Pin,
Antwerp, 1706); another part appeared in the i5th century,
probably at Brussels, and there are many treatises and sermons
still unpublished. In philosophy he was a nominalist. Many
questions in science and astrology, such as the reform of the
calendar, attracted his attention. His other works consisted of
theological essays, ascetic or exegetic, questions of ecclesiastical
discipline and reform, and of various polemical writings called
forth for the most part by the schism.

Whatever reservations may be made as to a certain interested
or ambitious side of his character, Pierre d'Ailly, whose devotion
to the cause of union and reform is incontestable, remains one
of the leading spirits of the end of the I4th and beginning of
the 1 5th centuries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877);
L. Salembier, Petrus de Alliaco (Lille, 1886); H. Denifle et Em.
Chatelain, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, t. iii. (Paris,
1894); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'Occident (Paris,
4 vols., 1896-1902); and Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes, vol. Ixv.,
1904, pp. 557-574- (N. V.)

AILSA CRAIG, an island rock at the mouth of the Firth
of Clyde, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Ayrshire, Scotland. It is of
conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises abruptly
to a height of 1114 ft. The only side from which the rock can
be ascended is the east; the other sides being for the most part
perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty columnar forms,
though not so regular as those of Staffa. This island is composed
of micro-granite with riebeckite, of great interest on account of
the rare occurrence of this type in Britain. It is comparatively
fine-grained and of a greyish colour. Its essential constituents
are felspar, quartz and riebeckite — a soda amphibole. The
last of these minerals occurs in small irregular patches between
the idiomorphic felspars which Dr J. J. H. Teall has found to
be a soda orthoclase. The rock is allied to paisanite described
by C. A. Osann and has been termed ailsite by Professor M. F.
Heddle. It forms part of an intrusive mass which, on the south
and west cliffs of the island, has a columnar arrangement and
is traversed by dykes of dolerite, most of which run in a north-
west direction. The age of this mass is uncertain, as its relations
to other rocks are not visible in the island. As riebeckite-
granophyre has been found in Skye it may be of Tertiary age.
The rock is a favourite material for curling-stones, about three-
fourths (according to estimate) of those in use in the countries
where the game obtains being made of it. On this account
curling-stones are popularly known as " Ailsas " or " Ailsa
Craigs." A columnar cave exists towards the northern side of
the island, and on the eastern are the remains of a tower, with
several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur and some scanty
grass affords subsistence to rabbits, and, on the higher levels,
to goats. The precipitous parts are frequented by large flocks
of solan geese and other sea birds. The lighthouse on the
southern side shows a flashing light visible for 13 m. In 1831
the twelfth earl of Cassillis became first marquis of Ailsa, taking

the title from the Craig, which was his property. When John
Keats was in Girvan during his Scottish tour in 1818 he apostro-
phized the rock in a fine sonnet.

AIMAK, or EIMAK (Mongolian for " clan," or section of a
tribe), the name given to certain nomadic or semi-nomadic
tribes of Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west
Afghan highlands immediately to the north of Herat. They were
originally known as "chahar (the four) Eimaks," because there
were four principal tribes: the Taimani (the predominating
element in the population of Ghur), the Ferozkhoi, the Jamshidi
and, according to some authorities, the Hazara. The Aimak
peoples number upwards of a quarter of a million, and speak
a dialect said to be closely related to the Kalmuck. They are
Sunnite Mahommedans in distinction from the Hazara who are
Shiites. They are predominantly of Iranian or quasi-Iranian
blood, while the Hazara are Turanian. They are a bold, wild
people and renowned fighters.

AIMARD, GUSTAVE, the pen-name of OLIVIER GLOUX (1818-
1883), French novelist, who was born in Paris on the I3th of
September 1818. He made use of the materials collected in a
roving and adventurous youth and early manhood in numerous
romances in the style of J. Fenimore Cooper. Among the best
of them are: Les Trappeurs de I' Arkansas (1858); La Grande
flibuste (1860); Nulls mexicaines (1863); La Forget merge (1870).
He died in Paris on the 2Oth of June 1883. Many of his novels
have been translated into English.

AIMOIN (c. g6o-c. 1010), French chronicler, was born at
Villefranche de Longchapt about 960, and in early life entered
the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed
the greater part of his life. His chief work is a Historia Fran-
corum, or Libri V. de gestis Francorum, which deals with the
history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was
continued by other writers until the middle of the i2th century.
It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical
value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz
and published in the Monumenla Germaniae hislorica : Scriptores,
Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). He also wrote a
Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives
of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have
been lost. This has been published by J. Mabillon in the Ada
sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's
third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the Miracula
Sancti Benedicti, the first book of which was written by another
monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the
Ada sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti.

Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from
Aimoin, a monk of St Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De miraculis
sancti Germani, and a fragment De Normanorum gestis circa
Parisiacam urbem et de divina in eos ultione tempore Caroli calm.
Both of these are published in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores,
Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649).

See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869).

AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, formed
in 1790 from Bresse, the Pays de Gex, Bugey, Dombes and
Valromey, districts of Burgundy. It is bounded N. by the
departments of Jura and Saone-et-Loire, W. by Sa6ne-et-Loire
and Rhone, S. by Isere, and E. by the departments of Savoie
•and Haute-Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and Vaud.
Pop. (1906) 345,856. Area 2248 sq. m. The department takes
its name from the river Ain, which traverses its centre in a
southerly direction and separates it roughly into two well-
marked physical divisions — a region of mountains to the east,
and of plains to the west. The mountainous region is occupied
by the southern portion of the Jura, which is divided into parallel
chains running north and south and decreasing in height from
east to west. The most easterly of these chains, that forming
the Pays de Gex in the extreme north-east of the department,
contains the Cret de la Neige (6653 ft.) and other of the highest
summits in the whole range. The district of Bugey occupies
the triangle formed by the Rhone in the south-east of the depart-
ment. West of the Ain, with the exception of the district covered
by the Revermont, the westernmost chain of the Jura, the country

440

AINGER— AINSWORTH

is flat, consisting in the north of the south portion of the Bresse,
in the south of the marshy Dombes. The chief rivers of the
eastern region are the Valserine and the Seran, right-hand
tributaries of the Rhone, which forms the eastern and southern
boundary of the department; and the Albarine and Oignin,
left-hand affluents of the Ain. The Bresse is watered by the
Veyle and the Reyssouze, both flowing into the Saone, which
washes the western limit of the department. The climate is
cold in the eastern and central districts of Ain, but it is on the
whole healthy, except in the Dombes. The average rainfall
is about 38 in. The soil in the valleys and plains of the depart-
ment, especially in the Bresse, is fertile, producing large quantities
of wheat, as well as oats, buckwheat and maize. East of the
Ain, forests of fir and oak abound on the mountains, the lower
slopes of which give excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and
much cheese is produced. Horse-raising is carried on in the
Dombes. The pigs and fowls of the Bresse and the geese and
turkeys of the Dombes are largely exported. The vineyards
of Bugey and Revermont yield good wines. The chief mineral
product is the asphalt of the mines of Seyssel on the eastern
frontier, besides which potter's clay, building stone, hydraulic
lime and cement are produced in the department. There are
many corn and saw mills and the wood-working industry is
important. Silk fabrics, coarse woollen cloth, paper and clocks
are manufactured. Live-stock and agricultural products are
exported; the chief imports are wood and raw silk. The depart-
ment is within the judicial circumscription of the appeal court
of Lyons and the educational circumscription (academic) of
Lyons. It forms part of the archiepiscopal province of Besancon.
The Rhone and the Sa6ne are navigable for considerable distances
in the department; the chief railway is that of the Paris-Lyon-
Mediterranee Company, whose line from Macon to Culoz traverses
the department. Ain is divided into five arrondissements —
those of Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and those of Gex,
Nantua and Belley in the east; containing in all 36 cantons
and 455 communes. Bourg is the capital and Belley is the seat
of a bishop. Jujurieux, in the arrondissement of Nantua, has
the most important silk factory in the department, occupying
over 1000 workpeople. Bellegarde on the eastern frontier is
an industrial centre; it has a manufactory of wood-pulp, and
saw and flour mills, power for which is obtained from the waters
of the Rhone. Oyonnax and its environs, north of Nantua,
are noted for the production of articles in wood and horn,
especially combs. St Rambert, in the arrondissement of Belley,
besides being of industrial importance for its manufactures of
silk and paper, possesses the remains of a Benedictine abbey,
powerful in the nth, izth and I3th centuries. The Gothic
church of Ambronay in the arrondissement of Belley, the church
of St Paul de Varax (about 9 m. S.W. of Bourg), a building in
the Romanesque style of Burgundy, and that of Nantua (izth
century), are of architectural interest. Ferney, 4 m. S.W. of
Gex, is famous as the residence of Voltaire from 1758-1778.

AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904), English divine and man of
letters, was born in London on the gth of February 1837, the
son of an architect. He was educated at King's College, London,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained in 1860
to a curacy at Alrewas, near Rugeley. There he remained until
1864, when he became an assistant master at the Sheffield1
Collegiate School. His connexion with the Temple church, in
London, began in 1866, when he was appointed reader; and in
1894 he succeeded Dr Vaughan as master. In 1887 he was
presented to a canonry in Bristol cathedral, and he was chaplain-
in-ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. He died
on the 8th of February 1904. Canon Ainger's gentle wit and
humour, his generosity and lovable disposition, endeared him
to a wide circle. In literature his name is chiefly associated
with his sympathetic appreciation of Charles Lamb and Thomas
Hood. His works include: Charles Lamb (1882) and Crabbe
(1903) in the " English Men of Letters " series; editions of
Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883) and of his Letters (1888; 2nd ed.,
1904), of the Poems (1897) of Thomas Hood, with a biographical
introduction; The Life and Works of Charles Lamb (12 vols.,

1899-1900); articles on Tennyson and Du Maurier in the
Dictionary of National Biography; The Gospel and Human
Life (1904), sermons; Lectures and Essays (2 vols., 1905), edited
by the Rev. H. C. Beeching.

See also Edith Sichel, The Life and Letters of Canon Ainger (1906).

AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL (1807-1870),
German artist and glass-painter, was born at Munich on the i4th
of February 1807. By the advice of Gartner, director of the
royal porcelain manufactory, he devoted himself to the study
of glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an art,
and in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded
royal painted-glass manufactory at Munich. The method
which he gradually perfected there was a development of the
enamel process adopted in the Renaissance, and consisted in
actually painting the design upon the glass, which was sub-
jected, as each colour was laid on, to carefully-adjusted heating.
The earliest specimens of Ainmuller's work are to be found in
the cathedral of Regensburg. With a few exceptions, all the
windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his hand. Specimens
may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral, and Peterhouse, Cam-
bridge, and Cologne cathedral contains some of his finest
productions. Ainmuller had considerable skill as an oil-painter,
especially in interiors, his pictures of the Chapel Royal at
Windsor and of Westminster Abbey being much admired. He
died on the gth of December 1870.

AINSWORTH, HENRY (1571-1622), English Nonconformist
divine and scholar, was born of yeoman stock in 1570/1 at
S wanton Morley, Norfolk. He was for four years from December
1587 a scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associat-
ing with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the
Separatists. Driven abroad about the year 1593, he found a
home in " a blind lane at Amsterdam." He acted as " porter "
to a scholarly bookseller in that city, who, on discovering his
skill in the Hebrew language, made him known to his country-
men. When part of the London church, of which Francis
Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam,
Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In 1596 he
took the lead in drawing up a confession of their faith, which
he reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various univer-
sities of Europe (including St Andrews, Scotland). Johnson
joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed
An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly
but unjustly called Brownisls. The task of organizing the church
was not easy and dissension was rife. Of Ainsworth it may be
said that, though often embroiled in controversy, he never put
himself forward; yet he was the most steadfast and cultured
champion of the principles represented by the early Congre-
gationalists. Amid all the strife of controversy, he steadily
pursued his rabbinical studies. The combination was so unique
that many, like the encyclopaedists L. Moreri and J. H. Zedler,
have made two Henry Ainsworths — one Dr Henry Ainsworth,
a learned, biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, an
arch-heretic and " the ringleader of the Separatists at Amster-
dam." Some confusion has also been occasioned through his
not unfriendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who
abjured the Anglican for the Roman church. In 1608 Ainsworth
answered Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme. But his
ablest and most arduous minor work in controversy was his
reply to John Smyth (commonly called "the Se-Baptist "),
entitled a Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used
in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the
Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609). In
1610 he was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of
their church, from F. Johnson and those who adhered to him.
For some time a difference of principle, as to the church's right
to revise its officers' decisions, had been growing between them,
Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. (See CONGRE-
GATIONALISM.) But in spirit he remained a man of peace. His
memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The ripe fruit
of many years' labour appeared in his Annotations — on Genesis
(1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619);
Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612);

AINSWORTH— AINU

441

Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in 1627, and
again in 1639, and later in various forms. From the outset the
Annotations took a commanding place, especially among con-
tinental scholars, and he established for English nonconformity a
tradition of culture and scholarship. There is no probability
about the narrative given by Neal in his History of the Puritans
(ii. 47) that he was poisoned by certain Jews. He died in 1622,
or early in 1623, for in that year was published his Seasonable
Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, in
which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy.

LITERATURE. — John Worthington's Diary (Chetham Society), by
Crossley, i. 263-266; works of John Robinson (1851) ; H. M. Dexter,
Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (1880) ; W. E. A.
Axon, H. Ainsworth, the Puritan Commentator (1889) ; F. J. Powicke,
Henry Barrow and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam (1900); J. H.
Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (1906).

AINSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), English schoolmaster
and author, was born at Eccles, near Manchester, in September
1660. After teaching for some time at Lever's Grammar School
i Bolton, he removed to London, where he conducted a boarding-
chool, first at Bethnal Green and then at Hackney. He soon
ade a moderate fortune which gave him leisure to pursue his
:lassical studies. Ainsworth's name is- associated with his Latin-
Jnglish Dictionary, begun in 1714, and published in 1736 as
Thesaurus linguae Latinae compendiarius. It was long ex-
tensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later editions
eing revised and enlarged by other hands, but it is now super-
eded. Ainsworth was also the author of some useful works on
classical antiquities, and a sensible treatise on education, en-
titled The most Natural and Easy Way of Institution (1698), in
vhich he advocates the teaching of Latin by conversational
nethods and deprecates punishment of any sort. He died in
London on the 4th of April 1743.

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882), English
novelist, son of Thomas Ainsworth, solicitor, was born at Man-
chester on the 4th of February 1805. He was educated at
lanchester Grammar School and articled to the firm of which
father was a member, proceeding to London in 1824 to
omplete his legal training at the Inner Temple. At the age of
twenty-one he married a daughter of John Ebers the publisher,
and started in his father-in-law's line of business. This, however,
oon proved unprofitable and he decided to attempt literary
vork. A novel called Sir John Chiverlon, in which he appears
i have had a share, had attracted the praise of Sir Walter Scott,
ad this encouragement decided him to take up fiction as a
areer. In 1834 he published Rookwood, which had an immediate
success, and thenceforth he was always occupied with the com-
pilation of " historical " novels. He published about forty such
stories, of which the best-known are Jack Sheppard (1839), The
Tower of London (1840), Guy Fawkes (1841), OldSt Paul's (1841)
ind Windsor Castle (1843). He edited Bentley's Miscellany, in
vhich Jack Sheppard was published as a serial, and in 1842 he
ecame proprietor of Ainsworth's Magazine. In 1853 it ceased
appear, and Ainsworth bought the New Monthly Magazine.
le continued his literary activity until his death, but his later
stories were less striking than the earlier ones. He died at
^.eigate on the 3rd of January 1882 and was buried at Kensal
ireen. Ainsworth had a lively talent for plot, and his books
bave many attractive qualities. The glorification of Dick Turpin
Rookwood, and of Jack Sheppard in the novel that bears his
ame, caused considerable outcry among straitlaced elders. In
bis later novels Ainsworth confined himself to heroes less open
criticism. His style was not without archaic affectation and
awkwardness, but when his energies were aroused by a striking
situation he could be brisk, vigorous and impressive. He did
i great deal to interest the less educated classes in the historical
omances of their country, and his tales were invariably in-
structive, clean and manly.

AINTAB (anc. Dolichf), a town in the vilayet of Aleppo and
ncient Cyrrhestica district of N. Syria. Pop. 45,000, two-thirds
loslem. The site of Doliche, famous for its worship of Baal
(Zeus Dolichenus), adopted by the Seleucids and eventually
spread all over the Roman empire, lies at Duluk, two hours N.W.;

but nothing is to be seen there except a mound. The place was
probably of Hittite origin and does not appear to have been
settled by Greeks. The bazaars of Aintab are a great centre for
" Hittite " antiquities, found at various sites from Sakchegozu
on the west to Jerablus on the east. The modern town lies in
the open treeless valley of the Sajur, a tributary of the Euphrates,
and on the right bank, 65 m. north-east of Aleppo, with which it is
connected by a chausste, passing through Killis. This road pro-
ceeds east to the great crossing of Euphrates at Birejik, and thus
Aintab lies on the highway between N. Syria and Urfa-Mosul and
has much transit trade and numerous khans. In the middle ages
its strong castle (Hamtab) was an important strategic point,
taken by Saladin about A.D. 1183; and it supplied the last base
from which Ibrahim Pasha marched in 1839 to win his decisive
victory over the Turks at Nezib, about 25 m. distant north-east.
Lying high (3500 ft.) and swept by purifying winds, Aintab is
a comparatively clean and healthy spot, though not free from
ophthalmia and the " Aleppo button," and it has been selected
by the American Mission Board as its centre for N. Syria.
" Central Turkey College," educational and medical, lies on high
ground west. It was burnt down in 1891, but rebuilt; it has a
dependency for girls within the town. Thanks to its presence the
Armenian protestants are a large and rich community, which
suffered less in the massacre of 1895 than the Gregorians. There
is a small Episcopalian body, which has a large unfinished
church, and a schismatic " catholicos," who has vainly tried to
gain acceptance into the Anglican communion. There is also a
flourishing Franciscan mission. Striped cloths and pekmez, a
sweet paste made from grapes, are the principal manufactures;
and tobacco and cereals the principal cultures. The town is
unusually well and solidly built, good stone being obtained
near at hand. The Moslem inhabitants are mainly of Turko-
man origin, and used to owe fealty to chieftains of the
family of Chapan Oglu, whose headquarters were at Yuzgat in
Cappadocia. (D. G. H.)

AINU (" man "), a race inhabiting the northernmost islands of
Japan. Little definite is known about their earliest history, but
it is improbable that they are, as has been urged, the aborigines
of Japan. The most accurate researches go to prove that they
were immigrants, who reached Yezo from the Kuriles, and sub-
sequently crossing Tsugaru strait, colonized a great part of the
main island of Japan, exterminating a race of pit-dwellers to
whom they gave the name of koro-pok-guru (men with sunken
places). These koro-pok-guru were of such small stature as to be
considered dwarfs. They wore skins of animals for clothing, and
that they understood the potter's art and used flint arrow-heads
is clearly proved by excavations at the sites of their pits. The
Ainu, on the contrary, never had any knowledge of pottery.
Ultimately the Ainu, coming into contact with the Japanese, who
had immigrated from the south and west, were driven northward
into the island of Yezo, where, as well as in the Kuriles and in the
southern part of Sakhalin, they are still found in some numbers.
When, at the close of the i8th and the beginning of the igth
century, Russian enterprises drew the attention of the Japanese
government to the northern districts of the empire, the Tokugawa
shoguns adopted towards the Ainu a policy of liberality and
leniency consistent with the best principles of modern coloniza-
tion. But the doom of unfitness appears to have begun to
overtake the race long ago. History indicates that in ancient
times they were fierce fighters, able to offer a stout resistance to
the incomparably better armed and more civilized Japanese.
To-day they are drunken, dirty, spiritless folk, whom it is
difficult to suppose capable of the warlike role they once played.
Their number, between 16,000 and 17,000, is virtually stationary.
The Ainu are somewhat taller than the Japanese, stoutly built,
well proportioned, with dark-brown eyes, high cheek-bones,
short broad noses and faces lacking length. The hairiness of the
Ainu has been much exaggerated. They are not more hairy than
many Europeans. Never shaving after a certain age, the men
have full beards and moustaches, but the stories of Ainu covered
with hair like a bear are quite unjustified by facts. Men and
women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of

442

AIR

the head, but trim it semicircularly behind. The women tattoo
their mouths, arms, and sometimes their foreheads, using for
colour the smut deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark.
Their original dress is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree.
It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the
body and tied with a girdle of the same material. Females wear
also an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of
animals are worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from
the skin of dogs or salmon. Both sexes are fond of ear-rings,
which are said to have been made of grape-vine in former times,
but are now purchased from the Japanese, as also are bead neck-
laces, which the women prize highly. Their food is meat, when-
ever they can procure it — the flesh of the bear, the fox, the wolf,
the badger, the ox or the horse — fish, fowl, millet, vegetables,
herbs and roots. They never eat raw fish or flesh, but always
either boil or roast it. Their habitations are reed-thatched huts,
the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace
in the centre. There is no chimney, but only a hole at the angle
of the roof; there is one window on the eastern side and there are
two doors. Public buildings do not exist, whether in the shape
of inn, meeting-place or temple. The furniture of their dwellings
is exceedingly scanty. They have no chairs, stools or tables, but
sit on. the floor, which is covered with two layers of mats, one of
rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging
mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets.
The men use chop-sticks and moustache-lifters when eating; the
women have wooden spoons. Uncleanliness is characteristic of
the Ainu, and all their intercourse with the Japanese has not
improved them in that respect. The Rev. John Batchelor, in his
Notes on the Ainu, says that he lived in one Ainu habitation for
six weeks on one occasion, and for two months on another, and
that he never once saw personal ablutions performed, or cooking
or eating utensils washed.

Not having been at any period acquainted with the art of
writing, they have no literature and are profoundly ignorant.
But at schools established for them by the Japanese in recent
times, they have shown that their intellectual capacity is not
deficient. No distinct conception of a universe enters into their
cosmology. They picture to themselves many floating worlds,
yet they deduce the idea of rotundity from the course of the sun,
and they imagine that the " Ainu world " rests on the back of a
fish whose movements cause earthquakes. It is scarcely possible
to doubt that this fancy is derived from the Japanese, who used
to hold an identical theory. The Ainu believe in a supreme
Creator, but also in a sun-god, a moon-god, a water-god and a
mountain-god, deities whose river is the Milky Way, whose
voices are heard in the thunder and whose glory is reflected in the
lightning. Their chief object of actual worship appears to be the
bear. Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop) writes: " The peculiarity
which distinguishes their rude mythology is the worship of the
bear, the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his species. But
it is impossible to understand the feelings t>y which this cult is
prompted, for although they worship the animal after their
fashion and set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill
it, eat it and sell its skin. There is no doubt that this wild beast
inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the
inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished
as bear-worshippers, and their greatest religious festival or
saturnalia as the Festival of the Bear. . . . Some of their rude
chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest eulogy on a man
is to compare him to a bear." They have no priests by profession.
The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are
necessary; ceremonies confined to making libations of wine,
uttering short prayers and offering willow sticks with wooden
shavings attached to them, much as the Japanese set up the well-
known gohei (sacred offerings) at certain spots. The Ainu gives
thanks to the gods before eating, and prays to the deity of fire in
time of sickness. He thinks that his spirit is immortal, and that
it will be rewarded hereafter in heaven or punished in hell, both
of which places are beneath the earth, hell being the land of
volcanoes; but he has no theory as to a resurrection of the body
or metempsychosis. He preserves a tradition about a flood which

seems to be the counterpart of the Biblical deluge, and about an
earthquake which lasted a hundred days, produced the three
volcanoes of Yezo and created the island by bridging the waters
that had previously separated it into two parts.

The Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by
Japanese tribunals, but in former times their affairs were ad-
ministered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for ad-
ministrative purposes the country was divided into three districts,
Saru, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the ultimate control of
Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants
were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions
of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number
of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals.
Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted
to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except
in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the assassin were
cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Little as the Japanese
and the Ainu have in common, intermarriages are not infrequent,
and at Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast, many children
of such marriages may be seen. Doenitz, Hilgendorf and Dr B.
Scheube, arguing from a minute investigation of the physical
traits of the Ainu, have concluded that they are Mongolians;
according to Professor A. H. Keane the Ainu " are quite distinct
from the surrounding Mongolic peoples, and present several
remarkable physical characters which seem to point to a remote
connexion with the Caucasic races. Such are a very full beard,
shaggy or wavy black or dark-brown hair, sometimes covering
the back and chest; a somewhat fair or even white complexion,
large nose, straight eyes and regular features, often quite hand-
some and of European type. They seem to be a last remnant of
the Neolithic peoples, who ranged in prehistoric times across the
northern hemisphere from the British Isles to Manchuria and
Japan. They are bear-worshippers, and have other customs in
common with the Manchurian aborigines, but the language is
entirely different, and they have traditions of a time when they
were the dominant people in the surrounding lands." It should
be noted finally that the Ainu are altogether free from ferocity or
exclusiveness, and that they treat strangers with gentle kindness.

See Rev. John Batchelor, The A inu and their Folk-lore(London,i 90 1) ;
Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan (Washington, 1892) ; H. von
Siebold, Uber die Aino (Berlin, 1881); Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop),
Korea and her Neighbours (1898) ; Basil Hall Chamberlain, Language,
Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in the
Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895).

AIR, or ASBEN, a country of West Africa, lying between 15°
and 19° N. and 6° and 10° E. It is within the Sahara, of which
it forms one of the most fertile regions. The northern portion
of the country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a
height of 5000 ft. Richly wooded hollows and extensive plains
are interspersed between the hills. The mimosa, the dum palm
and the date are abundant. Some of the plains afford good
pasturage for camels, asses, goats and cattle; others are desert
tablelands. In the less frequented districts wild animals abound,
notably the lion and the gazelle. The country generally is of
sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte and
basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but during
the rainy season, from August to October, heavy floods convert
the water-courses in the hollows of the mountains into broad
and rapid streams. Numerous wells supply the wants of the
people and their cattle. To the south of this variegated region
lies a desert plateau, 2000 ft. above sea-level, destitute of water,
and tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich and the giraffe.
Still farther south is the fairly fertile district of Damerghu, of
which Zinder is the chief town. Little of the soil is under culti-
vation except in the neighbourhood of the villages. Millet,
dates, indigo and senna are the principal productions. The
great bulk of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and
the materials for clothing are also imported. A great caravan
annually passes through Air, consisting of several thousand
camels, carrying salt from Bilma to the Hausa states.

Air was called Asben by the native tribes until they were
conquered by the Berbers. The present inhabitants are for the
most part of a mixed race, combining the finer traits of the

AIR— AIR-ENGINE

443

3

Berbers with negro characteristics. The sultan of Air is to a
great extent dependent on the chiefs of the Tuareg tribes in-
habiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the north-west. A large
part of his revenue is derived from tribute exacted from the
salt caravans. Since 1890 Air has been included in the French
sphere of influence in West Africa.

Agades, the capital of the country, which has a circuit of
3^ m., is built on the edge of a plateau 2500 ft. high, and is
supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a
secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhoi
empire. The language of the people is a dialect of Songhoi.
In former times Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a
population of about 50,000. Since the beginning of the i6th
century the prosperity of the town has, however, gradually de-
clined. F. Foureau, who visited Agades in 1899, stated that
more than half the total area was deserted and ruinous. The
houses, which are built of clay, are low and flat-roofed; and the
only buildings of importance are the chief mosque, which is
surmounted by a tower 95 ft. high, and the sultan's residence,
a massive two-storied structure pierced with small windows.
The chief trade is grain. The great salt caravans pass through

as well as pilgrims on their way to Mecca.

AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe,"
low "), the atmosphere that surrounds the earth; Gr.
<M?P, the lower thick air, being distinguished from aWrjp, the
upper pure air. With the development of analytical and especi-
ally of pneumatic chemistry, the air was recognized not to be
one homogeneous substance, as was long supposed, and different
" airs," or gases, came to be distinguished. Thus oxygen gas,
at the end of the i8th century, was known as dephlogisticated air,
nitrogen or azote as phlogisticated air, hydrogen as inflammable
air, carbonic acid gas as fixed air. The name is now ordinarily
restricted to what is more accurately called atmospheric air —
the air we breathe— the invisible elastic fluid which surrounds
the earth (see ATMOSPHERE). Probably the sense of atmosphere
or environment led (though this is disputed by etymologists)
the further use of the word " air " to mean " manner " or

appearance "; and so to its employment (cf. Lat. modus)

music for " melody." (See ARIA.)

AIRAY, HENRY (is6o?-i6i6), English Puritan divine, was

irn at Kentmere, Westmorland, but no record remains of the
date of either birth or baptism. He was the son of William
Airay, the favourite servant of Bernard Gilpin, " the apostle
of the North," whose bounty showed itself in sending Henry
and his brother Evan (or Ewan) to his own endowed school,

•here they were educated " in grammatical learning," and were
attendance at Oxford when Gilpin died. From Wood's

thenae we glean the details of Airay's college attendance.

He was sent to St Edmund's hall in 1579, aged nineteen or

icreabouts. Soon after he was translated to Queen's College,
ere he became pauper puer serviens; that is, a poor serving

ild that waits on the fellows in the common hall at meals,

.d in their chambers, and does other servile work about the

illege." His transference to Queen's is perhaps explained by
having been Gilpin's college, and by his Westmorland origin
giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He graduated
B.A. on the igth of June 1583, M.A. on the isth of June 1586,

.D. in 1594 and D.D. on the I7th of June 1600 — all in

icen's College. " About the time he was master " (1586) " he
Entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous preacher
the university." His Commentary on the Epistle to the

'hilippians (1618, reprinted 1864) is a specimen of his preach-
before his college, and of his fiery denunciation of popery
and his fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford
in common with all England then prized. In 1598 he was
chosen provost of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor
of the university. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's
duties he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early
s manifesting his antagonism to the prevailing Puritanism.

He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a
living which involved him in a trying but successful litigation,

•hereof later incumbents reaped the benefit. He died on the

UUI

:>

6th of October 1616. His character as a man, preacher, divine,
and as an important ruler in the university, will be found por-
trayed in the Epistle by John Potter, prefixed to the Commentary.
He must have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans
— possessed of a robust common-sense in admirable contrast
with some of his contemporaries.

AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born at
Bowden, Roxburghshire, on the 28th of August 1802. He was
educated at Edinburgh University, where he made the acquaint-
ance of Carlyle and James Hogg, and he decided to devote
himself to literary work. He published Martzoufle, a Tragedy,
with other Poems (1826), a volume of essays, and a long narrative
poem in several cantos, The Captive of Fez (1830). For a year
he edited the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and for twenty-eight
years the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald. In 1848 he
published a collected edition of his poems, which met with much
favour. Carlyle said that he found in them " a healthy breath
as of mountain breezes." Among Aird's other friends were De
Quincey, Lockhart, Stanley (afterwards dean of Westminster)
and Motherwell. He died at Dumfries on the 2 sth of April 1876.

AIRDRIE, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 22,228. It is situated n m. E. of
Glasgow by the North British railway, and also communicates
with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal (which passes within i m.
of the town), as well as by the Caledonian railway via Coatbridge
and Whifflet. The canal was constructed between 1761 and
1 790, and connects with the Forth and Clyde Canal near Mary-
hill. Airdrie was a market town in 1695, but owes its prosperity
to the great coal and iron beds in its vicinity. Other industries
include iron and brass foundries, engineering, manufactures
of woollens and calicoes, silk-weaving, paper-making, oil and
fireclay. The public buildings comprise the town hall, county
buildings, mechanics' institute, academy, two fever hospitals
and free library, the burgh having been the first town in Scotland
to adopt the Free Library Act. Airdrie unites with Falkirk,
Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow in sending one member to
parliament. The parish of New Monkland, in which Airdrie
lies, was formed (with Old Monkland)in 1640 out of the ancient
barony of Monkland, so named from the fact that it was part of
the lands granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks of Newbattle.

AIRE, a town of south-western France, in the department
of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 22 m. S.E. of Mont-de-
Marsan on the Southern railway between Morcenx and Tarbes.
Pop. (1906) 2283. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has a
cathedral of the I2th century and an episcopal palace of the
nth, 1 7th and i8th centuries. Both have undergone frequent
restoration. They are surpassed in interest by the church of
St Quitterie in Mas d'Aire, the suburb south-west of the town.
The latter is a brick building of the I3th and i4th centuries, with
a choir in the Romanesque style, and a fine western portal which
has been much disfigured. The crypt contains several Gallo-
Roman tombs and the' sarcophagus (5th century) of St Quitterie.
Aire has two ecclesiastical seminaries.

Aire (Atura, Vicus Julii) was the residence of the kings of
the Visigoths, one of whom, Alaric II. (q.v.), there drew up his
famous code. The bishopric dates from the 5th century.

AIRE, a town of northern France, on the river Lys, in the
department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 m. S.S.E. of St Omer by rail.
Pop. (1006) 4258. The town lies in a low and marshy situation
at the junction of three canals. The chief buildings are the
church of St Pierre (isth and i6th centuries), which has an
imposing tower and rich interior decoration; a h6tel de ville
of the i8th century; and the Bailliage (i6th century), a small
building in the Renaissance style. Aire has flour-mills, leather
and oil works, and nail manufactories, and trade in agricultural
produce.

In the middle ages Aire belonged to the counts of Flanders,
from whom in 1188 it received a charter, which is still extant.
It was given to France by the peace of Utrecht 1713.

AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air
for their working substance, that is to say for the substance
which is caused alternately to expand and contract by application

444

AIR-ENGINE

and removal of heat, this process enabling a portion of the
applied heat to be tiansformed into mechanical work. Just as
the working substance which alternately takes in and gives
out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a part
of the action into steam), so in the air-engine it is air. The
practical drawbacks to employing air as the working substance
of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very limited.
Such attempts as have been made to design air-engines on a
large scale have been practical failures, and are now interesting
only as steps in the historical development of applied thermo-
dynamics. In the form of motors for producing very small
amounts of power air-engines have been found convenient,
and within a restricted field they are still met with. But even
in this field the competition of the oil-engine and the gas-engine
is too formidable to leave to the air-engine more than a very
narrow chance of employment.

One of the chief practical objections to air-engines is the great
bulk of the working substance in relation to the amount of heat
that is utilized in the working of the engine. To some extent this
objection may be reduced by using the air in a state of com-
pression, and therefore of greater density, throughout its opera-
tion. Even then, however, the amount of operative heat is
very small in comparison with that which passes through the
steam-engine, per cubic foot swept through by the piston, for
the change of state which water undergoes in its transformation
into steam involves the taking in of much more heat than can
be communicated to air in changing its temperature within such
a range as is practicable. Another and not less serious objection
is the practical difficulty of getting heat into the working air
through the walls of the containing vessel. The air receives heat
from an external furnace just as water does in the boiler of a
steam-engine, by contact with a heated metallic surface, but it
takes up heat from such a surface with much less readiness
than does water. The waste of heat in the chimney gases is
accordingly greater; and further, the metallic shell is liable
to be quickly burned away as a result of its contact at a high
temperature with free oxygen. The temperature of the shell
is much higher than that of a steam boiler, for in order to secure
that the working air will take up a fair amount of heat, the upper
limit to which its temperature is raised greatly exceeds that of
even high-pressure steam. This objection to the air-engine
arises from the fact that the heat comes to it from external
combustion; it disappears when internal combustion is resorted
to; that is to say, when the heat is generated within the envelope
containing the working air, by the combustion there of gaseous
or other fuel. Gas-engines and oil-engines and other types of
engine employing internal combustion may be regarded as
closely related to the air-engine. They differ from it, however,
in the fact that their working substance is not air, but a mixture
of gases — a necessary consequence of internal combustion. It
is to internal combustion that they owe their success, for it
enables them to get all the heat of combustion into the working
substance, to use a relatively very high temperature at the top
of the range, and at the same time to escape entirely the draw-
backs that arise in the air-engine proper through the need of
conveying heat to .the air through a metallic shell.

A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the Rev.
R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the earliest applica-
tion of what is known as the " regenerative " principle, the
principle namely that heat may be deposited by a substance
at one stage of its action and taken up again at another stage
with but little loss, and with a great resulting change in the
substance's temperature at each of the two stages in the operation.
The principle has since found wide application in metallurgical
and other operations. In any heat-engine it is essential that
the working substance should be at a high temperature while
it is taking in heat, and at a relatively low temperature when
it is rejecting heat. The highest thermodynamic efficiency will
be reached when the working substance is at the top of its
temperature range while any heat is being received and at the
bottom while any heat is being rejected — as is the case in the
cycle of operations of the theoretically imagined engine of Carnot.

(See THERMODYNAMICS and STEAM-ENOINE.) In Carnot's cycle
the substance takes in heat at its highest temperature, then
passes by adiabatic expansion from the top to the bottom of
its temperature range, then rejects heat at the bottom of the
range, and is finally brought back by adiabatic compression
to the highest temperature at which it again takes in heat, and
so on. An air-engine working on this cycle would be intolerably
bulky and mechanically inefficient. Stirling substituted for
the two stages of adiabatic expansion and compression the
passage of the air to and fro through a " regenerator," in which
the air was alternately cooled by storing its heat in the material
of the regenerator and reheated by picking the stored heat up
again on the return journey. The essential parts of one form
of Stirling's engine are shown in fig. i . There A is the externally-
fired heating vessel, the lower part of which contains hot air
which is taking in heat from the furnace beneath. A pipe from
the top of A leads to the working cylinder (B). At the top of A is
a cooler (C) consisting of pipes through which cold water is made
to circulate. In A there is a displacer (D) which is connected
(by parts not shown) with the piston in such a manner that it
moves down when the piston has moved up. The air-pressure
is practically the same above and below D, for these spaces are
in free communication with
one another through the
regenerator (E), which is an
annular space stacked loosely
with wire-gauze. When D
moves down, the hot air is
driven up through the re-
generator to the upper part
of the containing vessel. It
deposits its heat in the wire-
gauze, becoming lowered in
temperature and conse-
quently reduced in pressure.
The piston (B) descends, and
the air, now in contact with
the cooling pipes (C) , gives up
heat to them. Then the dis-
placer (D) is raised. The air
passes down through its

regenerator picking up the ^-Stirling's Air-Engine,

heat deposited there, and

thereby having its temperature restored and its pressure
raised. It then takes in heat from the furnace, expanding
in volume and forcing the piston (B) to rise, which completes
the cycle. The engine was double-acting, another heating
vessel like A being connected with the upper end of the working
cylinder at F. The stages at which heat is taken from the fur-
nace and rejected to the cooler (C) are approximately isothermal
at the upper and lower limits of temperature respectively, and
the cycle accordingly is approximately " perfect " in the thermo-
dynamic sense. The theoretical indicator diagram is made up
of two isothermal lines for the taking in and rejection of heat,
and two lines of constant volume for the two passages through
the regenerator. This engine was the subject of two patents
(by R. and S. Stirling) in 1827 and 1840. A double-acting
Stirling engine of 50 horse-power, using air which was maintained
by a pump at a fairly high pressure throughout the operations,
was used for some years in the Dundee Foundry, where it is
credited with having consumed only 1-7 ft of coal per hour
per indicated horse-power. The coal consumption per brake-
horse-power was no doubt much greater. It was finally abandoned
on account of the failure of the heating vessels.

The type survives in some small domestic motors, an example
of which, manufactured under the patent of H. Robinson, is
shown in fig. 2. In this there is no compressing pump, and the
main pressure of the working air is simply that of the atmo-
sphere. The whole range of pressure is so slight that no packing
is required. Here A is the vessel in which the air is heated and
within which the displacer works. It is heated by a small coke-
fire or by a gas flame in C. It communicates through a passage

AIREY— AIRY

445

'IG. 2. — Robinson's form of Stirling's
Engine.

(D) with the working cylinder (B) . The displacer (E) , which takes
its motion through a rod (I) from a rocking lever (F) connected by
a short link to the crank-pin, is itself the regenerator, its con-
struction being such that the air passes up and down through
it as in one of the original Stirling forms. The cooler is a water
vessel (G) through which water circulates from a tank (H).
Messrs. Hayward and Tyler's " Rider " engine may be mentioned
as another small hot-air motor which follows nearly the Stirling
cycle of operations.

An attempt to develop a powerful air-engine was made in
America about 1833 by John Ericsson, who applied it to marine
propulsion in the ship " Caloric," but without permanent
success. Like Stirling, Ericsson used a regenerator, but with
this difference that the pressure instead of the volume of the

air remained constant while
it passed in each direction
through the regenerator.
Cold air was compressed by
a pump into a receiver,
where it was kept cool
during compression and
from which it passed through
a regenerator into the work-
ing cylinder. In so passing
it took up heat and ex-
panded. It was then allowed
to expand further, taking
in heat frotn a furnace
under tLe cylinder and
failing in pressure. This
expansion was continued
till the pressure of the
working air fell nearly to
that of the atmosphere. It
was then discharged through
tie regenerator, depositing heat for the next charge of air in
urn to take up. The indicator diagram approximated to a
orm made up of two isothermal lines and two lines of constant
pressure.

In the transmission of power by compressed air (see POWER
TRANSMISSION) the air-driven motors are for the most part
nachines resembling steam-engines in the general features of
heir pistons, cylinders, valves and so forth. Such machines
re not properly described as air-engines since their function
i not the conversion of heat into work. Incidentally, however,
hey do in some cases partially discharge that function, namely,
vhen what is called a " preheater " is used to warm up the
ompressed air before it enters in the motor cylinder. The
object of this device is not, primarily, to produce work from
eat, but to escape the inconveniences that would otherwise
irise through extreme cooling of the air during its expansion.
Without preheating the expanding air becomes so cold as to be
liable to deposit snow from the moisture held in suspension,
nd thereby to clog the valves. With preheating this is avoided,
id the amount of work done by a given quantity of air is
ncreased by the conversion into work of a part of the sup-
plementary energy which the preheater supplies in the form of
beat. (J. A. E.)

AIREY, RICHARD AIREY, BARON (1803-1881), British
eneral, was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir George Airey
(1761-1833) and was born in 1803. He entered the army in
1821, became captain in 1825, and served on the staff of Sir
Frederick Adam in the Ionian Islands (1827-1830) and on that
of Lord Aylmer in North America (1830-1832). In 1838 Airey,
hen a lieutenant-colonel, went to the Horse Guards, where in
1852 he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief,
ord Hardinge. In 1854 he was given a brigade command in
he army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was
amediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post of
quartermaster-general to Lord Raglan, in which capacity he
erved through the campaign in the Crimea. He was made a
lajor-general in December 1854, and it was universally recog-

nized in the army that he was the best soldier on Lord Raglan's
staff. He was made a K.C.B., and was reported upon most
favourably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and Sir J. Simpson.
Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older sense of the
word, i.e. a chief of the general staff, but a different view of
the duties of the office was then becoming recognized. Public
opinion held him and his department responsible for the failures
and mismanagement of the commissariat. Airey demanded an
inquiry on his return to England and cleared himself completely,
but he never recovered from the effects of the unjust persecution
of which he had been made the victim, though the popular view
was not shared by his military superiors. He gave up his post
at the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at
home. In 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and from
1865 to 1870 he was governor of Gibraltar, receiving the G.C.B.
in 1867. In 1870 he became adjutant-general at headquarters,
and in 1871 attained the full rank of general. In 1876, on
his retirement, he was created a peer, and in 1879-1880 he
presided over the celebrated Airey commission on army reform.
He died at the house of Lord Wolseley, at Leatherhead, on the
i4th of September 1881.

AIR-GUN, a gun in which the force employed to propel the
bullet is the elasticity of compressed atmospheric air. It has
attached to it, or constructed in it, a reservoir of compressed
air, a portion of which, liberated into the space behind the bullet
when the trigger is pulled, propels the bullet from the barrel by
its expansion. The common forms of air-gun, which are merely
toys, are charged by compressing a spiral spring, one end of
which forms a piston working in a cylinder; when released by
a pull on the trigger, this spring expands, and the air forced out
in front of it propels the bullet. Air-guns of this kind are some--
times made to resemble walking-sticks and are then known as
air-canes.

AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892), British Astro-
nomer Royal, was born at Alnwick on the 27th of July 1801. He
came of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a
family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland,
in the i4th century; but the branch to which he belonged,
having suffered in the civil wars, removed to Lincolnshire, where
for several generations they lived as farmers. George Airy was
educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards
at Colchester Grammar School. In 1819 he entered Trinity
College, Cambridge, as a sizar. Here he had a brilliant career,
and seems to have been almost immediately recognized as the
leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of
Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler
and obtained first Smith's prize. On the ist of October 1824 he
was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was ap-
pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to
Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year,
being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy
and director of the new Cambridge observatory. Some idea of
his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects
during these early years may be gathered from the fact that
previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than
three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon gave evidence of his
remarkable power of organization. The only telescope erected
in the establishment when he took it in charge was the transit
instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the
adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduc-
tion, he was able to keep his observations reduced practically up
to date, and published them annually with a degree of punctu-
ality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural
circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with
it in 1833. In the same year the duke of Northumberland pre-
sented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of
12 in. aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs
and under his superintendence, although the erection was not
completed until after his removal to Greenwich in 1835. Airy's
writings during this time are divided between mathematical

446

AIRY

physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part
concerned with questions relating to the theory of light, arising
out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially
mentioned his paper " On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with
Circular Aperture." In 1831 the Copley medal of the Royal
Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astro-
nomical writings during this period the most important are his
investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British
Association on the progress of astronomy during the ipth century,
and his memoir On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of
the Earth and Venus.

One of the sections of his able and instructive report was
devoted to " A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in
England with that in other Countries," very much to the dis-
advantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a
great extent removed by his own labours.

Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus
and the earth is in some respects his most remarkable achieve-
ment. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he
had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their con-
structor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain. Eight
times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen
times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only the
•j-J-jfth of the earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the
term depending on this difference, although very small in itself,
receives in the integration of the differential equations a multi-
plier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a
sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans, cxxii.
67). The investigation that brought about this result was
probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's
time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific
improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the
establishment of the theory of gravitation. In recognition of this
work the medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded
to him in 1833.

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succes-
sion to John Pond, and thus commenced that long career of
wisely directed and vigorously sustained industry at the national
observatory which, even more perhaps than his investigations in
abstract science or theoretical astronomy, constitutes his chief
title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his
appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first lord of the
Admiralty, considered that " it ought to be cleared out," while
Airy admitted that " it was in a queer state." With his usual
energy he set to work at once to reorganize the whole manage-
ment. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the
library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks)
equatorial and organized a new magnetic observatory. In 1847
an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observa-
tions of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but
whenever she might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex
zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed.
At the end of 1,850 the great transit circle of 8 in. aperture and
ii ft. 6 in. focal length was erected, and is still the principal
instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1 859
of an equatorial of 13 in. aperture evoked the comment in his
journal for that year, " There is not now a single person employed
or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr
Pond's time " ; and the transformation was completed by the
inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photo-
graphic registration of sun-spots in 1873.

The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated
planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830
was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became
Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further
laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations
of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under
the direction, successively, of J. Bradley, N. Bliss, N. Maskelyne
and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of
money was allotted by the Treasury. As the result, no less than
8000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were,
in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that

they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and
for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion. For
this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal
Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by
P. A. Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion.
After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before
engaging in any theoretical investigation in connexion with
them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the
subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under
the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the
death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was
danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to
the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His
request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that
Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute
Amiraute de sa Majeste la Reine de la Grande Bretagne el d'Irlande.

One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his
determination of the mean density of the earth. In 1826 the
idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of
pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine.
His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dolcoath mine
in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the
pendulums; a second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding
of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity
presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the
Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result
was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded
that at the top by 1 9 \ '8 6 th of its amount, the depth being
1256 ft. From this he was led to the final value of 6-566 for
the mean density of the earth as compared with that of water
(Phil. Trans, cxlvi. 342). This value, although considerably
in excess of that previously found by different methods, was
held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the
observations were carried out and discussed, to be " entitled to
compete with the others on, at least, equal terms."

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory
in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the
prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description
of his method will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv. No. 3. It consisted essentially
in the adoption of Delauny's final numerical expressions for
longitude, latitude and parallax, with a symbolic term attached
to each number, the value of which was to be determined by
substitution in the equations of motion. In this mode of treat-
ing the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though
the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a
younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it
might be entrusted to a mere computer. The work was published
in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some
little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that
certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly
he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers
were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to
examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a
grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps,
and pathetically adds, " My spirit in the work was broken,
and I have never heartily proceeded with it since." In 1881
Sir George Airy resigned the office of Astronomer Royal and
resided at the White House, Greenwich, not far from the
Royal Observatory, until his death, which took place on the
2nd of January 1892.

A complete list of Airy's printed papers, numbering no less
than 518, will be found in his Autobiography, edited in 1896 by
his son, Wilfrid Airy, B. A., M. Inst.C.E. Amongst the most
important of his works not already mentioned may be named the
following: — Mathematical Tracts (1826) on the Lunar Theory,
Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of
Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were adde
tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory
Light; Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpos
of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produce*
by the Iron of the Ships (1839); On the Theoretical Explanation of

AISLABIE— AISSE

447

\

an apparent new Polarity in Light (1840); Tides and Waves

(1842).

He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, its pre-
sident in 1871, and received both the Copley and Royal medals.
He was five times president of the Royal Astronomical Society,
was correspondent of the French Academy and belonged to many
other foreign and American societies. He was D.C.L. of Oxford
and LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1872 he was made
K.C.B. In the same year he was nominated a Grand Cross in
the Imperial Order of the Rose of Brazil; he also held the
Prussian Order " Pour le Merite," and belonged to the Legion of
Honour of France and to the Order of the North Star of Sweden
and Norway.

See also Proc. Roy. Society, li. I (E. J. Routh); Month. Notices
Roy. Astr. Society, Hi. 212; Observatory, xv. 74 (E. Dunkin) ;
Nature, 3ist of Oct. 1878 (A. Winnecke), 7th of Jan. 1892; The
Times, 5th of Jan. 1892; R. Grant's Hist, of Piiys. Astronomy;
R. P. Graves's Life of Sir W. Rowan Hamilton. (A. A. R.*)

AISLABIE, JOHN (1670-1742), English politician, was born
.t Goodramgate, York, on the 7th of December 1670. He was
the fourth son of George Aislabie, principal registrar of the
archiepiscopal court of York. In 1695 he was elected member
of parliament for Ripon. In 1712 he was appointed one of the
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral,
and in 1714 became treasurer of the navy, being sworn in two
years later as a member of the privy council. In March 1718
he became chancellor of the exchequer. The proposal of the
South Sea Company to pay off the national debt was strenuously
supported by Aislabie, and finally accepted in an amended
form by the House of Commons. After the collapse of that
company a secret committee of inquiry was appointed by the
Commons, and Aislabie, who had in the meantime resigned the
seals of his office, was declared guilty of having encouraged and
promoted the South Sea scheme with a view to his own ex-
orbitant profit, and was expelled the House. Though committed
to the Tower he was soon released, and was allowed to retain
the property he possessed before 1718, including his country
estate, to which he retired to pass the rest of his days. He died
. 1742.

'AISLE (from Lat. ala, a wing), a term which in its primary
:nse means the wing of a house, but is generally applied in
architecture to the lateral divisions of a church or large building,
e earliest example is that found in the basilica of Trajan,
hich had double aisles on either side of the central area; the
same number existed in the original church of St Peter's at
Rome, in the basilica at Bethlehem, and according to Eusebius
in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The aisles
are divided from the nave or central area by colonnades or
arcades, and may flank also the transept or choir, being dis-
inguished as nave-aisles, transept-aisles or choir-aisles. If
ie choir is semi-circular, and the aisles, carried round, give
cess to a series of chapels, the whole arrangement is known
the chevet. As a rule in Great Britain there is only one aisle
each side of the nave, the only exceptions being Chichester
id Elgin cathedrals, where there are two. Many European
.thedrals have two aisles on each side, as those of Paris, Bourges,
.miens, Troyes, St Sernin, Toulouse, Cologne, Milan, Seville,
bledo; and in those of Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Bourges,
;ville and Toledo, double aisles flank the choir on each side.
The cathedral at Antwerp has three aisles on each side.
In some of the churches in Germany the aisles are of the same
height as the nave. These churches are known as Hallenkirchen,
the principal examples being St Stephen's, Vienna, the Weisse-
kirche at Soest, St Martin's, Landshut, Munich cathedral, and
e Marienkirche at Danzig. (R. P. S.)

AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France,
'ormed in 1790 from portions of the old provinces of Ile-de-
France and Picardy. Area 2866 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 534,495.
It is bounded N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom
of Belgium, E. by the department of Ardennes, S.E. by that
of Marne, S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and W. by those of Oise
and Somme. The surface of the department consists of un-
dulating and well-wooded plains, intersected by

sen
arc.
The
whi.

JUfl

<e
r

numerous

valleys, and diversified in the north-east by hilly ground which
forms a part of the mountain system of the Ardennes. Its
general slope is from north-east, where the culminating point
(930 ft.) is found, to south-west, though altitudes exceeding
750 ft. are also found in the south. The chief rivers are the
Somme, the Escaut and the Sambre, which have their sources
in the north of the department; the Oise, traversing the north-
west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, the latter of
which joins it beyond the limits of the department; and the
Marne and the Ourcq in the south. The climate is in general
cold and humid, especially in the north-east. Agriculture is
highly developed; cereals, principally wheat and oats, and
beetroot are the chief crops; potatoes, flax, hemp, rape and
hops are also grown. Pasturage is good, particularly in the
north-east, where dairy-farming flourishes. Wine of medium
quality is grown on the banks of the Marne and the Aisne.
Bee-farming is of some importance. Large tracts of the depart-
ment are under wood; the chief forests are those of Nouvion
and St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre,
and Villers-Cotterets in the south. The osiers grown in the
vicinity of St Quentin supply an active basket-making industry.

Though destitute of metals Aisne furnishes abundance of
freestone, gypsum and clay. There are numerous tile and brick
works in the department. Its most important industrial estab-
lishments are the mirror manufactory of St Gobain and the
chemical works at Chauny, and the workshops and foundries
of Guise, the property of an association of workpeople organized
on socialistic lines and producing iron goods of various kinds.
The manufacture of sugar is very important; brewing, distilling,
flour-milling, iron-founding, the weaving and spinning of cotton,
wool and silk, and the manufacture of iron goods, especially
agricultural implements, are actively carried on. Aisne imports
coal, iron, cotton and other raw material and machinery; it
exports cereals, live-stock and agricultural products generally,
and manufactured goods. The department is served chiefly
by the lines of the Northern railway; in addition, the main line
of the Eastern railway to Strassburg traverses the extreme
south. The Oise, Aisne and Marne are navigable, and canals
furnish 170 m. of waterway. Aisne is divided into five
arrondissements — St Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon
in the centre, and Soissons and Chateau-Thierry in the south —
and contains 3 7 cantons and 841 communes. It forms part of the
educational division (academic) of Douai and of the region of
the second army corps, its military centre being at Amiens, where
also is its court of appeal. Laon is the capital, and Soissons
the seat of a bishopric of the province of Reims. Other important
places are Chateau-Thierry, St Quentin and Coucy-le-Chateau.
La Ferte-Milon has remains of an imposing chateau of the i4th
and 1 5th centuries with interesting fortifications. The ruined
church at Longpont (i3th century) is the relic of an import-
ant Cistercian abbey; Urcel and Mont-Notre-Dame have fine
churches, the first entirely in the Romanesque style, the second
dating from the i2th and i3th centuries, to which period the
church at Braisne also belongs. At Premontre the buildings
of the abbey, which was the cradle of the Premonstratensian
order, are occupied by a lunatic asylum.

A'JSSE- [a corruption of HAIDEE], MADEMOISELLE (c. 1694-
1733), French letter-writer, was the daughter of a Circassian
chief, and was born about 1694. Her father's palace was
pillaged by the Turks, and as a child of four years old she was
sold to the comte de Ferriol, the French ambassador at Constanti-
nople. She was brought up in Paris by Ferriol's sister-in-law
with her own sons, MM. d'Argental and Pont de Veyle. Her
great beauty and romantic history made her the fashion, and
she attracted the notice of the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans,
whose offers she had the strength of mind to refuse. She formed
a deep and lasting attachment to the Chevalier d'Aydie, by
whom she had a daughter. She died in Paris on the I3th of
March 1733. Her letters to her friend Madame Calandrini
contain much interesting information with regard to con-
temporary celebrities, especially on Mme. du Deffand and Mme.
de Tencin, but they are above all of interest in the picture they

AITON— AIX-LA-CHAPELLE

afford of the writer's own tenderness and fidelity. Her Lettres
were edited by Voltaire (1787), by J. Ravenel, with a notice
by Sainte-Beuve (1846) and by Eugene Asse (1873). Mile. Alsse
has been the subject of three plays: by A. de Lavergne and
P. Woucher (1854), by Louis Bouilhet (1872) and by Dejoux
(1898).

See also Courteault, Une Idylle au XVIII' stick, Mile. A'isse et
le Chevalier d'Aydie (Magon, 1900); and notices prefixed to the
editions of 1846 and 1873. There is an interesting essay by E. Gosse
in his French Profiles (1905).

AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793), Scottish botanist, was born
near Hamilton in 1731. Having been regularly trained to the
profession of a gardener, he travelled to London in 1754, and
became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the
Physic Garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director
of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, where he
remained until his death on the 2nd of February 1793. He
effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 he
published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants there
cultivated. A second and enlarged edition of the Hortus was
brought out in 1810-1813 by his eldest son, WILLIAM TOWNSEND
AITON (1766-1849), who succeeded him at Kew and was com-
missioned by George IV. to lay out the gardens at the Pavilion,
Brighton.

AITZEMA, LIEUWE (LEO) VAN (1600-1669), Dutch historian
and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the igth of
November 1600. In 1617 he published a volume of Latin poems
under the title of Poemata Juvenilia, of which a copy is preserved
in the British Museum. He made a special study of politics and
political science and was for thirty years resident for the towns
of the Hanseatic League at the Hague, where he died on the 23rd
of February 1669. His most important work was the Saken van
Staet in Oorlogh in ende omtrenl de Vefeenigte Nederlanden (14 vols.
4to, 1655-1671), embracing the period from 1621 to 1668. It
contains a large number of state documents, and is an invaluable
authority on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history.

Four continuations of the history, by the poet and historian
Lambert van den Bos, were published successively at Amsterdam
in 1685, 1688, 1698 and 1699. The Derde Vervolg Zijnde het vierde
Stuck van het Vervolgh op de Historic, &c., brings the history down
to 1697.

AIVALI (Gr. Kydonia), a prosperous town on the W. coast of
Asia Minor, opposite the island of Mitylene. Pop. 21,000. It
stands near the site of the Aeolian Heraclea, on rising ground at
the end of a bay which is separated from the Gulf of Adramyt-
tium, and protected from the prevailing winds by the Moschonisi
Islands (Hecatonnesoi). In 1821 it was burned to the ground
during a fight between the Turks and the Greeks, and a large
number of its Greek population killed or enslaved. It is one of
the most thriving towns in the Levant, with a purely Greek
population distinguished for its commercial, industrial and
maritime enterprise. The exports are olive oil, grain and wood,
and a fleet of fishing-boats supplies Constantinople and Smyrna
with fish; the exports in 1902 were valued at £987,070, and the
imports at £336,693.

AIWAN, the reception-hall or throne-room of a Parthian or
Sassanian palace.

AIX, a city of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Bouches-du- Rh&ne, 18 m. N. of
Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 19,433. It is situated in a plain
overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the
river. The Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted with
double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses and decorated
by three fountains, divides the town' into two portions. The
new town extends to the south, the old town with its wide but
irregular streets and its old mansions dating from the i6th,
1 7th and i8th centuries lies to the north. Aix is an important
educational centre, being the seat of the faculties of law and
letters of the university of Aix-Marseille, and the north and east
quarter of the town, where the schools and university buildings
are situated, is comparable to the Latin Quarter of Paris. The
cathedral of St Sauveur, which dates from the i ith, 1 2th and I3th
centuries, is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a

rich portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and
is flanked on the north by an uncompleted tower. The interior
contains tapestry of the i6th century and other works of art.
The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the
cathedral on its south side. The church of St Jean de Malte,
dating from the I3th century, contains some valuable pictures.
The hdtel de ville, a building in the classical style of the middle
of the 1 7th century, looks on to a picturesque square. It contains
some fine wood-work and a large library which includes many
valuable MSS. At its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected
in 1505. Aix possesses many beautiful fountains, one of which
in the Cours Mirabeau is surmounted by a statue of Rene, count
of Provence, who held a brilliant court at Aix in the i sth century.
Aix has thermal springs, remarkable for their heat and containing
lime and carbonic acid. The bathing establishment was built in
1705 near the site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which
vestiges still remain. The town, which is the seat of an arch-
bishop and court of appeal, and the centre of an academic (educa-
tional circumscription), numbers among its public institutions a
court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and
a chamber of arts and manufactures. It also has training-colleges,
a lycee, a school of art and technics, museums of antiquities,
natural history and painting, and several learned societies. The
industries include flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery,
iron-ware and hats, and the distillation of olive-oil. Trade is in
olive-oil, almonds and stone from the neighbouring quarries.

Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman
consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs. In
102 B.C. its neighbourhood was the scene of the defeat inflicted
on the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius. In the 4th century it
became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied
by the Visigoths in 477, in the succeeding century was repeatedly
plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the
Saracens in 731. Aix, which during the middle ages was the
capital of the county of Provence, did not reach its zenith until
after the i2th century, when, under the houses of Aragon and
Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning. With
the rest of Provence, it passed to the crown of France in 1487, and
in 1501 Louis XII. established there the parlement of Provence
which existed till 1789. In the I7th and i8th centuries the town
was the seat of the intendance of Provence.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Ger. Aachen, Dutch Aken), a city and
spa of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, situated in a pleasant
valley, 44 m. W. of Cologne and contiguous to the Belgian and
Dutch frontiers, to which its municipal boundaries extend. Pop.
(1885) 95,725; (1905) including Burtscheid, 143,906. Its posi-
tion, at the centre of direct railway communications with Cologne
and Diisseldorf respectively on the E. and Liege-Brussels and
Maestricht- Antwerp on the W., has favoured its rise to one of
the most prosperous commerical towns of Germany. The city
consists of the old inner town, the former ramparts of which have
been converted into promenades, and the newer outer town and
suburbs. Of the ancient gates but two remain, the Ponttor on
the N.W. and the Marschiertor on the S. Its general appearance
is that rather of a spacious modern, than of a medieval city full of
historical associations.

Of the cluster of buildings in the centre, which are conspicuous
from afar, the town hall (Rathaus) and the cathedral are specially
noteworthy. The former, standing on the south side of the market
square, is a Gothic structure, erected in 1353-1370 on the ruins of
Charlemagne's palace. It contains the magnificent coronation
hall of the emperors (143 ft. by 61 ft.), in which thirty-five
German kings and eleven queens have banqueted after the
coronation ceremony in the cathedral. The two ancient towers,
the Granusturm to the W. and the Glockenturm to the E., both
of which to a large extent had formed part of the Carolingian
palace, were all but destroyed in the fire by which the Rathaus was
seriously damaged in 1883. Their restoration was completed in
1902. Behind the Rathaus is the Grashaus, in which Richard of
Cornwall, king of the Romans, is said to have held his court. It
was restored in 1 889 to accommodate the municipal archives. The
cathedral is of great historic and architectural interest. Apart

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE

449

from the spire, which was rebuilt in 1884, it consists of two parts
of different styles and date. The older portion, the capella in
palatio, an octagonal building surmounted by a dome, was
designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna by Udo of Metz,
was begun under Charlemagne's auspices in 796 and consecrated
by Pope Leo III. in 805. After being almost entirely wrecked by
Norman raiders it was rebuilt, on the original lines, in 983, by the
emperor Otto III. It is surrounded on the first story by a sixteen-
sided gallery (the Hochmunster) adorned by antique marble arid
granite columns, of various sizes, brought by Charlemagne's
orders from Rome, Ravenna and Trier. These were removed by
Napoleon to Paris, but restored to their original positions after
the peace of 181 5. The mosaic representing Christ surrounded by
"the four-and-twenty elders," which originally lined the cupola,
had almost entirely perished by the igth century, but was re-
stored in 1882 from a copy made in the 1 7th century. Interesting
too are the magnificent west doors, cast in bronze by native
workmen in 804. Underneath the dome, according to tradition,
was the tomb of Charlemagne, which, on being opened by Otto
III. in 1000, disclosed the body of the emperor, vested in white
coronation robes and seated on a marble chair. This chair, now
placed in the gallery referred to, was used for centuries in the
imperial coronation ceremonies. The site of the tomb is marked
by a stone slab, with the inscription Carlo Magno, and above it
hangs the famous bronze chandelier presented by the emperor
Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in 1168. Charlemagne's bones are
preserved in an ornate shrine in the Hungarian Chapel, lying to
the north of the octagon. The casket was opened in 1906, at the
instance of the emperor William II., and the draperies enclosing
the body were temporarily removed to Berlin, with a view to the
reproduction of similar cloth. The Gothic choir, forming the
more modern portion of the cathedral, was added during the
latter half of the i4th and the beginning of the i sth century, and
contains the tomb of the emperor Otto III. The cathedral
possesses many relics, the more sacred of which are exhibited
only once every seven years, when they attract large crowds of
worshippers.

Of the other thirty-three churches in the city those of
St Foillan (founded in the I2th century, but twice rebuilt, in
the i sth and i7th centuries, and restored in 1883) and St Paul,
with its beautiful stained-glass windows, are remarkable. In
addition to those already mentioned, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses
several fine secular buildings: the Suermondt museum, con-
taining besides other miscellaneous exhibits the fine collection
of pictures by early German, Dutch and Flemish masters,
presented to the town by Bartholomaus Suermondt (d. 1887);
the public Library; the theatre; the post-office; and the fine
new central railway station. Among the schools may be men-
tioned the magnificently equipped Rhenish- Westphalian Poly-
technic School (built 1865-1870) and the school of mining and
electricity, founded in 1897.

There are many fine streets and squares and some handsome
public monuments, notably among the last the fountain on the
market square surmounted by a statue of Charlemagne, the
bronze equestrian statue of the emperor William I. facing the
theatre, the Kriegerdenkmal (a memorial to those who fell in
the war of 1870) and the Kongress-Denkmal, a marble hall in
antique style erected in 1844 on the Adalberts-Steinweg to
commemorate the famous congress of 1818 (see below). Of the
squares, the principal is the Friedrich-Wilhelmplatz, on which
lies the Eiisenbrunnen with its colonnade and garden, the chief
resort of visitors taking the baths and waters.

The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle were known to the
Romans and have been celebrated for centuries as specific in
the cure of rheumatism, gout and scrofulous disorders. There
are six in all, of which the Kaiserquelle, with a temperature of
136° F., is the chief. In the neighbouring Burtscheid (in-
; corporated in 1897 with Aix-la-Chapelle) are also springs of
far higher temperature, and this suburb, which has also a
Kurgarten, is largely frequented during the season.

In respect of trade and industry Aix-la-Chapelle occupies a

Kce. Its cloth and silk manufactures are important, and

owing to the opening up of extensive coalfields in the district
almost every branch of iron industry is carried on. It has some
large breweries and manufactories of chemicals, and does a
considerable trade in cereals, leather, timber and wine. It is
also an important banking centre and has several insurance
societies of reputation.

The country immediately surrounding Aix-la-Chapelle presents
many attractive features. From the Lousberg and the Salvator-
berg to the north, the latter crowned by a chapel, magnificent
views of the city are obtained; while covering the hills 2 m.
west stretches the Stadtwald, a forest with charming walks and
drives.

History. — Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum of the Romans,
named after Apollo Granus, who was worshipped in connexion
with hot springs. As early as A.D. 765 King Pippin had a
" palace " here, in which it is probable that Charlemagne was
born. The greatness of Aix was due to the latter, who between
777 and 786 built a magnificent palace on the site of that of his
father, raised the place to the rank of_the second city of the
empire, and made it for a while the centre of Western culture
and learning. From the coronation of Louis the Pious in 813
until that of Ferdinand I. in 1 531 the sacring of the German kings
took place at Aix, and as many as thirty-two emperors and kings
were here crowned. In 851, and again in 882, the place was
ravaged by the Northmen in their raids up the Rhine. It was
not, however, till late in the I2th century (1172-1176) that
the city was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor
Frederick I., to whom (in 1 166) and to his grandson Frederick II.
(in 1215) it owed its first important civic rights. These were
still further extended in 1250 by the anti-Caesar William of
Holland, who had made himself master of the place and of the
imperial regalia, after a long siege, in 1248. The liberties of the
burghers were, however, still restrained by the presence of a
royal advocatus (Vogt) and bailiff. In 1300 the outer ring of
walls was completed, the earlier circumvallation being marked
by the limit of the Altstadt (old city). In the i4th century Aix,
now a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, played a conspicuous
part, especially in the league which, between 1351 and 1387, kept
the peace between the Meuse and the Rhine. In 1450 an in-
surrection led to the admission of the gilds to a share in the
municipal government. In the i6th century Aix began to
decline in importance and prosperity. It lay too near the
French frontier to be safe, and too remote from the centre of
Germany to be convenient, as a capital; and in 1562 the election
and coronation of Maximilian II. took place at Frankfort-on-
Main, a precedent followed till the extinction of the Empire.
The Reformation, too, brought its troubles. In 1580 Pro-
testantism got the upper hand; the ban of the empire followed
and was executed by Ernest of Bavaria, archbishop-elector of
Cologne in 1 598. A relapse of the city led to a new ban of the
emperor Matthias in 1613, and in the following year Spinola's
Spanish troops brought back the recalcitrant city to the Catholic
fold. In 1656 a great fire completed the ruin wrought by the
religious wars. By the treaty of Luneville (1801) Aix was in-
corporated with France as chief town of the department of the
Roer. By the congress of Vienna it was given to Prussia.
The contrast between the new regime and the ancient tradition
of the city was curiously illustrated in 1818 by a scene described
in Metternich's Memoirs, when, before the opening of the
congress, Francis I., emperor of Austria, regarded by all Ger-
many as the successor of the Holy Roman emperors, knelt at
the tomb of Charlemagne amid a worshipping crowd, while the
Protestant Frederick William III. of Prussia, the new sovereign
of the place, stood in the midst, " looking very uncomfortable."

See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt Aachen (1841); Pick, Aus Aachens
Vergangenheit (Aachen, 1895); Bock, Karls des grossen Pjalzkapellt
(Cologne, 1867); and Beissel, Aachen als Kurort (1889).

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESSES OF. Three congresses
have been held at Aix-la-Chapelle: the first in 1668, the
second in 1748, the third in 1818.

i. The treaty of the 2nd of May 1668, which put an end t.o
the War of Devolution, was the outcome of that of St Germain

450

AIX-LES-BAINS— AIYAR

signed on the isth of April by France and the representatives
of the powers of the Triple Alliance. The treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle left to France all the conquests made in Flanders
during the campaign of 1667, with all their " appartenances,
dtpendances et annexes." a vague provision of which, after the
peace of Nijmwegen (1680), Louis XIV. took advantage to
occupy a number of villages and towns adjudged to him by his
Chambres de reunion as dependencies of the cities and territories
acquired in 1668. On the other hand, France restored to Spain
the cities of Cambrai, Aire and Saint-Omer, as well as the pro-
vince of Franche Comte. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was
placed under the guarantee of Great Britain, Sweden and
Holland, by a convention signed at the Hague on the 7th of
May 1669, to which Spain acceded.

See Jean du Mont, baron de Carlscroon, Corps universel diplo-
matique (Amst., 1726-1731).

2. On the 24th of April 1748 a congress assembled at Aix-la-
Chapelle for the purpose of bringing to a conclusion the struggle
known as the War of Austrian Succession. Between the 3oth of
April and the aist of May the preliminaries were agreed to
between Great Britain, France and Holland, and to these Maria
Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, the kings of Sardinia
and Spain, the duke of Modena, and the republic of Genoa
successively gave their adhesion. The definitive treaty was
signed on the i8th of October, Sardinia alone refusing to accede,
because the treaty of Worms was not guaranteed. Of the
provisions of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the most important
were those stipulating for (i) a general restitution of conquests,
including Cape Breton to France, Madras to England and the
barrier towns to the Dutch; (2) the assignment to Don Philip
of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla; (3) the
restoration of the duke of Modena and the republic of Genoa to
their former positions; (4) the renewal in favour of Great
Britain of the Asiento contract of the i6th of March 1713, and
of the right to send an annual vessel to the Spanish colonies;
(5) the renewal of the article of the treaty of 1718 recognizing
the Protestant succession in the English throne; (6) the recog-
nition of the emperor Francis and the confirmation of the
pragmatic sanction, i.e. of the right of Maria Theresa to the
Habsburg succession; (7) the guarantee to Prussia of the duchy
of Silesia and the county of Glatz.

Spain having raised objections to the Asiento clauses, the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by that of Madrid
(Sth of October 1750), by which Great Britain surrendered her
claims under those clauses in return for a sum of £100,000.

See A. J. H. de Clercq, Recueil des traites de la France; F. A.
Wenk, Corpus juris gentium recentissimi, 1735-1772, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
1786), jp. 337; Comte G. de Garden, Hist, des traites de paix, 1848-
1887, in. p. 373-

3. The congress or conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, held in the
autumn of 1818, was primarily a meeting of the four allied
powers — Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia — to decide
the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from
France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced
in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards
each other, and collectively towards France. The congress, of
which the first session was held on the ist of October, was
attended by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, the emperor
Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of Prussia, in
person. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh and
the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by
Counts Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode, Prussia by Prince Harden-
berg and Count Bernstorff. The due de Richelieu, by favour of
the allies, was present on behalf of France. The evacuation
of France was agreed to in principle at the first session, the
consequent treaty being signed on the 9th of October. The
immediate object of the conference being thus readily disposed
of, the time of the congress was mainly occupied in discussing
the form to be taken by the European alliance, and the " military
measures," if any, to be adopted as a precaution against a fresh
outburst on the part of France. The proposal of the emperor
Alexander I. to establish a " universal union of guarantee " on
the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke

down on the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and
the main outcome of the congress was the signature, on the
iSth of November, of two instruments: (i) a secret protocol
confirming and renewing the quadruple alliance established by
the treaties of Chaumont and Paris (of the 2oth of November
1815) against France; (2) a public "declaration " of the in-
tention of the powers to maintain their intimate union,
" strengthened by the ties of Christian brotherhood," of which
the object was the preservation of peace on the basis of respect
for treaties. The secret protocol was communicated in confi-
dence to Richelieu; to the declaration France was invited
publicly to adhere.

Besides these questions of general policy, the congress con-
cerned itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the
hurried winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had
arisen since. Of these the most important were the questions
as to the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the slave-
trade and the Barbary pirates. In neither case was any decision
arrived at, owing (i) to the refusal of the other powers to agree
with the British proposal for a reciprocal right of search on
the high seas; (2) to the objection of Great Britain to inter-
national action which would have involved the presence of a
Russian squadron in the Mediterranean. In matters of less
importance the congress was more unanimous. Thus, on the
urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of Sweden
(Bernadotte) received a peremptory summons to carry out the
terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector of Hesse
to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected; and
measures were taken to redress the grievances of the German
mediatized princes. The more important outstanding questions
in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after consideration
reserved for a further conference to be called at Frankfort. In
addition to these a great variety of questions were considered,
from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St Helena, to the
grievances of the people of Monaco against their prince and the
position of the Jews in Austria and Prussia. An attempt made
to introduce the subject of the Spanish colonies was defeated
by the opposition of Great Britain. Lastly, certain vexatious
questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once for all (see
DIPLOMACY). The congress, which broke up at the end of
November, is of historical importance mainly as marking the
highest point reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an
international committee of the powers. The detailed study of
its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost
insurmountable obstacles to any really effective international
system.

AUTHORITIES. — F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent,
Aix-la-Chapelle, To and from Viscount Castlereagh'); State Papers;
G. F. de Martens, Nouveau recueil de traites, &c. (Gottingen,
1817-1842); F. de Martens, Recueil des traites conclus par la
Russie, &c. (1874 in progr.); F. von Gentz, Depeches inedites,
&c., ed. Baron Prokesch-Osten, 3 vols. (1876-1877); Metter-
nich, Memoirs; Wellington, Suppl. Despatches; Castlereagh,
Correspondence, &c. (W. A. P.)

AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of
Savoie, near the Lac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chambe'ry.
Pop. (1001) 4741. It is 846 ft. above the level of the sea. It
was a celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquae
Gratianae, in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerous
ancient remains. The hot springs, which are of sulphureous
quality, and have a temperature of from 109° to 113° F., are
still much frequented, attracting annually many thousands of
visitors. They are used for drinking as well as for bathing
purposes.

AIYAR, SIR SHESHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of
Mysore, India, was the son of. a Brahman of Palghat in the
district of Malabar. He was educated at the provincial school
at Calicut and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the
government service as a translator. In 1868 he was transferred
to Mysore under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled
various offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to
native rule in i88i,he became personal assistant to Runga Charlu,
whom hesucceededasdiwaniniSSs. For the next seventeen years

AIYAR— AJANTA

sw;

£

he laboured assiduously to promote the economic and industrial
development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the
Maharaja Chamarajendra. By means of railway, irrigation and
mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and
put it on a sound financial footing. He retired in 1900, was
made K. C.S.I, in 1893 and died on the i3th of September 1901.

AIYAR, SIR TIRUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895),
native Indian judge of the high court of Madras, was born of
poor parents in the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the
z8th of January 1832. His widowed mother was forced by
poverty to remove with Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar,
where the former learnt Tamil, and soon set to work under the
village accountant at a monthly salary of one rupee. About
this time he lost his mother, whose memory he cherished with
reverence and affection to the last. His duty took him to the
court-house of the tehsildar, Mr Naiken, who soon remarked
his extraordinary intelligence and industry. There was an
English school at Tiruvarar, where Mutuswamy managed to
pick up an elementary knowledge of the English language.
Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's school
at Madras, as a companion to his nephew, and there he won
prizes and scholarships year after year. , In 1854 he won a prize
of 500 rupees offered to the students of the Madras presidency
by the council of education for the best English essay. This
success brought him to the notice of Sir Alexander Arbuthnot
and Mr Justice Holloway. He was offered help to proceed to
England and compete for the civil service, but being a Brahman
and married, he declined to cross the ocean. Instead he entered
the subordinate government service, and was employed in such
various posts as school-teacher, record-keeper in Tanjore, and
in 1856 deputy-inspector of schools. At this time the Madras
authorities instituted the examination for the office of pleaders,
and Mutuswamy came out first in the first examination, even
beating Sir T. Madhavarao, his senior by many years. Mutu-
iwamy was then appointed in succession district munsiff at
•anquebar, deputy-collector in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of
tuth Kanara in 1865, and a magistrate of police at Madras
in 1868. While serving in the last post he passed the examination
for the degree of bachelor of laws of the local university. He
was next employed as a judge of the Madras small causes court,
until in 1878 he was raised to the bench of the high court, which
office he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen
years, sometimes acting as the chief justice. He attended by
invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in
1877. In 1878 he received the honour of C.I.E. and in 1893 the
K.C.I.E. was conferred on him. But he did not live long to
enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895. Mutuswamy was
too devoted to his offical work to give much time to other
pursuits. Still he took his full share in the affairs of the Madras
university, of which he was nominated a fellow in 1872 and a
syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with English law,
literature and philosophy. He was through life a staunch
Brahman, devout and amiable in character, with a taste for
ancient music of India and the study of the Vedas and other
ipartments of Sanskrit literature.

AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the
and, 210 m. S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 19,021. Ajaccio
:upies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the
Tthern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour, lying to
the east of the town, is protected on the south by a peninsula
which carries the citadel and terminates in the Citadel jetty;
to the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte,
a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the
mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thorough-
fares converging to the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean
and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance. The
house in which Napoleon I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and
his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by
street-names and statues. The other buildings, including the
cathedral of the i6th century, are of little interest. The town
is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century
d of a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of com-

merce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a
library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch,
founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.
Ajaccio has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and
similar products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing
and coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins,
chestnuts and gallic acid. The port is accessible by the largest
ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In 1 904 there entered
603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels
with a tonnage of 202,502. The present town of Ajaccio lies
about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it
was transferred by the Genoese in 1492. Occupied from 1553
to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the treaty
of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year. The town finally passed
to the French in 1768. Since 1810 it has been capital of the
department of Corsica.

AJAI6ARH, or ADJYGURH, a native state of India, in Bun-
delkhand, under the Central India agency. It has an area of
771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236. The chief,
who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai maharaja.
He has an estimated revenue of about £15,000, and pays a tribute
of £460. He resides at the town of Naushahr, at the foot of
the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state takes its name.
This fort is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 ft. above
the town of the same name; and contains the ruins of temples
adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. It was captured
by the British in 1809. The town is subject to malaria. The
state suffered severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again
in 1896-1897.

AJANTA (more properly AJUNTHA) , a village in the dominions
of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India (N. lat. 20° 32' by E. long.
75° 48'), celebrated for its cave hermitages and halls. The caves
are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 35 m. from the village.
Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wagura, a moun-
tain stream, which forces its way into the valley over a bluff
on the east, and forms in its descent a beautiful waterfall,
or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft. high, the sound of which
must have been constantly audible to the dwellers in the
caves. These are about thirty in number, excavated in the
south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine, and vary from
35 to no ft. in elevation above the bed of the torrent. The caves
are of two kinds — dwelling-halls and meeting-halls. The former,
as one enters from the pathway along the sides of the cliff, have
a broad verandah, its roof supported by pillars, and giving
towards the interior on to a hall averaging in size about 35 ft.
by 20 ft. To left and right, and at the back, dormitories are
excavated opening on to this hall, and in the centre of the back,
facing the entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands
in a niche. The number of dormitories varies according to the
size of the hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof
on all three sides, forming a sort of cloister running round the
hall. The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as
far as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 943 ft. from
the verandah to the back, and 415 ft. across, including the
cloister. They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings of
the Buddhist Order. The caves are in three groups, the oldest
group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D.20O, the second
group belonging, approximately, to the 6th, and the third group
to the 7th century A.D. Most of the interior walls of the caves
were covered with fresco paintings, of a considerable degree of
merit, and somewhat in the style of the early Italian painters.
When first discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair
state of preservation, but they have since been allowed to go
hopelessly to ruin. Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay,
especially under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in
colours a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared,
and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been made.
These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence we now
have of pictorial art in India before the rise of Hinduism. The
expression " Cave Temples " used by Anglo-Indians of such
halls is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery.
Hsiian Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the celebrated Buddhist

AJAX— AJMERE

452

philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books
on logic, resided there. In its prime the settlement must have
afforded accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and
pupils combined. Very few of the frescoes have been identified,
but two are illustrations of stories in Arya Sura's Jataka Mala,
as appears from verses in Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath
them.

See J. Burgess and Bhagwanlal Indraji, Inscriptions from the Case
Temples of Western India (Bombay, 1881); J. Fergusson and
J. Burgess, Cave Temples of Indiz (London, 1880); J. Griffiths,
Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta (London, 2 vols.,
1896-1897). (T. W. R. D.)

AJAX (Gr. Alas), a Greek hero, son of Oueus, king of Locris,
called the " lesser " or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from
Ajax, son of Telamon. In spite of his small stature, he held his
own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next
to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear.
But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Tela-
monian Ajax, he was the enemy of Odysseus, and in the end the
victim of the vengeance of Athene, who wrecked his ship on his
homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv. 409). A later story gives a more
definite account of the offence of which he was guilty. It is said
that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force
from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as
a suppliant, and even violated her (Lycopkron, 360, Quintus
Smyrnaeus xiii. 422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm
on the coast of Euboea. and he himself was struck by lightning
(Virgil, A en. i. 40). He was said to have lived after his death in
the island of Leuke. He was worshipped as a national hero by
the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always
left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when
drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy
by Sophocles. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently
represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest of
Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works.

AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of
ancient Greece, To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Ofleus. he
was called the " great " or Telamonian Ajax. In Homer's Iliad
he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, second only
to Achilles in strength and bravery, and the " bulwark of the
Achaeans." He engaged Hector in single combat and, with the
aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles from the hands of the
Trojans. In the competition between him and Odysseus for
the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at the instigation of Athene,
awarded the prize to Odysseus. This so enraged Ajax that it
caused his death (Odyssey, xL 541). According to a later and
more definite story, his disappointment drove him mad; he
rushed out of his tent and fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp
under the impression that they were the enemy; on coming to
his senses, he slew himself with the sword which he had received
as a present from Hector. This is the account of his death given
in the Ajax of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. i).
From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus,
which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name AI, also
expressive of lament (Pausanias L 35. 4). His ashes were de-
posited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the
entrance of the Hellespont. Like Achilles, he is represented as
living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the
Danube (Pausanias iii. 19. n). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric
legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-
grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis,
where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called
Aianteia was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this
festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was
placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Itctisternium. The
identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a
mat ter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come in to
their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted
a line in the Iliad (ii. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting
the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic
hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the
market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name.

Many illustrious Athenians — Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades. the
historian Thucydides — traced their descent from Ajax.

See D. Bassi, La Leggenda di Aiace Tdamonio (1890); P. Girard,
" Ajax, fits de Telamon. ' 1905, in Rome des etudes grecques, tome 18;
J. Vurtheim, De Ajacis Origine, Cultu, Patria (Leiden, 1907), accord-
ing to whom he and Ajax Oileus, as depicted in epos, were originally
one, a Locrian daemon somewhat resembling the giants. When this
spirit put on human form and became known at the Saroaic Gulf, he
developed into the " greater " Ajax, while among the Locrians he
remained the " lesser. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 13 (from a
black-figured Corinthian vase) represents the suicide of Ajax.

AJMERE, or AJMER, a city of British India in Rajputaaa,
which gives its name to a district and also to a petty province
called Ajmere-Meirwara. It is situated in 26° a/ N. lat and

0 44' E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the
Aravalli mountains. To the north of the city is a large artificial
lake called the Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place
is derived.

The chief object of interest is the darga, or tomb of a famous
Mahommedan saint named Mayud-uddin. It is situated at the
foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of white
marble buildings without much pretension to architectural
beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress,
performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance with
the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a son. The
large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to
mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still
extant. An ancient Jain temple, now converted into a Mahom-
medan mosque, is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hul
With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the
whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are
not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any
remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no
two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the
execution of the ornaments. The summit of Taragarh hill, over-
hanging Ajmere, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements
of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walk
are 2 m. in circumference, and the fort can only be approached
by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort
and the outworks, and by the hfll to the west. On coming into
the hands of the F.nglish, the fort was dismantled by order of
Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a sanatorium
for the troops at Nasirabad. Ajmere was founded about the
year 145 A.D. by Aji, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty
which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of
fortune) while the repeated waves of Maliommedan invasion
swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the
crown of Delhi in 1193. Its internal government, however, was
handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy
tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi
till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509
the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of
Mewar and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered in 1 53 2 by the
latter prince, who in bis turn in 1559 had to give way before the
emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Moguls, witk
occasional revolts, tifl 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas,
from which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of
a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar
and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the
Mahrattas. In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British in return for
a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed
unbroken peace and a stable government.

The modern city is an important station on the Rajputan*
railway, 615 m. from Bombay and 275 m. from Delhi, wftfc
a branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main
line. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome
houses. The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium,
former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar lake and
Ramsur. Oil-making is also a profitable branch of trade. Cotto
cloths are manufactured to some extent, for the dyeing of whh
the city has attained a high reputation. The educational instittt
tions include the Mayo Rajkumar college, opened in
training the sons of the nobles of Rajputana, on the lines of an

AJMERE-MERWARA— AKABA

453

English public school. Population (1901) 73,839, showing an
increase of 10 % in the decade.

The DISTRICT OF AJMERE, which forms the largest part of the
province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 sq. m. The
eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by
gentle undulations, but the western parts, from north-west to
south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli range. Many of
the valleys in this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occa-
sional oasis of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile
cts; among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmere.
i valley, however, is not only fortunate in possessing a noble
ficial lake, but is protected by the massive walls of the Nag-

ithar range or Serpent rock, which forms a barrier against the

ad. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its

Ishoots. Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas
ng the only stream which can be dignified with that name,

nd it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district
as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams
— the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai — also intersect the
district. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks.
The population in 1901 was 7453, showing a decrease of
13 % in the decade. Besides the city of Ajmere, the district
contains the military station of Nasirabad, with a population
of 22,494.

AJMERE-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British
India, in Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of Ajmere
and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated amid
native states. The administration is in the hands of a commis-
sioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for Rajputana.
The capital is Ajmere city. The area is 2710 sq. m. The
plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere, may be
considered as the highest point in the plains of Hindustan;
from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away
on every side — towards river valleys on the east, south, west and
towards the desert region on the north. The Aravalli range is
the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills
which runs between Ajmere and Nasirabad marks the watershed
of the continent of India. The rain which falls on one side
drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that
which falls on the other side into the Luni, which discharges
itself into the Runn of Cutch. The province is on the border of
what may be called the arid " zone " ; it is the debatable land
between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and
beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps
up the Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the table-
land at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and
Kotah and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal
river. The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are de-
prived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those
countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited
on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains,
leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and
still less for Ajmere. It is only when the monsoon is in con-
siderable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it.
The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges
from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Raj-
putana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude
of Ajmere. On the varying strength of these two monsoons the
rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist in Ajmere-
Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in succession,
province subject to such conditions can hardly be free from
tine or scarcity for any length of time; accordingly it was
risited by two famines, one of unprecedented severity, and one
scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901. In June 1900 the number of
persons in receipt of relief was 143,000, being more than one-
fourth of the total population.

Q 1901 the population was 476,912, showing a decrease of

2% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Among
Hindus, the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are
cultivators. The Jains are traders and money-lenders. The
aboriginal tribe of Mers are divided between Hindus and Mahom-
medans. The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and oil-

seeds. There are several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kekri.

AJODHYA, an ancient city of India, the prehistoric capital
of Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces. It is
situated on the right bank of the Gogra. In the present day the
old city has almost entirely disappeared, and its site is marked
only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity Ajodhya was
one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian cities. It is
said to have covered an area of 56 m., and was the capital of
the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the great king Dasaratha,
the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar line in descent from Raja
Manu. The opening chapters of the Ramayana recount the
magnificence of the city, the glories of the monarch and the
virtues, wealth and loyalty of his people. Dasaratha was the
father of Rama Chandra, the hero of the epic. A period of
Buddhist supremacy followed the death of the last king of the
Solar dynasty. On the revival of Brahmanism Ajodhya was
restored by King Vikramaditya (c. 57 B.C.). Kosala is also
famous as the early home of Buddhism, and of the kindred
religion of Jainism, and claims to be the birthplace of the
founders of both these faiths. The Chinese traveller, Hsiian
Tsang, in the 7th century, found 20 Buddhist temples with
3000 monks at Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical popu-
lation. The modern town of Ajodhya contains 96 Hindu temples
and 36 Mussulman mosques. Little local trade is carried on,
but the great fair of Ramnami held every year is attended by
about 500,000 people.

AKABA, GULF OF, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity, the
eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates
near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petraea
in a N.N.E. direction, from 28° to 29° 32' N., a distance of
loo m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 m. The entrance
is contracted by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage
is rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is dangerous
on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden squalls
which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, many of which
rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 ft. The gulf is a con-
tinuation southward of the Jordan-' Araba depression. Raised
beaches on the coast show that there has been a considerable
elevation of the sea-bed. The only well-sheltered harbour
is that of Dahab (the Golden Port) on its western shore,
about 33 m. from the entrance and 29 m. E. of Mount
Sinai. Near the head of the gulf is Jeziret Faraun (medieval
Graye), a rocky islet with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin
I. (c. 1115).

About 25 m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern side
is the TOWN OF AKABA, with a picturesque medieval castle, built
for the protection of pilgrims on their way from Egypt to Mecca.
In the neighbourhood are extensive groves of date palms, and
there is an ample supply of good water. Akaba is of considerable
historical interest and of great antiquity, being the Elath or
Eloth of the Bible, and one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet
sailed to Ophir. By the Romans, who made it a military post,
it was called Aelana. It continued to be the seat of great
commercial activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who
corrupted the name to Haila or Ailat. In the loth century an
Arab geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and
the emporium of the Hejaz. In the I2th century the town
suffered at the hands of Saladin and thereafter fell into decay.
In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together with the
Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt. At that time Egyptian
pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers. In 1892, on the
accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed possession
of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted the land route
to Mecca in favour of a sea passage. In 1906 the construction
was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to the Mecca railway
and thus giving through communication with Beirut. Early
in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a village at the
mouth of a small stream 8 m. by land W. by S. of Akaba, near
which is the site, not identified, of the Ezion-Geber of Scripture,
another of the ports whence the argosies of the Israelites sailed.
Taba being on the Egyptian side of the frontier, Great Britain

454

AKA HILLS— AKENSIDE

intervened on behalf of Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the
withdrawal of the Turks.

AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas. It
lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and Assam,
and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on the west
by independent Bhutia tribes. The Aka country is very difficult
of access, the direct road from the plains leading along the
precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which divides the Aka
from the Daphla country. The Akas are a brave people, and
the men are strong and well-made. Their reputation as raiders
is sufficiently shown in the division of the tribe into two clans,
the Hazari-khoas or " eaters of a thousand hearths," and the
Kapah-chors or "thieves that lurk in the cotton fields." In
the early years of British occupation, about 1829, they gave
much trouble; and in 1883 they broke out once more into their
old habits. They raided into the British district of Darrang
and carried off several native forest officers as hostages. An
expedition was sent against them under General Sale Hill with
860 troops, which was completely successful. All its objects
were satisfactorily accomplished, namely, the recovery of the
captives, the surrender of all firearms, the payment of the fine
inflicted by government, the complete submission of the tribe
and the survey of the country.

AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated between
the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's dominions.
It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has a cool and agree-
able climate. Area 498 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 82,047, showing
an increase of 8 % in the decade. Estimated revenue, £26,586;
the tribute is £1000. The chief, who is a Mahratta of the
Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on a pension, while the state is
under British management.

The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian Penin-
sula railway, which traverses the state. Pop. 8348.

AKBAR, AKHBAR or AKBER, JELLALADIN MAHOMMED
(154 2-1 605), one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors.
He was born at Umarkot in Sind on the i4th of October 1542, his
father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short
time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve
years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however,
he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar suc-
ceeded his father in 1556 under the regency of Baira'n Khan, a
Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the
throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army,
tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered
empire. Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel;
and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary
to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he did
by a proclamation issued in March 1 560. The discarded regent
lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to establish an
independent principality in Malwa, but at last he was forced to
cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor not only freely
pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him the choice of a
high place in the army or a suitable escort for a pilgrimage to
Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar
ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly
been comprised within the Mogul empire owned his authority, and
he devoted himself with great determination and success to the
recovery of the revolted provinces. Over each of these, as it was
restored, he placed a governor, whom he superintended with
vigilance and wisdom. He tried by every means to develop and
encourage commerce; he had the land accurately measured for
the purpose of rightly adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest
instructions to prevent extortion on the part of the taxgatherers,
and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and equit-
able policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of
Akbar's reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had
lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection
only as before, but to a great degree of peace, order and content-
ment. Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the
chief difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords

perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation.
In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclu-
siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. Scepti-
cism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to seek the true
religion in an eclectic system. He accordingly set himself to
obtain information about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting
that the Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and
listened to them with intelligent attention when they came. As
the result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure deism and
a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The religion thus
founded, however, having no vital force, never spread beyond the
limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But though his
eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration which originated it
produced in other ways many important results, and, indeed,
may be said to have done more to establish Akbar's power on a
secure basis than all his economic and social reforms. He con-
ciliated the Hindus by giving them freedom of worship; while at
the same time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brah-
manical practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning of
widows against their will. He also abolished all taxes upon
pilgrims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and the
capitation tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds.
Measures like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of
" Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to be held up as a model
to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of religious
toleration have only too seldom followed his example.

Akbar was a munificent patron of literature. He established
schools throughout his empire for the education of both Hindus
and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of literary
talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers Feizi and
Abul Fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate
a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the
latter (see ABUL FAZL) has left, in the Akbar-Nameh, an enduring
record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar em-
ployed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four
Gospels into Persian.

The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy
by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the
victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim, afterwards the
emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion against his father.
These calamities were keenly felt by Akbar, and may even
have tended to hasten his death, which occurred at Agra on the
1 5th of October 1605. His body was deposited in a magnificent
mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra.

See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (" Rulers of India " series), 1890.

AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town
lies 42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to Andkhui. It is
protected by a mud wall and a citadel. Estimated population
8000, chiefly Uzbegs. The khanate is small, but well watered and
populous. The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no
longer reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and
into these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on
the slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood.

AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
Elbe, 25 m. E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to Cothen
(8 m.). Pop. (1900) 7358. It has manufactures of cloth,
leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large quantities of
beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and there is
a considerable transit trade on the Elbe.

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770), English poet and physician,
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the gth of November 1721.
He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his life
from a wound he received as a child from his father's cleaver.
All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending the free
school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the town,
he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to study theology with a view
to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from a special
fund set aside by the dissenting community for the education
of their pastors. He had already contributed " The Virtuoso,
in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza " (173?) to the Gentle-
man's Magazine, and in 1738 " A British Philippic, occasioned
by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the present Preparations

AKERMAN— AKHALTSIKH

455

for War" (also published separately). After he had spent
one winter as a student of theology, he entered his name as a
student of medicine. He repaid the money that had been
advanced for his theological studies, and with this change of
mind he seems to have drifted to a mild deism. His politics,
says Dr Johnson, were characterized by an " impetuous eager-
ness to subvert and confound, with very little care what shall
be established," and he is caricatured in the republican doctor
of Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. He was elected a member of
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 1740. His ambitions
already lay outside his profession, and his gifts as a speaker
made him hope one day to enter parliament. In 1740 he printed
his " Ode on the Winter Solstice " in a small volume of poems.
In 1741 he left Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call
himself surgeon, though it is doubtful whether he practised,
and from the next year dates his life-long friendship with Jere-
miah Dyson (1722-1776). During a visit to Morpeth in 1738
he had conceived the idea of his didactic poem, " The Pleasures
of the Imagination." He had already acquired a considerable
literary reputation when he came to London about the end of

1 743, and offered the work to Dodsley for £i 20. Dodsley thought
the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms after submitting
the MS. to Pope, who assured him that this was " no everyday
writer." The three books of this poem appeared in January

1744. His aim, Akenside tells us in the preface, was " not so
much to give formal precepts, or enter into the way of direct
argumentation, as, by exhibiting the most engaging prospects
of nature, to enlarge and harmonize the imagination, and by
that means insensibly dispose the minds of men to a similar
taste and habit of thinking in religion, morals and civil life."
Akenside's powers fell short of this lofty design; his imagination
was not brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent
in a poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work
was well received by the general public. His success was not
unchallenged. Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was
" above the middling," but " often obscure and unintelligible

id too much infected with the Hutchinson1 jargon."
Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third
book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read
a reflexion on himself. Accordingly he attacked the author
of the Pleasures of the Imagination — which was published
anonymously — in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several
Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton . . . (1744).
This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the
Rev. Mr Warburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand.
It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a
medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had
completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento
foetus humani, and received his diploma. Returning to England
he attempted without success to establish a practice in North-
ampton. In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio, attacking
William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having abandoned
his liberal principles to become a supporter of the government,
and in the next year he produced a small volume of Odes on
Several Subjects, in the preface to which he lays claim to correct-
ness and a careful study of the best models. His friend Dyson
had meanwhile left the bar, and had become, by purchase,
clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside had come to London
and was trying to make a practice at Hampstead. Dyson took
a house there, and did all he could to further his friend's interest
in the neighbourhood. But Akenside's arrogance and pedantry
frustrated these efforts, and Dyson then took a house for him
in Bloomsbury Square, making him independent of his profession
by an allowance stated to have been £300 a year, but probably
greater, for it is asserted that this income enabled him to " keep
a chariot," and to live " incomparably well." In 1746 he wrote
his much-praised "Hymn to the Naiads," and he also became
a contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical
Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote

The reference is to Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), author of
an Inquiry into the Original oj our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue

himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was an acute
and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge
in 1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and
fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian
lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian
lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration. In January 1759
he was appointed assistant physician, and two months later
principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was charged
with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his unsym-
pathetic character prevented the success to which his undeniable
learning and ability entitled him. At the accession of George III.
both Dyson and Akenside changed their political opinions,
and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was rewarded by
the appointment of physician to the queen. Dyson became
secretary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, and in 1774
privy councillor and cofferer to the household.

Akenside died on the 23rd of June 1770, at his house in
Burljngton Street, where the last ten years of his life had been
spent. His friendship with Dyson puts his character in the most
amiable light. Writing to his friend so early as 1 744, Akenside
said that the intimacy had " the force of an additional conscience,
of a new principle of religion," and there seems to have been no
break in their affection. He left all his effects and his literary
remains to Dyson, who issued an edition of his poems in 1772.
This included the revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination,
on which the author was engaged at his death. The first book
of this work defines the powers of imagination and discusses
the various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception
of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from
philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in
the study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the
mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence of
imagination on morals. The ideas were largely borrowed from
Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord Shaftesbury.
Professor Dowden complains that " his tone is too high-pitched;
his ideas are too much in the air; they do not nourish them-
selves in the common heart, the common life of man." Dr
Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but found fault
with the long and complicated periods. Akenside's verse was
better when it was subjected to severer metrical rules. His
odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict sense, but they are
dignified and often musical, while the few " inscriptions " he
has left are felicitous in the extreme.

The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared
(1834) by Alexander Dyce for theAldine Edition of the BritishPoets,
and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues of the series.
See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his edition, also Johnson's
Lives of the Poets, and the Life, Writings and Genius of Akenside
(1832) by Charles Bucke.

AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1806-1873), English antiquarian,
distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was
born in Wiltshire. He became early known in connexion with
his favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in
1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the
newly established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected
secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which he was
compelled to resign in 1860 on account. of failing health. Akerman
published a considerable number of works on his special subject,
the more important being a Catalogue of Roman Coins (1839);
a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain
(1844); Ancient Coins — Hispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846);
and Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He
wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1842) ; Wiltshire
Tales, illustrative of the Dialect (1853); and Remains of Pagan
Saxondom (1855).

AKHALTSIKH (Georgian Akhaltsikhe, "new fortress"), a
fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Tiths,
68 m. E. of Batum, in 41° 40' N. lat., 43° i' E. long., on a tribu-
tary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375 ft. The new town is on
the right bank of the river, while the old town and the fortress
are on the opposite bank. There is trade in silk, honey and wax,
and brown coal is found in the neighbourhood. The silver
filigree work is famous. Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many

456

AK-HISSAR— AKKA

were Armenians, as against 15,977 in 1867. From 1579 to 1828
Akhaltsikh was the capital of Turkish Armenia. In the last-
mentioned year it was captured by the Russians. The Turks
invested it in 1853.

AK-HISSAR (anc. Thyateira, the " town of Thya "), a town
situated in a fertile plain on the Giirduk Chai (Lycus), in the
Aidin vilayet, 58 m. N.E. of Smyrna. Pop. about 20,000,
Mussulmans forming two-thirds. Thyateira was an ancient
town re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 290 B.C.
It became an important station on the Roman road from Per-
gamum to Laodicea, and one of the "Seven Churches" of Asia
(Rev. ii. 18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a
neocorate, though made the centre of a conventus by Caracalla.
The modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and
exports cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals. The in-
habitants are Greeks, Armenians and Turks. The Greeks are
of an especially fine type, physical and moral, and noted all
through Anatolia for energy and stability. W. M. Ramsay
believes them to be direct descendants of the ancient Christian
population; but there is reason to think they are partly sprung
from more recent immigrants who moved in the i8th century
from western Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa
and Bergama, as recorded by W. M. Leake. Cotton of excellent
quality is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is cele-
brated for its scarlet dyes.

See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904) ; M. Clerc,
De rebus Thyatirenorum (1893).

AKHMIM, or EKHMIM, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right
bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above
Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway
communication with Cairo and Assuan. It is the largest town
on the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population
in 1007 of 23,795, tof whom about a third were Copts. Akhmim
has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a
weekly market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the
blue shirts and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer
classes of Egypt. Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two
ancient temples. In Abulfeda's days (i3th century A.D.) a very
imposing temple still stood here. Akhmim was the Egyptian
Apu or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as
Chemmis or Panopolis, capital of the gth or Chemmite nome of
Upper Egypt. The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped
as " the strong Horus." Herodotus mentions the temple
dedicated to " Perseus " and asserts that Chemmis was remark-
able for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after
the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a
matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and
people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the
god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the
east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have gathered
to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos (which was
really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at Akhmim.
Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis. Strabo
mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of Panopolis,
and it is not altogether a coincidence that the cemetery of
Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful textiles of
Roman and Coptic age that are brought from Egypt. Monas-
teries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very early date;
Shenout (Sinuthius) , the fiery apostle and prophet of the Coptic
national church, was a monk of Atrepe (now Suhag), and led the
populace to the destruction of the pagan edifices. He died in
451; some years earlier Nestorius, the ex-patriarch, had suc-
cumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old age, in the neigh-
bourhood of Akhmim. Nonnus, the Greek poet, was born at
Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. LL. G.)

AKHTAL [GHIYATH IBN HARITH] (c. 640-710), one of the most
famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the
tribe of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribes-
men, a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while
not taking its duties very seriously. Of his private life few
details are known, save that he was married and divorced,
and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his

tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the Taghlibites with the
Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires. In the
literary strife between his contemporaries Jarir and Ferazdaq
he was induced to support the latter poet. Akhtal, Jarir and
Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, but as to
relative superiority there is dispute. In the 'Abbasid period
there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his
reputation, but Abu 'Ubaida placed him highest of the three on
the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless
qasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could
not be said of the other two. The chief material of his poems
consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the
latter being, however, more restrained than was usual at the
time.

The Poetry of al-Akhtal has been published at the Jesuit press in
Beirut, 1891. A full account of the poet and his times is given in
H. Lammens' Le chantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895) (a reprint from
the Journal Asiatique for 1894). (G. W. T.)

AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (n m.) with the
railway from Kiev to Kharkov. It has a beautiful cathedral,
built after a plan by Rastrelli in 1753, to which pilgrims resort
to venerate an ikon of the Virgin. There are manufactures of
light woollen stuffs and a trade in corn, cattle and the produce
of domestic industries. The environs are fertile, the orchards
producing excellent fruit. A fair is held on the 9th of May. The
place was founded by the Poles in 1642. Pop. (1867) 17,411;
(1900) 25,965.

AKKA (TiKKi-TiKKi), a race of African pygmies first seen by
the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when he was in the
Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza. The home of the
Akka is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo
State. They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid race,
and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own chief. Of
all African " dwarfs " the Akka are believed the best representa-
tives of the " little people " mentioned by Herodotus. Giovanni
Miani, the Italian explorer who followed Schweinfurth, obtained
two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a calf. These, sent to
Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4 in. and 4 ft. 8 in. high,
while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth did not reach 5 ft. None
of the four Akka brought to Europe in 1874 and 1876 exceeded
3 ft. 4 in. The average height of the race would seem to be some-
what under 4 ft., but sufficient measurements have not been
taken to allow of a conclusive statement. Schweinfurth says the
Akka have very large and almost spherical skulls (this last detail
proves to be an exaggeration). They are of the colour of coffee
slightly roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and
tufted; they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protrud-
ing lips, which give them an " ape-like " appearance. Marked
physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes all
Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable hollowing
of the spine into a curve like an S. Investigation has shown that
these are not true racial characteristics, but tend to disappear,
the abdominal enlargement subsiding after some weeks of regular
and wholesome diet. The upper limbs are long, and the hands,
according to Schweinfurth, are singularly delicate. The lower
limbs are short, relatively to the trunk, and curve in somewhat,
the feet being bent in too, which gives the Akka a topheavy,
tottering gait. There is a tendency to steatopygia among the
women. The Akka are nomads, living in the forests, where they
hunt game with poisoned arrows, with pitfalls and springs set
everywhere, and with traps built like huts, the roofs of which,
hung by tendrils only, fall in on the animal. They collect ivory
and honey, manufacture poison, and bring these to market to
exchange for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons. They are
courageous hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants,
both sexes joining in the chase. They are very agile, and are
said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high grass
like grasshoppers. They are timid as children before strangers,
but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous fighters. In
dress, weapons and utensils they are as the surrounding negroes.
They build round huts of branches and leaves in the forest

AKKAD— AKOLA

457

S

clearings. They seem in no way a degenerate race, but rather a
people arrested in development by the forest environment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (1895); G. A.
Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (London, 1873); Dr W. Pleyte,
Chapitres supplementaires du Livre des Marts, traduction el commen-
taire (Leiden, 1883); Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate
(London, 1902).

AKKAD (Gr. versions dpxaS and ix^o), a Hebrew name,
mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for one
of the four chief cities, Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh, which
constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in the land
of Shinar or Babylonia. This Biblical city, Akkad, was most
probably identical with the northern Babylonian city known to us
as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which was the principal
seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon I. (Sargani-Sarali),
whose date is given by Nabonidus, the last Semitic king of
Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as 3800 B.C., which is perhaps too
old by 700 or 1000 years.1 The probably non-Semitic name
Agade occurs in a number of inscriptions2 and is now well
attested as having been the name of an important ancient
capital. The later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form Akkadu ("of
or belonging to Akkad ") is, in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form
from the non-Semitic name Agade, and seems to be an additional
demonstration of the identity of Agade and Akkad. The usual
signs denoting Akkadu in the Semitic narrative inscriptions were
read in the non-Semitic idiom uri-ki or ur-ki, " land of the city,"
which simply meant that Akkadu was the land of the city par
excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which remained
for a long period the leading city of Babylonia.3

It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may
mean "crown (ago) of fire (de)"* in allusion to litar, "the
brilliant goddess," the tutelar deity of the morning and evening
star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult was observed in
very early times in Agade. This fact is again attested by
Nabonidus, whose record 5 mentions that the Istar worship of
Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, another
personification of the Istar idea, whose shrine was at Sippar. It
is significant in this connexion that there were two cities named
Sippar, one under the protection of Shamash, the sun-gcd, and

ie under this Anunit, a fact which points strongly to theprobable
roximity of Sippar and Agade. In fact, it has been thought that
Agade-Akkad was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of

ie Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of

ippar.

In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name Akkadu appears
part of the royal title in connexion with Sumer; viz. non-

mitic: lugal Kengi (kt) Uru (ki) = sar mat Sumeri u Akkadi,

king of Sumer and Akkad," which appears to have meant
simply " king of Babylonia." It is not likely, as many scholars
have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically as a
distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that the name
Sumer (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land, because kings

10 ruled only over Southern Babylonia used the double title

king of Sumer and Akkad," which was also employed by

irthern rulers who never established their sway farther south
.n Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-
ileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Professor McCurdy has very reason-
ably suggested6 that the title "king of Sumer and Akkad"
indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory and city of
Akkad together with certain additional territory, but not neces-
sarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed.

A discussion of the interesting question relating to the non-

imitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language and race will be
.nd in the article SUMER.

1 Prince, Nabonidus, p. v.

1 In the Sargon inscriptions; Bab. Exped. of the Univ. of Penn.

pi. i, nr. i, line 6; pi. 2, nr. 2, line 5; pi. 3, nr. 3, fine 3b;
also xi. pi. 49, nr. 119 and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50
(Hilprecht, Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pi. i,
nr. 91146, line 3.

1 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, i. pp. 365, 373-374.

1 Prince, " Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, pp. 23, 73, Journal

Biblical Literature, 1906.
I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28.

' History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. § I IO.

LITERATURE. — Schrader, Zur Frage n. d. Ursprung d. altbab-
Kultur (1883); Keilinschriflen und Geschichtsforschung, pp. 533 f.;
Fried. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Parodies? (1881), p. 198; Paul
Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Ketischrifttexte (1881), pp. 133 ff. ;
Die Sumerische Akkadische Sprache, Verh. 5-ten Orient. Cong. ii.
pp. 249-287; Die sumerischen Familiengesetze (1879); Zimmern,
Babylonische Busspsalmen (1885), pp. 71 f.; Hommel, Gesch. Bab.
Assyr. (1885), pp. 240 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Assyr. Gesch. (1888), p. 68;
W. H. Ward, Hebraica (1886), pp. 79-86; McCurdy, Presb. and Ref.
Review, Jan. 1891, pp. 58-81 ; History, Prophecy and the Monuments
(1894), §§ 79-85, 94-110; Hugo Winckler, Untersuchungen zur
altortentalischen Geschtchte ( 1 886) , pp. 65 ff. In Rabbinical literature,
Louis Ginzberg, in Monatschrift, xliii. 486; and Jewish Encyclopaedia,
i. p. 149. (J. D. PR.)

AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, "white town"), a town,
formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the government of
Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the estuary (liman) of
the Dniester, 1 2 m. from the Black Sea. The town stands on the
site of the ancient Milesian colony of Tyras. Centuries later it
was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called it Mauro Castro. The
Turks first acquired possession of it in 1484. It was taken by the
Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806, but each time returned to the
Turks, and not definitely annexed to Russia until 1881. A treaty
concluded here in 1826 between Russia and the Porte secured
considerable advantages to the former. It was the non-observ-
ance of this treaty that led to the war of 1828. The harbour is too
shallow to admit vessels of large size, but the proximity of the
town to Odessa secures for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish,
wool and tallow. The salt is obtained from the saline lakes
(limans) in the neighbourhood. The town, with its suburbs,
contains beautiful gardens and vineyards. It is surrounded by
ramparts, and commanded by a citadel. Pop. (1900) 32,470.

AKHOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the
governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly
known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of
Turgai on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-pala-
tinsk on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m.,
of which 4535 are lakes. In the north the government is low
and dotted with salt lakes, and is sandy on the banks of the
Irtysh in the north-east. An undulating plateau stretches
through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the
Nura. The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad
spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards,
containing gold, copper and coal. Many lakes, of which the
largest is Teniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these
hills. Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the south-
eastern frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bek-pak-dala, or
Famine Steppe. This section of the government is drained by
the Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundary-
line. The climate is continental and dry, the average tempera-
tures at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35°, January
i -5°, July 70°; rainfall, only 9 in. The population, which was
686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of Russians
in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz (about
350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep. The urban
population was only 74,069. Agriculture is successfully carried
on in the north, the Siberian railway running between Petro-
pavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated
region. Steamers ply on the Irtysh. The government is divided
into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop.
53,050 in 1900), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital
of this government and also of the governor-generalship of the
Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Akmolly (9560 in 1897), on the Ishim,
260 m. S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the caravans coming
from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030); Kokchetav
(5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1901).

AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Berar, otherwise
known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The town is on
the Murna tributary of the Purna river, 930 ft. above the sea,
Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapetb, containing
the government buildings and European residences, on the east
bank. It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great Indian
Peninsula railway and is 383 m. E.N.E. of Bombay. It had a
population (1901) of 29,289. It is walled, and has a citadel
built in the early years of the i9th century. Akola is one of

AKRON— ALA

the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar, and has numerous
ginning factories and cotton presses. Among the educational
establishments are a government high school, and an industrial
school supported by a Protestant mission.

The DISTRICT OF AKOLA as reconstituted in 1905 has an area
of 4111 sq. m., the population of this area in 1901 being 754,804.
(Before the alteration of the boundaries the area of the district
was 2678 sq. m., and the population 582,540.) The surface of
the country is generally flat, the greater part being situated in
the central valley of Berar. On the north it is bounded by the
Melghat hills. By the addition of Basim and Mangrul taluks in
1905, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta hills,
with peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of Basim (?.».).
North of the Ajanta hills the country is drained eastward by
the Puma affluent of the Tapti and its tributaries. None of
the rivers is navigable. The climate resembles that of Berar
generally, but the heat during April to mid-June, when the rains
begin, is very great, the average temperature at the town of
Akola in May for the twenty-five years ending 1901 being 94-4° F.
But even during the hot season the nights are cool. The annual
rainfall averages 34 in. In the Purna valley the soil is every-
where a rich black loam, and nearly the whole of the land is
cultivated. Very little land is under irrigation. The principal
crop is cotton, and the staple grain millet. Wheat and pulses
are also grown. The history of Akola is not distinguished from
that of the other portions of Berar. In 1317-1318 it was added
to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani
dynasty in 1348, and in 1596 again fell under the sway of the
Moguls. In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the
dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853.

AKRON, a city and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Little Cuyahoga river, about 35 m. S. by E. of
Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 27,601; (1900) 42,728, of whom 7127
were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1104 English, and
641 Irish) ; (1910) 69,067. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio, the Erie, the Northern Ohio, and the Cleveland,
Akron & Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and
by the Ohio Canal. The city is situated in a region abound-
ing in lakes, springs and hills; it is about 1000 ft. above sea-level,
whence its name (from Gr. &Kpov, height); and attracts many
summer visitors. It is the seat of Buchtel College (co-educa-
tional; non-sectarian), which was founded by the Ohio Univer-
salist Convention in 1870, was opened in 1872, and was named
in honour of its most liberal benefactor, John R. Buchtel (1822-
1892), a successful business man who did much to promote the
industrial development of Akron. Buchtel College provides
three courses leading to the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S.B.;
it has a school of music, a school of art and an academy; in
1908 there were 267 students. Coal is mined in the neigh-
bourhood. The river furnishes considerable water-power; and
among the city's most important manufactures are rubber and
elastic goods (value, 1905, $13,396,974; 83-9 % of the total of
this industry in the state and 21-3% of the total for the United
States, Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in
this industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1905,
$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1905,
$2,367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay (value, 1905,
$1,718,033; nearly twice the value of the output in 1900,
Akron ranking fourth among the cities of the United States in
this industry in 1905). Other important manufactures are food
preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill products.
The value of the total manufactured products (under the
" factory " system) in 1905 was $34,004,243, an increase in five
years of 54- 5 %. Akron was settled about 1825, was incorporated
as a village in 1836, was made the county-seat in 1842, and in
1865 was chartered as a city.

See S. A. Lane, Fifty Years and over of Akron and Summit County
(Akron, 1892).

AK-SHEHR (anc. Philomelion), a town in Asia Minor, in the
Konia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on the north
side of the Sultan Dagh. Philomelion was probably a Perga-
menian foundation on the great Graeco-Roman highway from

Ephesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smyrniotes wrote
the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp. Cicero,
on his way to Cilicia, dated some of his extant correspondence
there; and the place played a considerable part in the frontier
wars between the Byzantine emperors and the sultanate of
Rum. It became an important Seljuk town, and late in the I4th
century passed into Ottoman hands. There Bayezid Yilderim
is said by Ali of Yezd to have died after his defeat at Angora.
The place still enjoys much repute among Turks, as the burial-
place of Nur-ed-din Khoja. The town has a station on the
Anatolian railway, about 60 m. from Afium-Kara-Hissar and
100 m. from Konia.

AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern
Turkestan, in 41° 7' N. and 79° 7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270 m.
N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river, which
takes its origin in the T'ien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains and
joins the Tarim. It belongs to the series of oases (Uch-Turfan,
Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of the eastern
T'ien-shan mountains. The town, which is supposed to have
about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall. It is an important
centre for caravan routes and has a considerable trade. ' There
are some cotton manufactures; and the place is celebrated for
its richly ornamented saddlery made from deerskin. A Chinese
garrison is stationed here, and copper and iron are wrought in
the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals. Extensive
cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants.

AKYAB, a city and district in the Arakan division of Burma.
The city is situated at the confluence of the three large rivers
Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu, and is the most flourishing city
in the Arakan division. Originally it was a mere fishing village,
but when the British government in 1826 removed the restric-
tions on trade imposed by the Burmese, Akyab quickly grew
into an important seat of maritime commerce. After the cession
of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo in that year the old capital
of Myohaung was abandoned as the seat of government, and
Akyab on the sea-coast selected instead. During the first forty
years of British rule it increased from a village to a town of
15,536 inhabitants, and now it is the third port of Burma, with
a population in 1901 of 31,687. It contains the usual public
buildings and several large rice mills. The chief exports are
rice and oil.

The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of
Bengal, with an area of 5136 sq. m. and a population in
1901 of 481,666. It forms the northernmost district of Lower
Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between the sea
and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken country
formed by a portion of their western spurs and valleys. The
forests form a most important feature of Akyab district and
contain a valuable supply of timber of many kinds. The central
part of the district consists of three fertile valleys, watered by
the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu. These rivers approach each
other at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal channels,
creeks and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible
supplies of rice, which the abundant water carriage brings down
to the port of Akyab at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns
are Khumgchu in the extreme north-east of the district; Kola-
daing in the centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and
Akyab on the coast, where their mouths converge. This dis-
trict passed into the hands of the British, together with the
rest of Arakan division, at the dose of the first Burmese war
of 1825-1826.

Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom
of Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it. In
1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed under
a special administration, with a view to the better government
of the wild tribes which inhabit them. (J. G. Sc.)

ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically by
analogy with its meaning of " wing." In physiology, it means
any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral cartilages of the
nose. In botany, one of the side petals of a papilionaceous
corolla, &c. In architecture, a side apartment or recess of a
Roman house (the origin of " aisle ").

ALABAMA

459

ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated
between 84° 51' and 88° 31' W. long, and about 30° 13' and 35°
N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida
and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Its total area is
51,998 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface.

Physical Features. — The surface of Alabama in the N. and
N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and
picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently
undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward
the Mississippi and the Gulf. Extending entirely across the
state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in
the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the Cumberland Plateau,
or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad table-lands by
the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of
Jackson county, there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands
from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands,
occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee river,
is a delightful country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in
levation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands
id lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep
>w coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations
ige from 400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region,
S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain,
ttending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and
sing precipitously on the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000 ft.
ibove the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the
J. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley)
ion, which is the S. extremity of the great Appalachian
[ountain system, and occupies an area within the state of about
sq. m. This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock
idges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although
the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is
T.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent
iracteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains,
which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having
maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than
[800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W.,
fhere Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of
lese the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp
sts and gently sloping S.E. sides. South-east of the Appa-
lian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the
ibama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-
iped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together
rith the N. part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal
artion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation
about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a
swland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then
iplif ted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied
jy the coastal plain. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling
lines in the central part of the state, where it has a mean
levation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward
ic S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated
ibove the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to
W.N.W. by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all
)ther parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appa-
chian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in
le Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain
re the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa
id Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chatta-
loochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary.
~'ie Tombigbee and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the
ite, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile
and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream
which joins the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N.
and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain
they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces
above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the
drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and
Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such
sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.

The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the
Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics.

Climate and Soil. — The climate of Alabama is temperate and
fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by
the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation
above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in
the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the
highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67° F., the mean
for the summer 81°, and for the winter 52°; and at Valley Head,
in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59°, the mean for the
summer 75°, and for the winter 41°. At Montgomery, in the
central region, the average annual temperature is 66°, with a
winter average of 49°, and a summer average of 81°. The average
winter minimum for the entire state is 35°, and there is an average
of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the
freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer
has fallen below zero, as was the case in the remarkable cold
wave of the I2th-i3th of February 1899, when an absolute
minimum of 17° was registered at Valley Head. The highest
temperature ever recorded was 109° in Talladega county in
1902. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast
(62 in.) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state
(about 52 in.). During each winter there is usually one fall of
snow in the S. and two in the N. ; but the snow quickly dis-
appears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is
not covered with snow. Hail-storms occur in the spring and
summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and
are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur through-
out the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevail-
ing winds are from the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be
divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward
for one hundred and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal
Plain, also called the " Timber Belt," whose soil is sandy and
poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the
inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the " Black Prairie,"
which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen counties. It
receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak under-
lying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of
sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations,
especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region
is also called the " Cotton Belt." Between the " Cotton Belt "
and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the " Old Land "
area — " a region of resistant rocks " — whose soils, also derived
from weathering in situ, are of varied fertility, the best coming
from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from
the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region
is the " Cereal Belt," embracing the Tennessee Valley and the
counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark
loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils,
produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.

Agriculture. — Agriculture is the principal occupation in
Alabama, giving employment to 64'5%-of the population. The
farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire
surface of the state), of which 8,654,991 acres (41-8%) were
improved. Under the system of slave labour which existed
before 1860, the average size of the plantations tended to increase,
but since 1860 the reverse has been true, the average plantation
in 1860 being 346 acres, and in 1900 92-7 acres. The average
value per acre of farm land was $11-86 in 1860 and $8-67 in 1900.
As to method of cultivation, 36-3 per cent of the farms were in 1900
managed by the owners, 33-3% by cash renters, 24-4% by share
tenants, and the remaining 6% by other methods. The chief
product is cotton, cultivated extensively in the " Black Belt "
and less extensively in the other portions of the state. Cotton
has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount of
its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 to
25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state in 1840
being double that of 1830. This was accompanied by an ex-
tensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820 until 1860
the rate of increase of the blacks was greater than that of the
whites. The success of the economic system was such that in
1860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly 1,000,000 bales
(989,955 bales), being 18-4% of the entire cotton product of the
United States. The disorganization of labour resulting from the

460

ALABAMA

Civil War and the emancipation of slaves, was the cause of
a temporary decline in the cotton crop. In 1889 the crop again
approximated to 1,000,000 bales (915,210 bales, being 12-2% of
the entire crop of the United States), and in 1899 it exceeded
that amount, Alabama being fourth among the states of the
entire country. The total value of the farm products of Alabama
in 1899 was $91,387,409; in 1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879,
$56,872,994. The average yield per acre has also increased under
the system of free labour. In recent years there has been a
tendency to diversify crops, Indian corn, wheat and oats being
raised extensively in the " Cereal Belt." In 1906, according to
the "Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture, the following
were the acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more import-
ant crops (excepting cotton): — Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres,
47,849,392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029
bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels,
$1,615,618; hay, 56,350 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461,431.

Minerals. — The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life since
1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal resources.
The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of which Birmingham is
the centre) is primarily red haematite and (much less important)
brown haematite; though as regards the latter Alabama ranked
first among the states of the Union in 1905 (with 781,561 tons).
The total production of all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons
in 1905, Alabama ranking third in the Union in this respect.
The production of bituminous coal has also increased very
rapidly. Coal was first discovered in the state in 1834, and in
1840 the total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200
short tons. The real development of the mines began in 1881
and 1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in 1881
to 1,568,000 in 1883. By 1800 it had increased to 4,090,409 tons,
by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to 11,866,069 tons,
valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the coal-
producing states. Nearly 85 % of the coal is produced in three
counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the coal-bearing
formations cover about 40 % of the northern half of the state.
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite have also been
discovered, but the greater richness of the iron and coal deposits
has prevented their development.

Manufactures. — The growth of manufactures in Alabama has
been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral wealth. In 1880
the capital invested in manufactures was $9,668,008, little more
than that ($9,098,181) in 1860; by 1890 it had increased to
$46, 1 22, 571, or 377- 1 %;andin 1900 it amounted to $70,3 70,081,
or 52-6 % more than in iSoo.1 On account of the proximity of
coal, iron and limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are
the most extensive. In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama
pig-iron could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the
English product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently
to rank next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world
centres of the pig-iron trade. The pig-iron produced in the state
in 1860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in 1880 at
S^oS.SSti, in 1900 at $13,487,769, and in 1905 at $16,614,577.
In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama held first rank
both in 1900 and in 1905. The manufacture of steel, though in
its infancy, gave promise of equalling that of iron, and the coke
industry is also of growing importance, the product of Alabama
during the five years from 1 896 to 1 901 showing a greater increase,
relatively, than that of the other states. In 1900 the state ranked
sixth and in 1905 fifth among the states of the United States in
the manufactures of iron and steel. In 1005 the value of the
product was 2-7 % of the value of the total iron and steel product
of the country, and 22-6 % of the value of all the state's factory
products. In 1000 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among

1 The special census of manufactures taken in 1905 was confined
to manufacturing establishments conducted under the so-called
" factory system." According to this census the capital invested
was $105,382,859, and the value of products was $109,169,922.
The corresponding figures for 1900, if the same standard be taken
for purposes of comparison, would be $60,165,904 and $72,109,929.
During the five years, therefore, the capital invested in establish-
ments under the factory system increased 75-2 %, and the value of
products 51-4 %.

the states of the Union in the production of coke, its product
being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and
more than one-twentieth (5-2 % in 1000; 5-7 % in 1905) of all the
factory products of the state. The demand for coke is due to the
rapidly growing iron and steel industry. Great possibilities were
also shown for the production of lumber and naval stores. Ap-
proximately three-fourths of the total area of the state is wood-
land. In the " Timber Belt " the forests of long leaf pine have an
estimated stand of 21,192 million ft; and in 1905 the product of
sawed lumber was valued at $13,563,815. Of this, yellow pine
represented $11,320,909, oak $886,746, and poplar $627,686.
In the decade 1800-1900 the number of turpentine factories
increased from 7 to 152, and their product in 1900 and in 1905
ranked Alabama third among the states in that industry. The
value of the turpentine and rosin products in 1 905 was $2,434,365.

The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly.
As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama, one
more than the number in 1850; in 1900 there were 31, represent-
ing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product valued at
$8,153,136, an increase of 272-2 % over the product ($2,190,771)
of 1890; in 1905 there were 46 establishments, representing a
capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of 112-7 % over that of 1000),
and having a product (for the year) of $16,760,332, an increase
of 105-6 % over that for 1900. To encourage the establishment
of cotton mills the legislature of 1896-1897 exempted from taxa-
tion during the succeeding ten years all capital that should be
invested in the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or
more be invested in buildings and machinery. Other industries
of less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather.

Communications. — The navigable mileage of the Alabama
rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation
of a continuous route, notably the " Muscle Shoals " of the Ten-
nessee, extending from a point 10 m. below Decatur to Florence,
a distance of 38 m. To remove or circumvent these impediments,
and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United States govern-
ment spent, between 1870 and 1004, approximately $12,000,000.
As the streams in the mineral region are not navigable, the rail-
ways are the carriers of its products.2 Here all the large systems
of the southern states find an entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the
Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the Louisville & Nashville,
and the 'Frisco system affording communication with the Missis-
sippi and the west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, At-
lantic Coast Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions
with northern and Atlantic states. Mobile, the only seaport of
the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national govern-
ment spends large sums of money; yet an increasing amount
of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment, and
Pensacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber.

Population. — In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered
1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513,017, an increase of 17%; in 1900,
1,828,697, a further increase of 20 %. This population is notable
for its large proportion of negroes (45 -23%), its insignificant
foreign element (-08%), and the small percentage of urban in-
habitants (10 %). As regards church membership, the Baptists
are much the most numerous, followed by the Methodists, the
Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians. In 1900 there were
201 incorporated cities, towns and villages in the state, but of
these only nine had a population in excess of 5000, and only three a
population in excess of 25,000. These three were Mobile (38,469),
Birmingham (38,415), and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of
the state. Other important cities, with their populations, were
Selma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsville (8068), Bessemer
(6358), Tuscaloosa (5094), Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4S32) and
Tuskegee (2170). In 1910 the population was 2,138,093.

Government. — Alabama has been governed under five con-
stitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision of 1865,
the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present ,constitution,
which was framed in 1001. The last has a number of notable
provisions. It lengthened the term of service of executive and
legislative officials from two to four years, made that of the

1 The railway mileage of the state on the 3 1st of December 1906
was 4805-58 m.

ALABAMA

GULF OF MEXICO

Emery Walker sc

ALABAMA

461

judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial sessions of the
legislature, and introduced the office of lieutenant-governor.
The passage of local or special bills by the legislature was pro-
hibited. A provision intended to prevent lobbying is that no
one except legislators and the representatives of the press may
be admitted to the floor of the House except by unanimous
vote. No executive official can succeed himself in office, and
the governor cannot be elected or appointed to the United States
Senate, or to any state office during his term as governor, or
within one year thereafter. Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob
violence may be impeached. The constitution eliminated the
negro from politics by a suffrage clause which went into effect
in 1903. This limits the right to vote to those who can read and
write any article of the constitution of the United States, and
have worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employ-
ment, business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater
part of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to
register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and
write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at
$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have
served in the army or navy of the United States or of the Con-
federate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every
degree, and persons of good character " who understand the
duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican form
of government," are relieved from the operation of this law
provided they registered prior to the 2oth of December 1902.
The second of these exceptions is known as the " Grandfather
Clause." No man may vote in any election who has not by the
ist of February next preceding that election paid all poll taxes
due from him to the state. In 1902 nine-tenths of the negroes
in the state were disqualified from voting.1 The constitution of
1901 (like that of 1867) and special statutes require separate
schools for white and negro children. A " Jim Crow " law was
enacted in 1891. Buying, selling or offering to buy or sell a vote
has for penalty disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian
ballot system has been used. The governor, auditor and
attorney-general are required to prepare and present to each
legislature a general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with
the last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make
recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound
to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning power.
State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes from rail-
way companies, and individuals are forbidden to receive freight
rebates. The constitution of 1901 exempted a homestead of
80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot not exceeding $2000
in value, from liability for any debt contracted since the 3oth of
July 1868 except for a mortage on it to which the wife con-
sented; personal property to the value of $1000 is exempted.
Under the civil code of 1897 the earnings of a wife are her
separate property, and it is provided that " no woman, nor any
boy under age of twelve years, shall be employed to work or
labour in or about any mine in this state." By acts of 1903
child labour under 12 years is forbidden in any factory unless
for support of " a widowed mother or aged or disabled father,"
or unless the child is an indigent orphan; " no child under the age
of ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances."
Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child is
employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of a
fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not exceeding three
months. No child under 13 may do night work at all. No child

1 In Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 474, a negro asked that the defendant
board of registry be required to enrol his name and the names of
other negroes on the registration lists, and that certain sections of
the constitution of Alabama be declared void as being contrary to
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the federal constitution.
The Supreme Court dismissed the bill on the grounds that equity
has no jurisdiction over political matters; that, assuming the
fraudulent character of the objectionable constitutional provisions,
the court was in effect asked to assist in administering a fraud;
* and that relief " must be given by them [the people of the state] or
by the legislative and political departments of the government of
the United States." The case attracted much attention; and it is
often erroneously said that the court upheld the disfranchising
clauses of the Alabama constitution.

under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of night work. No
child of less than 12 is allowed to work more than 66 hours in
any one week. An able-bodied parent who does not work when
he has the opportunity, unless " idle under strike orders, or
lock-outs," and who hires out his minor children, is declared a
vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned or sentenced
to hard labour for not more than six months.

All amendments to the constitution must be approved by a
three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and then ratified
by the people. The legislature of 1900-1901 established a
department of archives and history whose aim is to preserve
documents and historical records.

Education. — Public education for Mobile was authorized by
the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until 1852. Two
years later (1854) a school system for the entire state was in-
augurated. Its support was derived from public land given by
the United States to the state of Alabama for educational pur-
poses in 1819, and special taxes or tuition fixed by each township.
The Civil War demoralized the nascent system. An important
step in its revival seemed to be made in the constitution of 1868,
which forbade any private recompense for instruction in the
public schools and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue
to common schools. But the attempt to teach whites and blacks
in the same schools, and the corruption in the administration of
funds, made the results unsatisfactory. The constitution of
1875 abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support
of the schools, except that derived from the laud grant of 1819,
and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the legislature,
and established separate schools for whites and blacks. Progress
has been slow but steady. According to the constitution of
1901 the legislature is required to levy, in addition to the poll
tax, an annual tax for education at the rate of 30 to 65 cents
on the hundred dollars' worth of property, and practically
every county in the state had made in 1906 an appropriation
for its schools of a one mill tax on $100. The school fund in 1900
amounted to $1,000,000, an increase of 37 % over the average
annual fund of the preceding decade; for the year ending the
3oth of September 1907 the amount certified for apportionment
by the state was $1,150,261-40, and the total annual expendi-
ture was about $1,600,000; in 1906 the school census snowed
697,465 children of school age. The legislature of 1907 voted
an increase of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common
school fund, and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but
its most important work probably was the establishment of
county high schools. The rural schools have an annual term
of five to seven months only. The percentage of illiterates
declined from 50-97 % in 1880 to 41 % in 1890, and 34 % in 1900,
when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy.

There are also a number of institutions for higher education
in Alabama. The^mcst important of these are the university
of Alabama (co-educational — opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa,
the institution being part of the public school system main-
tained by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at
Auburn, a " state college for the benefit of agriculture and the
mechanic arts," organized in 1872 according to the United
States land grant act for the promotion of industrial education;
the Southern University (incorporated 1856 — Methodist Epis-
copal, South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at
East Lake (Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830 — Roman
Catholic), near Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at
Talladega; the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
(for negroes), at Tuskegee; and state normal schools at Florence,
Jacksonville, Troy and Livingston, and, for negroes, at Mont-
gomery, Tuskegee and Normal.

Public Institutions. — Alabama supports various philanthropic
and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at
Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the
blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and blind, all at
Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in i86c, at Tusca-
loosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka; and
a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake (Birming-
ham) , and a state industrial school for white girls at Montevallo.

462

ALABAMA

These institutions are managed by trustees who are appointed
by the governor. In addition to the usual method of employing
convicts in the penitentiary or on state farms, Alabama, like
other southern states, also hires its convicts to labour for private
individuals. Reports of abuses under this system caused the
legislature in 1001 to order a special investigation, the results of
which led in 1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors,
whereby the prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of
state officials. In this same year a system of peonage that had
grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and a Federal
grand jury at a single term of court indicted a number of men
for holding persons as " peons." Many similar cases were found
later in other southern states, but those in Alabama being the
first discovered attracted the most attention. The system came
into existence in isolated communities through the connivance
of justices of the peace with white farmers. The justices have
jurisdiction over petty offences, of which negroes are usually
the guilty parties, and the fines imposed would sometimes be
paid by a white farmer, who would thus save the accused from
imprisonment, but at the same time would require him to sign
a contract to repay by his labour the sum advanced. By various
devices the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to
his employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an in-
definite time. The " peons " as a rule were negroes, but a few
white ones were found; and in several instances negroes were
found holding members of their own race in peonage. A law
forbidding under severe penalties a labourer from hiring 'himself
to a second employer without giving notice of a prior contract,
and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be
bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the
system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose.
The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage
became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were
supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the state.
Up to 1907 the state licensed the sale of liquor, and liquor licence
fees were partly turned over to the public school fund; there was
a dispensary system in some counties; and in 1907 one-third
of the counties of the state (22 out of 67) were " dry." Besides,
saloons had been forbidden within 5 m. of certain churches and
school-houses, so that liquor was sold scarcely at all except in
incorporated towns, where in many cases local dispensaries were
established. In the 1907 state legislature a county local option
bill was passed in February, and immediately afterward the
Sherrod anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance
of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to prohibition
districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders for liquor in
" dry " districts with a punishment of $500 fine and six months'
imprisonment with hard labour. In a special session of the
legislature in November 1907 a law was passed forbidding the
sale of liquor within the state, this prohibition to come into effect
on the ist of January 1909.

Finance. — One-half of the income of the state is derived from
general taxes, the other sources of revenue being licences, a special
school tax, poll tax and the lease of the convicts. The state
debt, for which legislative corruption in the years 1868-1872
was largely responsible, amountejd on the ist of October 1906
to $9,057,000. Measures for its refunding, but not for its extinc-
tion, have been taken. The constitution of 1901 prohibits the
increase of the debt for any other purposes than the suppression
of insurrection or resistance to invasion, and the assumption of
corporate debts by cities and towns is also restricted. All banks,
except national banks, are subject to examination by a public
official, and their charters expire within twenty years of their
issue.

History. — The first Europeans to enter the limits of the present
state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this region as a
part of Florida. It is possible that a member of Panfilo de
Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now southern
Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit was that of
Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless journey
along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in 1539. The
English, too, claimed the region north of the Gulf of Mexico, and

the territory of modern Alabama was included in the province
of Carolina, granted by Charles II. to certain of his favourites
by the charters of 1663 and 1665. English traders of Carolina
were frequenting the valley of the Alabama river as early as
1687. Disregarding these claims, however, the French in 1703
settled on the Mobile river and there erected Fort Louis, which
for the next nine years was the seat of government of Louisiana.
In 1711 Fort Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river,
and on higher ground was built Fort Conde, the germ of the
present city of Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement
in Alabama. Later, on account of the intrigues of the English
traders with the Indians, the French as a means of defence
established the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction
of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the
Tombigbee river. The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his
associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern
Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek
Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with
them. The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French
occupation, and England came into undisputed possession of
the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi. The
portion of Alabama below the 3 ist parallel then became a part
of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part of the
" Illinois country," set apart, by royal proclamation, for the
use of the Indians. In 1767 the province of West Florida was
extended northward to 32° 28' N. lat, and a few years later,
during the War for Independence, this region fell into the hands
of Spain. By the treaty of Versailles, on the 3rd of September
1783, England ceded West Florida to Spain; but by the treaty of
Paris, signed the same day, she ceded to the United States all
of this province north of 31°, and thus laid the foundation for a
long controversy. By the treaty of Madrid, in 1 793, Spain ceded
to the United States her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi
between 31° and 32° 28' ; and three years later (1798) this dis-
trict was organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory. A
strip of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern bound-
ary of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina;
but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general government.
Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between the 3 ist and 35th
parallels from its present western boundary to the Mississippi
river, and did not surrender its claim until 1802; two years
later the boundaries of the Mississippi Territory were extended
so as to include all of the Georgia cession. In 1812 Congress
annexed to the Mississippi Territory the Mobile District of
West Florida, claiming that it was included in the Louisiana
Purchase; and in the following year General James Wilkinson
occupied this district with a military force, the Spanish com-
mandant offering no resistance. The whole area of the present
state of Alabama then for the first time became subject to the
jurisdiction of the United States. In 1817 the Mississippi
Territory was divided; the western portion became the state of
Mississippi, and the eastern the territory of Alabama, with St
Stephens, on the Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of
government. In 1819 Alabama was regularly admitted to the
Union as a state.

One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that
of finance. Since the amount of money in circulation was not
sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population,
a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were issued
and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the notes of
the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of exchange.
Prospects of an income from the banks led the legislature of 1836
to abolish all taxation for state purposes. This was hardly done,
however, before the panic of 1837 wiped out a large portion of
the banks' assets; next came revelations of grossly careless
and even of corrupt management, and in 1843 the banks were
placed in liquidation. After disposing of all their available
assets, the state assumed the remaining liabilities, for which
it had pledged its faith and credit, and these form a part
($3,445,000) of its present indebtedness.

The Indian problem was important. With the encroachment
of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek

ALABAMA

4-63

Indians began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief
Tecumseh, who visited them in 1811, fomented their discontent.
When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in 1812
gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in arms,
massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge in
Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee
rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek country
was safe outside a palisade. The Chickasaw and Choctaw
Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites, and
volunteers from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee, and
later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the
threatened settlements. In the campaign that followed the
most distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew
Jackson, whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power of
the Creek Confederacy. By the treaty of Fort Jackson (pth
of August 1814) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half
of the present state; and cessions by the Cherokees, Chickasaws
and Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama
tc the Indians. In 1832 the national government provided for
the removal of the Creeks ; but before the terms of the contract
were effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into

sunties, and settlers flocked in. This caused a disagreement
between Alabama and the United States authorities; although
it was amicably settled, it engendered a feeling that the policy
)f the national government might not be in harmony with the
interests of the state — a feeling which, intensified by the slavery
agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861.

The political history of Alabama may be divided into three
periods, that prior to 1860, the years from 1860 to 1876, and the

;riod from 1876 onwards.

The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy
political life. Until 1832 there was only one party in the state,
the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused a division
that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and the State's
Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same time,
>, there arose, chiefly in those counties where the proportion
>f slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen were most
iristocratic, the Whig party. For some time the Whigs were
nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they never secured

mtrol of the state government. The State's Rights men were
a minority; nevertheless under their active and persistent

ider, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they prevailed upon the
Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical views. During
the agitation over the introduction of slavery into the territory
acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the Democratic State
Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known as the " Alabama
Platform," which declared in substance that neither Congress
nor the government of a territory had the right to interfere with
slavery in a territory, that those who held opposite views were
not Democrats, and that the Democrats of Alabama would not
support a candidate for the presidency if he did not agree
with them on these questions. This platform was endorsed
by conventions in Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures
of Georgia and Alabama. Old party lines were broken by the
Compromise of 1850. The State's Rights party, joined by many
Democrats, founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded
the repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future
encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs,
joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known
as the " Unionists," which unwillingly accepted the Compromise
and denied the " constitutional " right of secession. The
" Unionists " were successful in the elections of 1851 and 1852,
but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south by the
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course of the slavery
agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic convention of 1856
to revive the " Alabama Platform "; and when the " Alabama
Platform " failed to secure the formal approval of the Democratic
National convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860,

Ihe Alabama delegates, followed by those of the other cotton
' states," withdrew. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln,
jovernor Andrew B. Moore, according to previous instructions
>f the legislature, called a state convention on the 7th of January

1861. After long debate this convention adopted on the nth of
January an ordinance of secession, and Alabama became one
of the Confederate states of America, whose government was
organized at Montgomery on the 4th of February 1861. Yet
secession was opposed by many prominent men, and in North
Alabama an attempt was made to organize a neutral state to be
called Nickajack; but with President Lincoln's call to arms
all opposition to secession ended.

In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene
of military operations, yet the state contributed about 120,000
men to the Confederate service, practically all her white popula-
tion capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine of these attained
the rank of general. In 1863 the Federal forces secured a foothold
in northern Alabama in spite of the opposition of General Nathan
B. Forrest, one of the ablest Confederate cavalry leaders. In
1864 the defences of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but
the city held out until April 1865; in the same month Selma
also fell.

According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a provi-
sional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a
state convention met in September of the same year, and declared
the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished;
a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the
legislature was at once recognized by the National government,
and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after
the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth amend-
ment. But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy and
apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who were
flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its rejection of
the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the congressional
hostility to the presidential plan that the Alabama senators and
representatives were denied their seats in Congress. In 1867
the congressional plan of reconstruction was completed and
Alabama was placed under military government. The negroes
were now enrolled as voters and large numbers of white citizens
were disfranchised.1 A Black Man's Party, composed of negroes,
and political adventurers known as "carpet-baggers," was formed,
which co-operated with the Republican party. A constitutional
convention, controlled by this element, met in November 1867,
and framed a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes
and disfranchised a large class of whites. The Reconstruction
Acts of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified
by a majority of the legal voters of the state. The whites of
Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five
days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a
majority. Congress then enacted that a majority of the
votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution went
into effect, the state was admitted to the Union hi June 1868,
and a new governor and legislature were elected.

The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance
and corruption. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate
of $12,000 and$i6,ooo a mile until the state debt had increased
from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar
corruption characterized local government. The native white
people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a
governor and a majority of the lower house of the legislature
in 1870; but, as the new administration was largely a failure,
in 1872 there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local
term applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from
bad to worse. In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals
was finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all
state officials. A commission appointed to examine the state
debt found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced
to $15, 000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which
omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one
should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous
condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal
improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise.

Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control
of the state administration, the Republicans failing to make
nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket
1 The enrolment was 104,518 blacks and 61,295 whites.

"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION

of the Greenback party in 1882. The development of mining
and manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress
among the farming classes, which found expression in the
Jeffersonian Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular
Democratic ticket was elected and the new party was then
merged into the Populist party. In 1894 the Republicans
united with the Populists, elected three congressional repre-
sentatives, secured control of many of the counties, but failed
to carry the state, and continued their opposition with less
success in the next campaigns. Partisanship became intense,
and charges of corruption of the ignorant negro electorate were
made. Consequently after division on the subject among the
Democrats themselves, as well as opposition of Republicans and
Populists, a new constitution with restrictions on suffrage was
adopted in 1901.

The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of
Alabama: —

Governor of the Territory.

William Wyatt Bibb . . .1 1817-1819 I
Governors of the State.

William Wyatt Bibb
Thomas Bibb1
Israel Pickens
John Murphy
Gabriel Moore
Samuel B. Moore
John Gayle
Clement C. Clay
Hugh M'Vay8
Arthur P. Bagby
Benjamin Fitzpatrick'
Joshua L. Martin .
Reuben Chapman
Henry W. Collier
John A. Winston
Andrew B. Moore
John Gill Shorter
Thomas H. Watts
Lewis E. Parsons

Robert M. Patton
Wager Swayne

William H. Smith
Robert B. Lindsay
David P. Lewis
George S. Houston
Ruf us W. Cobb .
Edward A. O'Neal
Thomas Seay
Thomas G. Jones
William C. Gates .
Joseph F. Johnston
William J. Samford
William D. Jelks .
B. B. Comer

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama (by
Thomas M. Owen) see the Annual Report oj the American Historical
Association for 1897 (Washington, 1898).

Information regarding the resources, climate, population and
industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the United
States Census, and in the publications of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the United States Geological Survey, the
Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (published
at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins and Reports of the Alabama
Geological Survey (published at Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and
in the following works: — B. F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Mont-
gomery, 1893), and Saffold Berney's Handbook of Alabama (2nd ed.,
Birmingham, 1892).

Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained
in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900) ;
Newton W. Bates's History and Civil Government of Alabama (Flor-
ence, Ala., 1892) ; Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, Resources,
War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872) ; A. Davis Smith's
and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical and Biographical

1 William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and Thomas Bibb, then
president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term of one year
(1820).

* In 1837 Governor Clay was elected United States Senator, and
Hugh M'Vay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired
term.

1 Until 1845 the term of state officials was one year; from then
until 1901 it was two years; since 1901 it has been four years.

(Birmingham, 1888) ; Albert J. Pickett's History of Alabama

1819-1820

Democrat.

1820-1821

)f

1821-1825

,,

1825-1829

H

1829-1831

,,

1831

,,

1831-1835

If

1835-1837

H

1837

,,

1837-1841

„

1841-1845

If

1845-1847

H

1847-1849

H

1849-1853

,,

1853-1857

It

1857-1861

II

1861-1863

II

1863-1865

._

1865

Provisional

Governor.

1865-1867

Republican.

1867-1868

Military

Governor.

1868-1870

Republican.

1870-1872

Democrat.

1872-1874

Republican.

1874-1878

Democrat.

1878-1882

ii

1882-1886

ii

1886-1890

i

1890-1894

,

1894-1896

,

1896-1900

i

1900-1901

i

1901-1907

,

1907

i

Fleming's
struction in Alabama (New York, 1905).

In addition, W. G. Clark's History of Education in Alabama
(Washington, 1889); W. E. Martin's Internal Improvements i»
Alabama (Baltimore, 1902; Johns Hopkins University Studies,
series 20, No. 4) ; and W. L. Martin's Code of Alabama (2 vols.,
Atlanta, Ga., 1897) may be consulted.

Information concerning the aboriginal remains in the state may
be found in two papers by Clarence B. Moore, " Certain Aboriginal
Remains of the Tombigbee River " and " Certain Aboriginal Remains
of the Alabama River," published in the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, series 2, vol. ii. (Philadelphia, 1900).

"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION.— This is one of those arbi-
trations on pecuniary claims, made by one state, on behalf of
its subjects, against another state, which are referred to in the
article ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. The case is important,
both from a historical and a juridical point of view, and affords
a conspicuous example of the value of arbitration as a means of
avertingwar. The facts are as follows: —

In 1 86 1 the Southern States of North America seceded from
the rest on the slavery question and set up a separate government
under President Jefferson Davis. Hostilities began with the
capture of Fort Sumter by the Confederates on the i3th of April
1861 . On the igth of April President Abraham Lincoln declared
a blockade of the southern ports. On the i4th of May the British
government issued a proclamation of neutrality, by which the
Confederates were recognized as belligerents. This example was
followed shortly afterwards by France and other nations. The
blockade of the southern ports was not at first effective, and
blockade-running soon became an active industry. The Con-
federates established agencies in England for the purchase of
arms, which they despatched in ordinary merchant vessels to the
Bahamas, whence they were transhipped into fast steamers
especially constructed for the purpose.

In June 1862 the vessel, the " Alabama," originally known as
" No. 290," was being built by Messrs. Laird at Birkenhead.
She was then nearly completed and was obviously intended for
a man-of-war, On the 23rd of June Mr C. F. Adams forwarded
to Earl Russell a letter from the United States consul at Liverpool
giving certain particulars as to her character. This letter was
laid before the law officers, who advised that, if these particulars
were correct, the vessel ought to be detained. On the aist of
July sworn evidence, which was supplemented on the 23rd of
July, was obtained and laid before the commissioners of customs
(who were the proper authorities to enforce the provisions of the
Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819), but they declined to move.
On the 23rd of July the same evidence was laid before the law
officers, who advised that there was sufficient ground for deten-
tion. By some accident, which has never been satisfactorily
explained, but was probably connected with the severe illness of
Sir John Harding, the queen's advocate, the papers were not
returned till the 29th of July. Instructions were then issued to
seize the vessel, but she had already sailed on the evening of the
28th. Although she remained for two days off the coast of
Anglesey, there was no serious attempt at pursuit. She after-
wards made her way to the Azores, where she received her
armament, which was brought from Liverpool in two British
ships. Captain Semmes there took command of her under a
commission from the Confederate government. After a most
destructive career she was sunk off Cherbourg by the " Kear-
sarge " on the igth of June 1864.

On these facts the United States government alleged against
Great Britain two grievances, or sets of grievances. The first was
the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents and a
general manifestation of unfriendliness in other ways. The
second was in respect of breaches of neutrality in allowing the
" Alabama," the " Florida " (originally the " Oreto "), the " Shen-
andoah " and other Confederate vessels to be built and equipped
on British territory. Correspondence ensued extending over
several years. At length in February 1871 a commission was
appointed to sit at Washington in order, if possible, to arrive
at some common understanding as to the mode in which the

ALABAMA RIVER

465

questions at issue might be settled. With respect to the"Alabama"
claims the British commissioners suggested that they should be
submitted to arbitration. The American commissioners refused
" unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators in the
consideration of the facts could be first agreed upon." After
some discussion the British commissioners consented that the
three following rules should apply. A neutral government is
bound — (i) to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming
or equipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel, which it has
reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry
on war against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of
any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such
vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within
such jurisdiction, to warlike use; (2) not to permit or suffer
either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base
of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the
renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms or the
recruitment of men; (3) to exercise due diligence in its own ports
and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction to prevent
any violation of the foregoing obligation and duties. The ar-
rangements made by the commission were embodied in the treaty
of Washington, which was signed on the 8th of May 1871, and
approved by the Senate on the 24th of May. Article i, after
expressing the regret felt by Her Majesty's government for the
escape, in whatever circumstances, of the "Alabama " and other
vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by
these vessels, provided that " the claims growing out of the acts
of the said vessels, and generically known as the ' Alabama '
claims " should be referred to a tribunal composed of five arbi-
trators, one to be named by each of the contracting parties and
the remaining three by the king of Italy, the president of the
Swiss Confederation and the emperor of Brazil respectively. By
Article 2 all questions submitted were to be decided by a majority
of the arbitrators, and each of the contracting parties was to name
one person to attend as agent. Article 6 provided that the
arbitrators should be governed by the three rules quoted above,
and by such principles of international law not inconsistent
therewith as the arbitrators should determine to be applicable to
the case. By the same article the parties agreed to observe these
rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the
knowledge of other maritime powers. Article 7 provided that
the decision should be made within three months from the close
of the argument, and gave power to the arbitrators to award a
sum in gross in the event of Great Britain being adjudged to be
in the wrong.

The treaty was, on the whole, welcomed in England. The
United States appointed Mr C. F. Adams as arbitrator and Mr
J. C. Bancroft Davis as agent. TheBritish government appointed
Sir Alexander Cockburn as arbitrator and Lord Tenterden as
agent. The arbitrators appointed by the three neutral powers
were Count Sclopis (Italy), M. Staempfli (Switzerland), Baron
d'ltajuba (Brazil). The first meeting of the tribunal took place
on the isth of December 1871 in the H6tel de Ville, Geneva. As
soon as the cases had been formally presented, the tribunal
adjourned till the following June. There followed immediately
a controversy which threatened the collapse of the arbitration.
It was found that in the American case damages were claimed not
only for the property destroyed by the Confederate cruisers, but
in respect of certain other matters known as " indirect losses,"
viz. the transference of the American marine to the British flag,
the enhanced payments of insurance, the expenses of pursuit and
the prolongation of the war. But this was not all. The American
case revived the charges of " insincere neutrality " and " veiled
hostility " which had figured in the diplomatic correspondence,
and had been repudiated by Great Britain. It dwelt at length
upon such topics as the premature recognition of belligerency, the
unfriendly utterances of British politicians and the material
assistance afforded to the Confederates by British traders. The
inclusion of the indirect losses and the other matters just referred
to caused great excitement in England. That they were within
the treaty was disputed, and it was argued that, if they were, the

treaty should be amended or denounced. In October 1872 Lord
Granville notified to General Schenck, the United States minister,
that the British government did not consider that the indirect
losses were within the submission, and in April the British
counter-case was filed without prejudice to this contention. On
the 1 5th of June the tribunal reassembled and the American
argument was filed. The British agent then applied for an
adjournment of eight months, ostensibly in order that the two
governments might conclude a supplemental convention, it
having been meanwhile privately arranged between the arbi-
trators that an extra-judicial declaration should be obtained from
the arbitrators on the subject of the direct claims. On the igth
of June Count Sclopis intimated on behalf of all his colleagues
that, without intending to express any opinion upon the inter-
pretation of the treaty, they had arrived at the conclusion that
" the indirect claims did not constitute upon the principles of
international law applicable to such cases a good foundation for
an award or computation of damages between nations." In
consequence of this intimation Mr Bancroft Davis informed the
tribunal on the 2 5th of June that he was instructed not to press
those claims; and accordingly on the 2 7th of June Lord Tenter-
den withdrew his application for an adjournment, and the
arbitration was allowed to proceed. The discussion turned
mainly on the question of the measure of " due diligence." The
United States contended that it must be a diligence commen-
surate with the emergency or with the magnitude of the results
of negligence. The British government maintained that while
the measure of care which a government is bound to use in such
cases must be dependent more or less upon circumstances, it
would be unreasonable to require that it should exceed that
which the governments of civilized states were accustomed to
employ in matters concerning their own security or that of their
citizens.

The tribunal adopted the view suggested by the United States.
It found that Great Britain was legally responsible for all the
depredations of the " Alabama " and " Florida " and for those
committed by the " Shenandoah " after she left Melbourne. In
the case of the " Alabama " the court was unanimous; in the
case of the " Florida " Sir A. Cockburn alone, in that of the
" Shenandoah " he and Baron d'ltajuba, dissented from the
majority. In the cases of the other vessels the judgment was
in favour of Great Britain. The tribunal decided to award a
sum in gross, and (Sir A. Cockburn again dissenting) fixed the
damages at $15,500,000 in gold. On the i4th of September
the award was formally published, and signed by all the arbi-
trators except Sir A. Cockburn, who filed a lengthy statement of
his reasons.

The stipulation that the three rules should be jointly sub-
mitted by the two powers to foreign nations has never been
carried out. For this the British government has been blamed
by some. But the general view of continental publicists is,
that the language of the rules was not sufficiently precise to
admit of their being generally accepted as a canon of neutral
obligations. (M. H. C.)

ALABAMA RIVER, a river of Alabama, U.S.A., formed by
the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 m. above
Montgomery. It flows W. as far as Selma, then S.W. until,
about 45 m. from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee to form
the Mobile and Tensas rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.
The course of the Alabama is tortuous; its width varies from
200 to 300 yds., its depth from 3 to 7 ft.; its length by the
United States Survey is 312 m., by steamboat measurement,
420 m. The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber
districts of the state, and railways connect it with the mineral
regions of north central Alabama. The principal tributary of
the Alabama is the Cahaba (about 200 m. long), which enters it
about 10 m. below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Ala-
bama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is
navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia (where it is
formed by the junction of the Oostenaula and Etowah rivers), to
about 117 m. above Wetumpka (about 192 m. below Rome and
26 m. below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction

466

ALABASTER

with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been consider-
ably improved by the Federal government. The navigation of
the Tallapoosa river (which has its source in Paulding county,
Georgia, and is about 250 m. long) is prevented by shoals and a
6o-ft. fall at Tallassee, a few miles N. of its junction with the
Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. In
1878 the Federal government undertook to make a channel the
length of the Alabama 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep; an amend-
ment in 1891 provided for a 6-ft. channel at low water, and in
June 1907 this work was reported as " 10% completed" at an
expenditure of $303,659. The Mobile river is navigable for
vessels of about 14 ft. draft. The Alabama is an important
carrier of cotton, cotton seed, fertilizer, cereals, lumber, naval
stores, &c.; and in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the freight tonnage
was 417,041 tons.

ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567-1640),
English Latin poet and scholar, was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk,
in 1567. He was, so Fuller states, a nephew by marriage of
Dr John Still, bishop of Bath and Wells. His surname, some-
times written Arblastier, is one of the many variants of arbalester,
a cross-bowman. Alabaster was educated at Westminster
school, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1583. He
became a fellow, and in 1592 was incorporated of the university
of Oxford. About 1 592 he produced at Trinity College his Latin
tragedy of Roxana.1 It is modelled on the tragedies of Seneca,
and is a stiff and spiritless work. Fuller and Anthony a Wood
bestowed exaggerated praise on it, while Samuel Johnson regarded
it as the only Latin verse worthy of notice produced in England
before Milton's elegies. Roxana is founded on the La Dalida
(Venice, 1567) of Luigi Groto, known as Cieco di Hadria, and
Hallam asserts that it is a plagiarism (Literature of Europe, iii.
54). A surreptitious edition in 1632 was followed by an author-
ized version a plagiarii unguibus vindicata, aucla et agnita ab
Authore, Gulielmo Alabastro. One book of an epic poem in Latin
hexameters, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, is preserved in MS.
in the library of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. This poem,
Elisaeis, Apotheosis poetica, Spenser highly esteemed. " Who
lives that can match that heroick song?" he says in Colin
Clout's come home againe, and begs " Cynthia " to withdraw the
poet from his obscurity. In June 1596 Alabaster sailed with
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, on the expedition to Cadiz in
the capacity of chaplain, and, while he was in Spain, he became
a Roman Catholic. An account of his change of faith is given
in an obscurely worded sonnet contained in a MS. copy of
Divine Meditations, by Mr Alabaster (see J. P. Collier, Hist, of
Eng. Dram. Poetry, ii. 341). He defended his conversion in
a pamphlet, Seven Motives, of which no copy is extant. The
proof of its publication only remains in two tracts, A Booke of the
Seuen Planets, or Seuen wandring motives of William Alablaster's
(sic) wit . . . , by John Racster (1598), and An Answer to
William Alabaster, his Motives, by Roger Fenton (1599). From
these it appears that Alabaster was imprisoned for his change
of faith in the Tower of London during 1598 and 1599. In 1607
he published at Antwerp Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi,
in which his study of the Kabbalah was turned to account in a
mystical interpretation of scripture which drew down the censure
alike of Protestants and Catholics. The book was placed on the
Index librorum prohibitorum at Rome early in 1610. Alabaster
says in the preface to his Ecce sponsus venit (1633), a treatise on
the time of the second advent of Christ, that he went to Rome
and was there imprisoned by the Inquisition, but succeeded in
escaping to England and again embraced the Protestant faith.
He received a prebend in St Paul's cathedral, London, and the
living of Therfield, Hertfordshire. He died in 1640. Alabaster's
other cabalistic writings are Commentarius de Bestia Apoca-
lyptica (1621) and Spiraculum tubarum . . . . (1633), a mystical
interpretation of the Pentateuch. It was by these theological
writings that he won the praise of Robert Herrick, who calls him
" the triumph of the day " and the "one only glory of a million"

1 For an analysis of the play see an article on the Latin university
plays in the Jahrbuch der Deutschen Shakespeare Gesellschaft (Weimar,
1898).

(" To Doctor Alabaster " in Hesperides, 1648) . He also published
(1637) Lexicon Pentaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum,
Talmudico-Rabbiniccn et Arabicum.

See T. Fuller, Worthies of England (ii. 343) ; J. P. Collier, Bibl.
and Crit. Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (vol. i.
1865) ; Pierre Bayle, Dictionary, Historical and Critical (ed. London,
1734) ; also the Athenaeum (December 26, 1903), where Mr Bertram
Dobell describes a MS. in his possessioncontaining forty-three sonnets
by Alabaster.

ALABASTER, a name applied to two distinct mineral sub-
stances, the one a hydrous sulphate of lime and the other a
carbonate of lime. The former is the alabaster of the present
day, the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. The
two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their
relative hardness. The modern alabaster is so soft as to be
readily scratched even by the finger-nail (hardness=i-s to 2),
whilst the stone called alabaster by the ancients is too hard to
be scratched in this way (hardness = 3), though it yields readily
to a knife. Moreover, the ancient alabaster, being a carbonate,
effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid, whereas the
modern alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected.

Ancient Alabaster. — This substance, the " alabaster " of scrip-
ture, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early examples
came from the East. The Greek name AXa/3a(rrptr7)s is said to
be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, where the
stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name
to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and
it has been suggested that it may have had an Arabic origin.
The Oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small
perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabasira; and this
has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Ala-
baster was also employed in Egypt for Canopic jars and various
other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid sarcophagus,
sculptured in a single block of translucent Oriental alabaster
from Alabastron, is in the Soane Museum, London. This was
discovered by Giovanni Belzoni, in 1817, in the tomb of Seti I.,
near Thebes, and was purchased by Sir John Soane, having
previously been offered to the British Museum for £2000.

Oriental alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the
floor and walls of limestone-caverns, or a kind of travertine,
deposited from springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in
successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance which the
marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as
onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as onyx —
a term which should, however, be restricted to a siliceous mineral.
The Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near Suef
and near Assiut; there are many ancient quarries in the hills
overlooking the plain of Tell el Amarna. The Algerian onyx-
marble has been largely quarried in the province of Oran. In
Mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at
La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble
occurs also in the district of Tehuacan and at several localities
in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia.

Modern Alabaster. — When the term "alabaster" is used
without any qualification it invariably means, at the present
day, a finely granular variety of gypsum (q.v.). This mineral,
or alabaster proper, occurs in England in the Keuper marls of
the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld
in Staffordshire and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. At all
these localities it has been extensively worked. It is also found,
though in subordinate quantity, at Watchet in Somersetshire,
near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumberland
and Westmorland it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but
at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottingham-
shire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or " floors,"
in spheroidal masses known as " balls " or " bowls," and in
smaller lenticular masses termed " cakes." At Chellaston,
where the alabaster is known as " Patrick," it has been worked
into ornaments under the name of " Derbyshire spar " — a term
applied also to fluor-spar. The finer kinds of alabaster are
largely employed as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesi-
astical decoration, and for the walls of staircases and halls.
Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms,

ALACOQUE— ALAIN DE LILLE

467

Btl

:

but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor
work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine
uniform grain, but it is often associated with oxide of iron, which
produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser
varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster
of Paris, whence they are sometimes known as " plaster stone."

On the continent of Europe the centre of the alabaster trade
is Florence. The Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses,
embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene
and Pliocene age. The mineral is largely worked, by means of
underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several
varieties are recognized — veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform,
&c. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is
sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, whilst the common kinds
are carved locally, at a very cheap rate, into vases, clock-cases
and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried
on, especially in Florence, Pisa and Leghorn. In order to
diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an
opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in
a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-
point — an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature
be not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white
chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial
dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely
resembles true marble, and is known as marmo di Castellina.
It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also
by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian
sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with

ic modern stone.

Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated,

various pigmentary solutions; and in this way a good imita-
tion of coral has been produced (alabaster coral).

See M. Carmichael, Report on the Volterra Alabaster Industry,
Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 352 (London, 1895) ; A. T.
Metcalfe, " The Gypsum Deposits of Nottingham and Derbyshire,"
Transactions of the Federated Institution, vol. xii. (1896), p. 107;
J. G. Goodchild, " The Natural History of Gypsum," Proceedings of
the Geologists' Association, vol. x. (1888), p. 425; George P. Merrill,
" The Onyx Marbles," Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1893,

539- (F. W. R.*)

ALACOQUE, or AL COQ, MARGUERITE MARIE (1647-1690),
French nun and mystic, was born at Lauthecourt, a village in the
diocese of Autun, on the 22nd of July 1647. She would seem to
have been from the first of a morbid and unhealthy temperament,
and before-\he age of thirteen was the subject of a paralytic
seizure. Having been cured of this, as she believed, by the

;tercession of the Holy Virgin, she changed her name to Marie
d vowed to devote her life to her service. In May 1671 she
entered the Visitation convent at Paray-le-Monial, in the diocese
of Autun, and took the final vows in November 1672. Though
her reading was confined to the lives of the saints, she taught in
the school kept by the nuns for the girls of the neighbourhood,
to whom she endeared herself by her kindly disposition. The
appalling austerities, however, to which she was allowed to
bject herself quickly affected her mental and bodily health.
!ailucinations, to which she had been always Subject, became
more and more frequent. She conceived herself to be specially
.voured by Christ, who appeared to her in the most extravagant
irms. At last, by dint of fasting and lacerating her flesh, she
cceeded in reducing herself to such a state of ecstatic suffer-
g that she believed herself to be Undergoing in her own person
e Passion of the Lord. Her reward was theXsupreme vision in
hich Christ revealed to her His heart burning with divine love,
id even, so she affirmed, exchanged it with hers, at the same
ie bidding her establish, on the Friday following, the feast of
'orpus Christi, a festival in honour of His Sacred Heart. It was
;ot till ten years later, in 1685, that the festival was first cele-
irated at Paray, and not till after the death of Marguerite, on the
1 7th of October 1690, that the cult of the Sacred Heart, fostered
by the Jesuits and the subject of violent controversies within
ie church, spread throughout France and Christendom. (See
IACRED HEART.)
Marguerite Alacoque was beatified by Pius IX. in 1864. Her

int
an

short devotional writing, La Devotion au Sacrt-Cxur de Jesus,
was published by J. Croiset in 1698, and is now very popular
among Roman Catholics.

See Bishop Languet, Vie de la venerable Marguerite-Marie (Paris,
1724), translated and edited by F. W. Faber (1847) ; Mgr. Bougaud,
Histoife de la bienheureuse Marguerite- Marie (Paris, 1874); G.
Tickell, S.J., The Life of Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque, with some
account of the devotion to the Sacred Heart (London, 1869) ; J. B. H. R.
Capefigue, Marie Marguerite Al-Coq (Paris, 1866).

ALAGOAS, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. and W. by
the state of Pernambuco, S. and W. by the state of Sergipe, and
E. by the Atlantic. It has an area of 22,584 sq. m. A dry, semi-
barren plateau, fit for grazing only, extends across the W. part
of the state, breaking down into long fertile valleys and wooded
ridges towards the coast, giving the country a mountainous
character. The coastal plain is filled with lakes (lagoas), in some
cases formed by the blocking up of river outlets by beach sands.
The valleys and slopes are highly fertile and produce sugar,
cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, mandioca and fruits. Hides
and skins, mangabeira rubber, cabinet woods, castor beans and
rum are also exported. Cattle-raising was formerly a prominent
industry, but it has greatly declined. Manufactures have been
developed to a limited extent only, though protective tariff laws
have been adopted for their encouragement. The climate is hot
and humid, and fevers are prevalent in the hot season. The
capital, Maceio, is the chief commercial city of the state, and its
port (Jaragua) has a large foreign and coastwise trade. The
principal towns are Alagoas, formerly the capital, picturesquely
situated on Lake Manguaba, ism. S.W. of Maceio, and Penedo,
a small port on the lower Sao Francisco, 26 m. above the river's
mouth. Before 1817 Alagoas formed part of the capitania of
Pernambuco, but in that year the district was rewarded with a
separate government for refusing to join a revolution, and in
1823 became a province of the empire. The advent of the
republic in 1889 changed the province into a state.

ALAIN DE LILLE [Alanus de Insulis] (c. 1128-1202), French
theologian and poet, was born, probably at Lille, some years
before 1 1 28. Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught
in the schools of Paris, and he attended the Lateran Council in
1179. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes
called Alanus de Monlepessulano), lived for a time outside the
walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Citeaux, where he died
in 1 202 . He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime
and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be
called Doctor universalis. Among his very numerous works two
poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature
of the middle ages; one of these, the De planclu naturae, is an
ingenious satire on the vices of humanity; the other, the Anti-
claudianus, a treatise on morals, the form of which recalls the
pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and
relatively pure in its latinity. As a theologian Alain de Lille
shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the i2th
century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, how-
ever, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In
the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by
prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical
order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to
faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei,
as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason.
Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle,
and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed.
This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only
his employment of various terms not generally used in such a
connexion (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise
its apparent originality. Alain de Lille has often been con-
founded with other persons named Alain, in particular with
Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain
de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed
to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard
should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon
Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Neither is the philosopher of
Lille the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under
his name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta

468

ALAIS— ALAMEDA

Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the
other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de
Lille was the author of the ATS catholicae fidei and the treatise
Contra haereticos.

The works of Alain de Lille have been published by Migne, Patro-
logia latina, vol. ccx. A critical edition of the Anticlaudianus and
of the De planctu naturae is given by Th. Wright in vol. ii. of the
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigrammatists of the Twelfth Century
(London, 1872). See Haureau, Memoire sur la vie et quelques ceuvres
d' Alain de Lille (Paris, 1885); M. Baumgartner, Die Philosophic
des Alanus de Insulis (Miinster, 1896). (P. A.)

ALAIS, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Card, 25 m. N.N.W. of Nimes on the
Paris-Lyon railway, on which it is an important junction. Pop.
(1906) 18,987. The town is situated at the foot of the Cevennes,
on the left bank of the Garden, which half surrounds it. The
streets are wide and its promenades and fine plane-trees make the
town attractive; but the public buildings, the chief of which are
the church of St Jean, a heavy building of the i8th century, and
the citadel, which serves as barracks and prison, are of small
interest. Pasteur prosecuted his investigations into the silk-
worm disease at Alais, and the town has dedicated a bust to his
memory. There is also a statue of the chemist J. B. Dumas.
Alais has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a lycee and a school of mines. The town is one
of the most important markets for raw silk and cocoons in the
south of France, and the Gardon supplies power to numerous silk-
mills. It is also the centre of a mineral field, which yields large
quantities of coal, iron, zinc and lead; its blast-furnaces,
foundries, glass-works and engineering works afford employment
to many workmen.

In the i6th century Alais was an important Huguenot centre.
In 1629 the town was taken by Louis XIII., and by the peace
of Alais the Huguenots gave up their right to places de sureti
(garrison towns) and other privileges. A bishopric was estab-
lished there in 1694 but suppressed in 1790.

ALAJUELA, the capital of the province of Alajuela, in Costa
Rica, Central America, on the transcontinental railway, 15 m.
W. of San Jose. Pop. (1904) 4860. Alajuela is built at the
southern base of the volcano of Poas (8895 ft.) and overlooks
the fertile plateau of San Jose. Its central square, adorned with
a handsome bronze fountain, contains the municipal buildings,
and a large but unattractive cathedral. The town covers a
considerable area; the detached white houses of its suburbs
are surrounded by trees and flowering shrubs. Alajuela is the
centre of the Costa Rican sugar trade, and an important market
for coffee. Its products are exported from Puntarenas, on the
Pacific Ocean, 32 m. W. The province of Alajuela includes the
territory of the Guatusos Indians, along the northern frontier;
the towns of Atenas, Grecia, Naranjo and San Ramon (all with
less than 5000 inhabitants), and the gold-mines of Aguacate,
a little north of Atenas.

ALAMANNI, or ALLEMANM, a German tribe, first mentioned
by Dio Cassius, under the year 213. They apparently dwelt
in the basin of the Maine, to the south of the Chatti. According
to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that they were a
conglomeration of various tribes. There can be little doubt,
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponder-
ating element in the nation. Among the other elements may be
mentioned the Juthungi, Bucinobantes, Lentienses, and perhaps
the Armalausi. From the 4th century onwards we hear also
of the Suebi or Suabi. The Hermunduri had apparently be-
longed to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements
from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later
times the names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be synonymous.
The tribe was continually engaged in conflicts with the Romans,
the most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which
they were defeated by Julian, afterwards emperor, in the year
357, when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. Early
in the sth century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the
Rhine and conquered and settled Alsace and a large part of
Switzerland. Their kingdom lasted until the year 495, when
they were conquered by Clovis, from which time they formed

part of the Prankish dominions. The Alamannic and Swabian
dialects are now spoken in German Switzerland, the southern
parts of Baden and Alsace, Wiirttemberg and a small portion
of Bavaria.

See Dio Cassius Ixvii. ff. ; Ammianus Marcellinus, passim •
Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii. ; C. Zeuss, Die
Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme (Munich, 1837), pp. 303 ff. ;
O. Bremer in H. Paul, Crundriss der germanischen Philologie (2nd
ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp. 930 ff. (F. G. M. B.)

ALAMANNI, or ALEMANNI, LUIGI (1495-1556), Italian states-
man and poet, was born at Florence. His father was a devoted
adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a sup-
posed injustice, joined with others in an unsuccessful conspiracy
against Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. He
was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, and, on
the accession of Clement, to flee to France. When Florence
shook off the papal yoke in 1527, Alamanni returned, and took
a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the republic.
On the restoration of the Medici in 1530 he had again to take
refuge in France, where he composed the greater part of his
works. He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent him as
ambassador to Charles V. after the peace of Crepy in 1 544. As
an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that, when
Charles interrupted a complimentary address by quoting from
a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words —

" 1' aquila grifagna,

Che per piit devorar, duoi rostri porta "
(Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears,
The better to devour),

the latter at once replied that he spoke them as a poet, who was
permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now as an ambassador,
who was obliged to tell the truth. The ready reply pleased
Charles, who added some complimentary words. After the death
of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence of his successor
Henry II., and in 1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to
Genoa. He died at Amboise on the i8th of April 1556. He
wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by the purity
and excellence of their style. The best is a didactic poem,
La Coltivazione (Paris, 1546), written in imitation of Virgil's
Georgics. His Opere Toscane (Lyons, 1532) consists of satirical
pieces written in blank verse. An unfinished poem, Aiiarchide,
in imitation of the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has
little merit. It has been said by some that Alamanni was the
first to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction
belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino. He
also wrote a poetical romance, Girone il Cortese (Paris, 1548);
a tragedy, Antigone; a comedy, Flora; and other poems. His
works were published, with a biography by P. Raffaelli, as
Versi e prose di Luigi Alamanni (Florence, 1859).

See G. Naro, Luigi Alamanni e la coltivazione (Syracuse, 1897),
and C. Corso, Un decennio di patriottismo di Luigi Alamanni (Palermo,
1898).

ALAMBAGH, or ALUMBAGH, the name of a large park or
walled enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque and other
buildings, as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 m.
from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road, in the United Provinces
of India. It was converted into a fort by the mutineers in 1857,
and after its capture by the British was of importance in con-
nexion with the military operations around Lucknow. (See
INDIAN MUTINY and OUTRAM, SIR JAMES.)

ALAMEDA, a residential city of Alameda county, California,
U.S.A., on an artificial island about 5 m. long and i m. wide,
on the E. side of San Francisco bay, opposite to and about 6 m.
from San Francisco, and directly S. of Oakland, from which it
is separated by a drainage canal, spanned by bridges. Included
within the limits of the city is Bay Farm island, with an area
of about 3 sq. m. Pop. (1870) 1557; (1880) 5708; (1890)
11,165; (1900) 16,464, of whom 4175 were foreign-born; (1910,
census) 23,383. Alameda is served by the Southern Pacific
railway, and is connected by an electric line with Oakland and
Berkeley. Its site is low and level and its plan fairly regular.
Among the city's manufactures are terra-cotta tiles, pottery, rugs,

ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS— ALARCON

469

refrigerators and salt. The city owns and operates the electric-
lighting plant; the water-works system is privately owned,
and the water supply is obtained from deep wells at San
Leandro. A settlement existed here before the end of the
Mexican period. In 1854 it was incorporated as a town and
in 1885 was chartered as a city. In 1906 the city adopted a
freehold charter, centralizing power in the mayor and providing
for a referendum. The county was organized in 1853.

ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, BALTASAR (1555-1640),
Spanish scholar, was born at Medina del Campo in 1555. His
friendship with Antonio Perez caused him to be arrested in
1590 and imprisoned for nearly thirteen years. His Tdcito
espanol ilmtrado con aforismos (Madrid, 1614) is the only work
which bears his name, but he is probably the author of the

Hscurso del gobierno ascribed to Perez. Through the influence
of Lerma (to whom the Tdcito is dedicated) and of Olivares, he

ubsequently attained high official position.

See L'Art de gouverner, ed. J. M. Guardia (Paris, 1867); P. J.
Pidal, Historic, de las alteraciones de Aragon en el reinado de Felipe II.
(Madrid, 1862), vol. iii. pp. 29-30; A. Perez, Relaciones (Geneva,
1654), pp. 86-88.

ALAND ISLANDS, an archipelago at, the entrance to the Gulf
Bothnia, about 25 m. from the coast of Sweden, and 15 from
.hat of Finland. The group, which forms part of the Finnish
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, consists of nearly three hundred
islands, of which about eighty are inhabited, the remainder
being desolate rocks. These islands form a continuation of a
dangerous granite reef extending along the south coast of
Finland. They formerly belonged to Sweden, and in the neigh-
bourhood the first victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedes
was gamed by Peter the Great in 1714. They were ceded to
Russia in 1809. They occupy a total area of 1426 sq. km., and
heir present population is estimated at about 19,000. The
najority of these occupy the island of Aland, upon which is
iituated the town of Mariehamn with a population of 1171.
be inhabitants are mostly of Swedish descent, and are hardy
amen and fishermen. The surface of the islands is generally
ndy, the soil thin and the climate keen ; yet Scotch fir, spruce
nd birch are grown; and rye, barley, flax and vegetables are
produced in sufficient quantity for the wants of the people,
jreat numbers of cattle are reared; and cheese, butter and
hides, as well as salted meat and fish, are exported. There are
veral excellent harbours (notably that of Yttemas), which
ere at one time of great importance to Russia from the fact
at they are frozen up for a much briefer period than those on
lie coast of Finland.
The Aland Islands occupy a position of the greatest strategic
nportance, commanding as they do both the entrance to the
Drt of Stockholm and the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia,
ough which the greater part of the trade of Sweden is carried
When, by the 4th article of the treaty of Fredrikshavn
Friedrichshamn), 5/17 September 1809, the islands were ceded
i Russia, together with the territories forming the grand-duchy
Finland on the mainland, the Swedes were unable to secure
i provision that the islands should not be fortified. The question
as, however, a vital one not only for Sweden but for Great
Britain, whose trade in the Baltic was threatened. In 1854,
ordingly, during the Crimean War, an Anglo-French force
attacked and destroyed the fortress of Bomersund, against the
lection of which Palmerston had protested without effect some
venty years previously. By the " Aland Convention," con-
Juded between Great Britain, France and Russia on the 3oth
March 1856, it was stipulated that " the Aland Islands shall
ot be fortified, and that no military or naval establishments
ball be maintained or created on them." By the 33rd article
the treaty of Paris (1856) this convention, annexed to the
nal act, was given " the same force and validity as if it formed
art thereof," Palmerston declaring in the House of Commons
lay 6) that it had " placed a barrier between Russia and the
orth of Europe." Some attention was attracted to this arrange-
nent when in 1906 it was asserted that Russia, under pretext
stopping the smuggling of arms into Finland, was massing

considerable naval and military forces at the islands. The
question of the Aland Islands created some discussion in 1907
and 1908 in connexion with the new North Sea agreements, and
undoubtedly Russia considered the convention of 1856 as rather
humiliating. But it was plainly shown by other powers that
they did not propose to regard it as modified or open to question,
and the point was not definitely and officially raised.

See the article by Dr Verner Soderberg in the National Review,
No. 392, for April 1908.

ALANI (Gr. 'AXovoi, 'AXaupoi ; Chinese '0-lan-na; since the
9th century A.D. they have been called As, Russ. Jasy, Georgian
Ossi), the easternmost division of the Sarmatians (see SCYTHIA),
Iranian nomads with some Altaic admixture. First met with
north of the Caspian, and later (c. ist century A.D.) spreading
into the steppes of Russia, the Alans made incursions into both
the Danubian and the Caucasian provinces of the Roman empire.
By the Huns they were cut into two portions, of which the western
joined the Germanic nations in their invasion of southern Europe,
and, following the fortunes of the Vandals, disappeared in North
Africa. Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about the
steppes until late medieval times, were by fresh invading hordes
forced into the Caucasus, where they remain as the Ossetes.
At one time partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries,
they had almost relapsed into heathenism, but are now under
Russian influence returning to Christianity. (E. H. M.)

ALARCON, HERNANDO DE, Spanish navigator of the i6th
century, is known only in connexion with the expedition to the
coast of California, of which he was leader. He set sail on the
9th of May 1540 with orders from the Spanish court to await
at a certain point on the coast the arrival of an expedition by
land under the command of Vasquez de Coronado. The junction
was not effected, though Alarcon reached the appointed place
and left letters, which were afterwards found by Diaz, another
explorer. Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty
that California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been
supposed. He made a careful survey of the coast, ascended the
Rio del Tizon or Rio de Buena Guia (Colorado) for 85 Spanish
m., and was thus able on his return to New Spain in 1541 to
construct an excellent map of California.

See Herrera, Decade VI. book ix. ch. 15; vol. vi. fol. 212 of Madrid
edition of 1730.

ALARC6N, JUAN RUIZ DE (1518 7-1639), Spanish dramatist,
was born about 1581 at Tlacho (Mexico), where his father was
superintendent of mines. He came to Europe in 1600, studied
law at Salamanca, and in 1608 went back to Mexico to compete
for a professorial chair. Returning to Spain in 1611, he entered
the household of the marquis de Salinas, became a successful
dramatist, and was nominated a member of the council of the
Indies in 1623. He died at Madrid on the 4th of August 1639.
His plays were published in 1628 and 1634; the most famous
of these is La Verdad sospechosa, which was adapted by Corneille
as the Menteur. Alarcon had the misfortune to be a hunchback,
to be embittered by his deformity, and to be constantly engaged
in personal quarrels with his rivals; but his attitude in these
polemics is always dignified, and his crushing retort to Lope
de Vega in Los pechos privilegiados is an unsurpassable example
of cold, scornful invective. More than any other Spanish
dramatist, Alarcon is preoccupied with ethical aims, and his
gift of dramatic presentation is as brilliant as his dialogue is
natural and vivacious. It has been alleged that his foreign
origin is noticeable in his plays, and there is some foundation
for the criticism; but his workmanship is exceptionally con-
scientious, and in El Tejedor de Segovia he had produced a
masterpiece of national art, national sentiment and national
expression. (J. F.-K.)

ALARC6N, PEDRO ANTONIO DE (1833-1891), Spanish
writer, was born on the loth of March 1833 at Guadix. He
graduated at the university of Granada, studied law and theology
privately, and made his first appearance as a dramatist before
he was of age. Deciding to follow literature as a profession, he
joined with Torcuato Tarrago y Mateos in editing a Cadiz news-
paper entitled El Eco de Occidente. In 1853 he travelled to

470

ALARD— ALARIC

Madrid in the hope of finding a publisher for his continuation
of Espronceda's celebrated poem, El Diablo Mundo. Dis-
appointed in his object, and finding no opening at the capital,
he settled at Granada, became a radical journalist in that city,
and showed so much ability that in 1854 he was appointed
editor of a republican journal, El Ldtigo, published at Madrid.
The extreme violence of his polemics led to a duel between him
and the Byronic poet, Jos6 Heriberto Garcia Quevedo. The
earliest of his novels, El Final de Norma, was published in 1855,
and though its construction is feeble it brought the writer into
notice as a master of elegant prose. A small anthology, called
Mananas de Abril y Mayo (1856), proves that Alarc6n was re-
cognized as a leader by young men of promise, for among the
contributors were Castelar, Manuel del Palacio and Lopez de
Ayala. A dramatic piece, El Hijo prodigo, was hissed off the
stage in 1857, and the failure so stung Alarcon that he enlisted
under O'Donnell's command as a volunteer for the war in
Morocco. His Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa (1859)
is a brilliant account of the expedition. The first edition,
amounting to fifty thousand copies, was sold within a fortnight,
and Alarc6n's name became famous throughout the peninsula.
The book is not in any sense a formal history; it is a series of
picturesque impressions rendered with remarkable force. On
his return from Africa Alarcon did the Liberal party much good
service as editor of La Politica, but after his marriage in 1866 to
a devout lady, Paulina Contrera y Reyes, he modified his political
views considerably. On the overthrow of the monarchy in
1868, Alarcon advocated the claims of the due de Montpensier,
was neutral during the period of the republic, and declared
himself a Conservative upon the restoration of the dynasty in
December 1874. These political variations alienated Alarc6n's
old allies and failed to conciliate the royalists. But though his
political influence was ruined, his success as a writer was greater
than ever. The publication in the Revista Europea (1874) of a
short story, El Sombrero de tres picas, a most ingenious resetting
of an old popular tale, made him almost as well known out of
Spain as in it. This remarkable triumph in the picturesque vein
encouraged him to produce other works of the same kind; yet
though his Cuentos amatorios (1881), his Historietas nacionales
(1881) and his Narraciones inverosimiles (1882) are pleasing,
they have not the delightful gaiety and charm of their pre-
decessor. In a longer novel, El Escdndalo (1875), Alarc6n had
appeared as a partisan of the neo-Catholic reaction, and this
change of opinion brought upon him many attacks, mostly
unjust. His usual bad fortune followed him, for while the
Radicals denounced him as an apostate, the neo-Catholics
alleged that El Escdndalo was tainted with Jansenism. Of his
later volumes, written in failing health and spirits, it is only
necessary to mention El Capitan Veneno and the Historia de
mis libros, both issued in 1881. Alarc6n was elected a member
of the Spanish Academy in 1875. He died at Madrid on the
aoth of July 1891. His later novels and tales are disfigured by
their didactic tendency, by feeble drawing of character, and
even by certain gallicisms of style. But, at his best, Alarc6n
may be read with great pleasure. The Diario de un testigo is
still unsurpassed as a picture of campaigning life, while El
Sombrero de tres picas is a very perfect example of malicious wit
and minute observation. (J. F.-K.)

ALARD, JEAN DELPHIN (1815-1888), French violinist and
teacher, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of May 1815. From
1827 he was a pupil of F. A. Habeneck at the Paris Conservatoire,
where he succeeded P. de Sales Baillot as professor in 1843,
retaining the post till 1875. His playing was full of fire and
point, and his compositions had a great success in France, while
his violin school had a wider vogue and 'considerably greater
value. Mention should also be made of his edition in 40 parts of
a selection of violin compositions by the most eminent masters
of the 1 8th century, Les Maitres classiques du violon (Schott).
Alard died in Paris on the 22nd of February 1888.

ALARIC (Ala-rtiks, "All-ruler"), (c. 370-410), Gothic con-
queror, the first Teutonic leader who stood as a conqueror in
the city of Rome, was probably born about 370 in an island

named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube. He was of
noble descent, his father being a scion of the family of the Balthi
or Bold-men, next in dignity among Gothic warriors to the Amals.
He was a Goth and belonged to the western branch of that nation
— sometimes called the Visigoths — who at the time of his birth
were quartered in the region now known as Bulgaria, having
taken refuge on the southern shore of the Danube from the
pursuit of their enemies the Huns.

In the year 394 he served as a general of foederati (Gothic
irregulars) under the emperor Theodosius in the campaign in
which he crushed the usurper Eugenius. As the battle which
terminated this campaign, the battle of the Frigidus, was fought
near the passes of the Julian Alps, Alaric probably learnt at this
time the weakness of the natural defences of Italy on her north-
eastern frontier. The employment of barbarians as foederati,
which became a common practice with the emperors in the 4th
century, was both a symptom of disease in the body politic of the
empire and a hastener of its impending ruin. The provincial
population, crushed under a load of unjust taxation, could no
longer furnish soldiers in the numbers required for the defence of
the empire; and on the other hand, the emperors, ever fearful
that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction might
be proclaimed Augustus by his followers, preferred that high
military command should be in the hands of a man to whom such
an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. But there was
obviously a danger that one day a barbarian leader of barbarian
troops in the service of the empire might turn his armed force
and the skill in war, which he had acquired in that service,
against his trembling masters, and without caring to assume the
title of Augustus might ravage and ruin the countries which he
had undertaken to defend. This danger became a reality when
in the year 395 the able and valiant Theodosius died, leaving the
empire to be divided between his imbecile sons Arcadius and
Honorius, the former taking the eastern and the latter the
western portion, and each under the control of a minister who
bitterly hated the minister of the other.

In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of
the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped that he would receive
one of the great war ministries of the empire, and thus instead of
being a mere commander of irregulars would have under his
orders a large part of the imperial legions. This, however, was
denied him, and he found that he was doomed to remain an officer
of foederati. His disappointed ambition prompted him to take
the step for which his countrymen were longing, for they too were
grumbling at the withdrawal of the " presents," in other words
the veiled ransom-money, which for many years they had been
accustomed to receive. They raised him on a shield and ac-
claimed him as a king; leader and followers both resolving (says
Jordanes the Gothic historian) " rather to seek new kingdoms by
their own labour, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the
rule of others."

Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the
neighbourhood of Constantinople, but finding himself unable to
undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, he retraced his
steps westward and then marched southward through Thessaly
and the unguarded pass of Thermopylae into Greece. The
details of his campaign are not very clearly stated, and the story
is further complicated by the plots and counterplots of Rufinus,
chief minister of the eastern, and Stilicho, the virtual regent of
the western empire, and the murder of the 'former by his re-
bellious soldiers. With these we have no present concern; it is
sufficient to say that Alaric's invasion of Greece lasted two years
(395-396), that he ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at
once capitulated to the conqueror, that he penetrated into
Peloponnesus and captured its most famous cities, Corinth, Argos
and Sparta, selling many of their inhabitants into slavery. Here,
however, his victorious career ended. Stilicho, who had come
a second time to the assistance of Arcadius and who was un-
doubtedly a skilful general, succeeded in shutting up the Goths
in the mountains of Pholoe on the borders of Elis and Arcadia.
From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some
suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho. He crossed the

ALARIC

471

Corinthian Gulf and marched with the plunder of Greece north-
wards to Epirus. Next came an astounding transformation.
For some mysterious reason, probably connected with the
increasing estrangement between the two sections of the empire,
the ministers of Arcadius conferred upon Alaric the government
-of some part — it can hardly have been the whole — of the im-
portant prefecture of Illyricum. Here, ruling the Danubian
provinces, he was on the confines of the two empires, and, in the
words of the poet Claudian, he " sold his alternate oaths to either
hrone," and made the imperial arsenals prepare the weapons
nth which to arm his Gothic followers for the next campaign.
It was probably in the year 400 (but the dates of these events are
ather uncertain) that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy,
o-operating with another Gothic chieftain named Radagaisus.
Supernatural influences were not wanting to urge him to this
at enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that
! heard a voice proceeding from a sacred grove, " Break off all
elays, Alaric. This very year thou shall force the Alpine barrier
: Italy; thou shall penetrale lo the city." The prophecy was
not at this time fulfilled. Afler spreading desolalion Ihrough
forth Italy and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric
as met by Stilicho at Pollenlia (a Roman municipality in whal

> now Piedmonl), and Ihe bailie which Ihen followed on Ihe 6th
of April 402 (Easter-day) was a victory, though a costly one for
Rome, and effectually barred the further progress of Ihe bar-
barians. Alaric was an Arian Christian who Irusled to the
sanctity of Easter for immunity from atlack, and the enemies of
Stilicho reproached him for having gained his victory by taking

i unfair advantage of Ihe greal Christian festival. The wife of
Jaric is said lo have been taken prisoner afler Ihis battle; and
here is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his
novements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of

omen and children, having given to his invasion of Italy the
haracter of a national migration. After another defeat before
/erona, Alaric quitted Italy, probably in 403. He had nol
ndeed " penetrated to the city," but his invasion of Italy had

oduced imporlant results; il had caused Ihe imperial residence

> be Iransferred from Milan lo Ravenna, it had necessitated Ihe
vilhdrawal of Ihe Twentieth Legion from Britain, and it had
probably facililaled Ihe great invasion of Vandals, Suevi and

Jani into Gaul, by which thai province and Spain were lost to
tie empire. We nexl hear of Alaric as Ihe friend and ally of his
ite opponent Stilicho. The estrangemenl between the eastern
ad western courts had in 407 become so bitler as lo Ihrealen
1 war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the arms of

aric in order lo enforce Ihe claims of Honorius to the prefecture
of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May 408 caused milder
ounsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had

tually enlered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat Ihrealening

inner lhat if he were Ihus suddenly bidden lo desisl from war,
should be paid handsomely for whal in modern language
rould be called Ihe expenses of mobilization. The sum which he
amed was a large one, 4000 pounds of gold (aboul £160,000
terling), but under slrong pressure from Stilicho Ihe Roman
enale consenled lo promise its payment.

Three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of
is party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order
slracted from the timid and jealous Honorius; and in Ihe

sturbances which followed the wives and children of Ihe
arbarian foederati throughout Italy were slain. The natural
onsequence was lhal Ihese men lo Ihe number of 30,000 flocked

> Ihe camp of Alaric, clamouring lo be led againsl their cowardly
nemies. He accordingly crossed the Julian Alps, and in

ptember 408 slood before Ihe walls of Rome (now wilh no
apable general like Stilicho lo defend her) and began a slricl
blockade.

No blood was shed Ihis time; hunger was the weapon on which
Jaric relied. When Ihe ambassadors of Ihe senate in treating
or peace tried to terrify him wilh Iheir hinis of whal Ihe despair-
ig citizens might accomplish, he gave wilh a laugh his celebraled

swer, " The Ihicker Ihe hay, Ihe easier mowed! " Afler much
irgaining, Ihe famine-slricken citizens agreed lo pay a ransom

of more than a quarter of a million sterling, besides precious
garments of silk and leather and three thousand pounds of
pepper. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.

At this time, and indeed throughoul his career, the one
dominant idea of Alaric was nol to pull down the fabric of Ihe
empire bul lo secure for himself, by negotiation wilh ils rulers,
a regular and recognized position within ils borders. His
demands were certainly large — the concession of a block of
territory 200 m. long by 150 wide between the Danube and
the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal
dependence on the empire), and the title of commander-in-chief
of the imperial army. Yet large as the terms were, the emperor
would probably have been well advised to grant Ihem; but
Honorius was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally
unable to make war or peace, and refused to look beyond Ihe
question of his own personal safely, guaranteed as il was by the
dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all atlempls lo conducl a
satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his
impenetrable slupidily, Alaric, afler insliluling a second siege
and blockade of Rome in 409, came lo terms wilh Ihe senate,
and wilh Iheir consenl sel up a rival emperor and invested the
prefect of the city, a Greek named Allalus, wilh Ihe diadem and
the purple robe. He, however, proved quite unfil for his high
position; he rejected Ihe advice of Alaric and losl in consequence
the province of Africa, the granary of Rome, which was defended
by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in
Ihe hand of Alaric, was Ihus lurned against him, and loud in con-
sequence were Ihe murmurs of Ihe Roman populace. Honorius
was also greally strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent
from Conslanlinople lo his assislance by his nephew Theodosius
II. Alaric Iherefore cashiered his puppel emperor Altalus after
eleven months of ineffeclual rule, and once more Iried lo reopen
negotiations wilh Honorius. These negotiations would probably
have succeeded bul for the malign influence of anolher Goth,
Sarus, the heredilary enemy of Alaric and his house. When
Alaric found himself once more oulwilled by Ihe machinations
of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest
his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence
apparently was possible; Ihere are hinls, nol well substantiated,
of treachery; there is grealer probability of surprise. However
this may be — for our information at this point of Ihe slory is
miserably meagre — on Ihe 24 Ih of August 410 Alaric and his
Goths burst in by Ihe Salarian gale on the norlh-easl of Ihe cily,
and she who was of late Ihe mislress of Ihe world lay al Ihe feet
of the barbarians. The Goths showed Ihemselves nol absolutely'
ruthless conquerors. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded
with wonder many instances of Iheir clemency: Ihe Christian
churches saved from ravage; protection granted lo vasl
multiludes bolh of pagans and Christians who look refuge
Iherein ; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private
dwelling, spared because they "belonged to St. Peter"; at
leasl one case in which a beautiful Roman malron appealed,
nol in vain, lo the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who
allempled her dishonour; but even these exceptional inslances
show lhal Rome was not entirely spared those scenes of horror
which usually accompany Ihe storming of a besieged cily. We
do nol, however, hear of any damage wroughl by fire, save in
the case of Sallust's palace, which was siluated close lo the gate
by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is Ihere any
reason lo allribule any exlensive deslruclion of the buildings
of the city lo Alaric and his followers.

His work being done, his faled lask, and Alaric having pene-
Iraled lo Ihe cily, nothing remained for him bul lo die. He
marched southwards inlo Calabria. He desired lo invade Africa,
which on accounl of its corn crops was now the key of the posi-
tion; but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which
many of his soldiers perished. He died soon afler, probably
of fever, and his body was buried under Ihe river-bed of the
Busento, Ihe slream being temporarily lurned aside from its
course while Ihe grave was dug wherein Ihe Gothic chief and
some of his mosl precious spoils were interred. When the work
was finished the river was turned back into ils usual channel, and

472

ALARIC II.— ALASKA

the captives by whose hands the labour had been accomplished
were put to death that none might learn their secret. He was
succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-
in-law, Ataulphus.

Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian
Orosius and the poet Claudian, both strictly contemporary ; Zosimus,
a somewhat prejudiced heathen historian, who lived probably about
half a century after the death of Alaric ; and Jordanes, a Goth who
wrote the history of his nation in the year 551, basing his work on
the earlier history of Cassiodorus (now lost), which was written
about 520. (T. H.)

ALARIC II. (d. 507), eighth king of the Goths in Spain,
succeeded his father Euric or Evaric in 485. His dominions
not only included the whole of Spain except its north-western
corner, but also Aquitaine and the greater part of Provence.
In religion Alaric was an Arian, but he greatly mitigated the
persecuting policy of his father Euric towards the Catholics
and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of Agde. He
displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by
appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman
laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative
code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the
Breviarium Alaricianum, or Breviary of Alaric (<?.».). Alaric
was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured strictly to main-
tain the treaty which his father had concluded with the Franks,
whose king Clovis, however, desiring to obtain the Gothic
province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of
Alaric. The intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths
and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies
met in 507 at the Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, where the
Goths were defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was
overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself.

ALA-SHEHR (anc. Philadelphia), a town of Asia Minor,
in the Aidin vilayet, situated in the valley of the Kuzu Chai
(Cogamus), at the foot of the Boz Dagh (Mt. Tmolus) 83 m.
E. of Smyrna (105 by railway). Pop. 22,000 (Moslems, 17,000;
Christians, 5000). Philadelphia was founded by Attalus II.
of Pergamum about 150 B.C., became one of the " Seven
Churches " of Asia, and was called " Little Athens " on account
of its festivals and temples. It was subject to frequent earth-
quakes. Philadelphia was an independent neutral city, under
the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes, when taken in
1390 by Sultan Bayezid I. and an auxiliary Christian force
under the emperor Manuel II. after a prolonged resistance,
when all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Twelve
years later it was captured by Timur, who built a wall with the
corpses of his prisoners. A fragment of the ghastly structure
is in the library of Lincoln cathedral. The town is connected
by railway with Afium-Kara-Hissar and Smyrna. It is dirty
and ill-built; but, standing on elevated ground and commanding
the extensive and fertile plain of the Hermus, presents at a
distance an imposing appearance. It is the seat of an archbishop
and has several mosques and Christian churches. There are
small industries and a fair trade. From one of the mineral
springs comes a heavily charged water known in commerce
as " Eau de Vals," and in great request in Smyrna.

See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904).

ALASKA, formerly called RUSSIAN AMERICA, a district of
the United States of America, occupying the extreme north-
western part of North America and the adjacent islands. The
name is a corruption of a native word possibly meaning " main-
land " or " peninsula." The district of Alaska comprises, first,
all that part of the continent W. of the 14131 meridian of W.
longitude from Greenwich ; secondly, the eastern Diomede island in
Bering Strait, and all islands in Bering Sea and the Aleutian chain
lying E. of a line drawn from the Diomedes to pass midway
between Copper Island, off Kamchatka, and Attu Island of the
Aleutians; thirdly, a narrow strip of coast and adjacent islands
N. of a line drawn from Cape Muzon, in lat. 54° 40' N., E. and N.
up Portland Canal to its head, and thence, as defined in the
treaty of cession to the United States, quoting a boundary treaty
of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia, following " the
summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast " to the

i4ist meridian, provided that when such line runs more than
ten marine leagues from the ocean the limit " shall be formed
by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and which shall
never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom."
The international disputes connected with this description are
referred to below.

Physical Features. — Alaska is bounded on the N. by the Arctic
Ocean, on the W. by the Arctic Ocean and Bering Strait, on the
S. and S.W. by the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean, and on
the E. by Yukon Territory and British Columbia. It consists
of a compact central mass and two straggling appendages
running from its S.W. and S.E. corners, and sweeping in a
vast arc over 16 degrees of latitude and 58 degrees of longitude.
These three parts will be referred to hereafter respectively, as
Continental Alaska, Aleutian Alaska and the " Panhandle."
The range of latitude from Point Barrow in the Arctic Ocean
to Cape Muzon is almost 17 degrees — as great as from New
Orleans to Duluth; the range of longitude from Attu Island to
the head of Portland Canal is 58 degrees — considerably greater
than from New York to San Francisco. The total area is about
586,400 sq. m. The general ocean-coast line is about 4750 m.,
and, including the islands, bays, inlets and rivers to the head of
tide water, is about 26,000 m. in length (U.S. Coast Survey
1889). The entire southern coast is very irregular in outline;
it is precipitous, with only very slight stretches of beach or
plain. Its elevation gradually decreases as one travels W.
toward the Aleutians. A great submarine platform extends
throughout a large part of Bering Sea. The western and northern
coasts are regular in outline with long straight beaches; and
shallows are common in the seas that wash them. On the Arctic
there is a broad coastal plain. Of the islands of Alaska the more
important are: at the S.E. extremity and lying close inland,
the Alexander Archipelago, whose principal islands from N.W.
to S.E. are Chicagof, Baranof, Admiralty, Kupreanof, Kuiu,
Prince of Wales (the largest of the archipelago and of all the
islands about Alaska, measuring about 140 m. in length and
40 m. in width), Etolin and Revillagigedo; S.W. of the mainland,
two groups — (i) Kodiak, whose largest island, of the same name,
is 40 m. by 100 m., and may be considered a continuation of
the Kenai Peninsula, and whose W. continuation, S. of Alaska
Peninsula, consists of the Semidi, Shumagin and Sannak
clusters; (2) the Aleutian Islands (q.v.) sweeping 1200 m.
W.S.W. from the end of Alaska Peninsula, W. of the mainland,
in Bering Sea, the Pribilof Islands, about 5°° m. S. of Cape
Prince of Wales, the small Hall and St Matthew Islands, about
170 m. S.W. of the same cape, St Lawrence Island (too m. and
10 to 30 m. wide), which is about half way between the last men-
tioned pair of islets and Cape Prince of Wales and Nunivak
Island, near the mainland and due E. of St Matthew; and in
the middle of Bering Strait the Diomede Islands, which belong
in part to Russia.

Very little was known about Alaska previous to 1896, when
the gold discoveries in the Klondike stimulated public interest
regarding it. Since 1895, however, the explorations of the
United States Geological Survey and the Department of War,
and other departments of the government, have fully established
the main features of its physiography. It has mountains,
plateaus and lowlands on a grand scale. " In a broad way, the
larger features of topography correspond with those of the
western states. There is a Pacific Mountain system, a Central
Plateau region, a Rocky Mountain system, and a Great Plains
region. These four divisions are well marked, and show the
close geographic relation of this area to the southern part of the
continent." The orographic features of the Pacific Mountain
system trend parallel to the coast-line of the Gulf of Alaska,
changing with this at the great bend beyond the N., and of the
Panhandle from S.E. and N.W. to N.E. and S.W. and running
through the Alaska Peninsula. The Pacific Mountain system
includes four ranges. The Coast Range of the Panhandle
attains a width of too m., but has no well-defined crest line.
The range is characterized by the uniformity of summit levels
between 5000 and 6000 ft. Continuing the Coast Range, with

Vni» ^X-'* A '" ^L£jt!fi^

'r^A-/^ \

W':: f i t:-^MS^

ALASKA

473

which it is closely associated — the Chilkat river lies between
them — is the St Elias Range (a term now used to include not
only the mountains between Cross Sound and Mt. St Elias, but
the Chugach, Kenai, Skolai and Nutzotin mountains) ; among its
aksare: Mt. Crillon (15, 900 ft.), Mt. Fairweather (15, 290 ft.),
It. Vancouver (15,666 ft.), Mt. Wrangell (17,500 ft., an active
olcano) in the Nutzotin Mountains, Mt. St Elias (18,024 ft.)
ad, in Canadian territory, Mt. Logan (19,539 ft.). The Aleutian
age, of whose crest the Aleutian Islands are remnants, fills out
be system near the coast. The Alaskan Range, connecting with
be Nutzotin and Skolai branches of the St Elias Range, lies
little farther inland; it is splendidly marked by many snowy
including Mt. Foraker (17,000 ft.) and Mt. McKinley.
he latter, which on the W. rises abruptly out of a marshy
ountry, offers the obstacles of magnificent, inaccessible granite
Is and large glaciers to the mountaineer; it is the loftiest
. in North America (ca. 20,300 ft.). In the Alaskan Range
ad the Aleutian Range there are more than a dozen live vol-
aoes, several of them remarkable; the latter range is composed
.rgely of volcanic material. Evidences of very recent volcanic
ctivity are abundant about Cook Inlet. The Rocky Mountain
stem extends from Canada (the Yukon territory) into N.E.
Jaska, which it crosses near the Arctic coast in a broad belt
omposed of several ranges about 6000 ft. in altitude. There is
well-defined crest line; the axis of the system is roughly
parallel to the Pacific Mountain system, but runs more nearly
E. and W. in Alaska. Between the Pacific Mountain and the
ky Mountain systems lies the vast Central Plateau region,
• Yukon plateau. Finally, between the Rocky Mountains and
tie Arctic Ocean is- the Arctic Slope region, a sloping plain
orresponding to the interior plains of the United States.
First Physiographic Region. — The Panhandle is remarkably
licturesque. The maze of islands, hundreds in number, of the
Jexander Archipelago (area about 13,000 sq. m.) are remnants
of a submerged mountain system; the islands rise 3000 to 5000
ft. above the sea, with luxuriantly wooded tops and bald, sheer
sides scarred with marks of glacial action; the beachless coast
is only a narrow ledge between the mountains and the sea, and
like the coast of Norway, to which in outline it is not dissimilar,
bold, steep and craggy. Through the inner channels, shel-
ered from the Pacific by the island rampart, runs the " inland
ssage," the tourist route northward from Seattle, Washington,
be inter-insular straits are carried up into the shore as fjords
ading in rivers and glaciers. Thus the Stikine river continues
b'umner Strait and the Taku continues Cross Sound. The
5tikine, Taku and Alsek rivers all cross the mountains in deep-
ut canyons. Everywhere the evidences of glacial action
ound. Most remarkable are the inlets known as Portland
3anal and Lynn Canal (continuing Chatham Strait). The first
very deep, with precipitous shores and bordering mountains
to 6000 ft. high; the second is a noble fjord 100 m. long
nd on an average 6 m. wide, with magnificent Alpine scenery.
It is subject in winter to storms of extraordinary violence, but
never closed by ice. Both Portland Canal and Lynn Canal
! of historical importance, as the question of the true location
the first and the commercial importance to Canada or to the
Jnited States of the possession of the second, were the crucial
ontentions in the disputes over the Alaska-Canadian boundary,
the head of Lynn Canal, the only place on the whole extent
the south-eastern Alaskan coast where a clear-cut water-
arting is exhibited between the sea-board and interior drainage,
ae summits of the highest peaks in the Coast Range are 8000
9000 ft. above the sea. White Pass (2888 ft.) and Chilkoot
Pass (3500 ft.), at the head of the Lynn Canal, are the gateway
i the mining country of the Klondike and Upper Yukon. They
! the highest points that one meets in travelling from Skagway
Jong the course of the Yukon to Bering Sea.

Prior to the opening (in August 1900) of the railway between
Skagway and White Horse, Canada (no m.), by way of the
hite Pass, all transportation to the interior was effected by
en and pack-animals (and for a time by a system of telpherage)
ver these passes and the Chilkat or Dal ton trail; the building

of the railway reduced carriage rates to less than a tenth of their
former value, and the Chilkat and Chilkoot Passes were no longer
used. The coast region above the Panhandle shows on a smaller
and diminishing scale the same characteristic features, gradually
running into those of the Aleutians. Out of the Alaska and
Nutzotin mountains two great rivers flow southward: the
Copper, practically unnavigable except for small boats, because •
of its turbulence and the discharge of glaciers into its waters;
and the Susitna, also practically unnavigable. Both of these
rivers have their sources in lofty mountain masses, and are swift
and powerful streams carrying with them much silt; their
passes over the water-parting N. of the Kenai Peninsula are
through gorges from 4000 to 10,000 ft. in depth. The Copper,
the Susitna and its tributary, the Yentna, as well as the
Skwentna, a tributary of the Yentna from the west, all run
through picturesque canyons, and their upper courses are
characterized by glacial and torrential feeders. Their valleys
are well timbered.

The glaciers of the Panhandle and throughout the rest of the
Pacific region are most remarkable — extraordinary alike for their
number and their size. They lie mainly between 56° and 61° N.
lat., in a belt 1000 m. long, of which the central part, some 350
or 500 m. long and 80 m. to 100 m. wide, has been described as
one great confluent n6ve field. Thousands of Alpine glaciers
from one to fifteen miles long fill the upper valleys and canyons
of the mountains. More than a hundred almost reach the sea,
from which they are separated by detrital lowland or terminal
moraines. Other glaciers are of the Piedmont type. Greatest
of these and of Alaskan glaciers is the Malaspina, a vast elevated
plateau of wasting ice, 1500 sq. m. in area (nearly a tenth the
area of all Switzerland), touching the sea at only one point,
though fronting it for 50 m. behind a fringing foreland of glacial
debris. It is fed by Alpine glaciers, among them one of the
grandest in Alaska, the Seward, which descends from Mt. Logan.
It is more than 50 m. long, and more than 3 m. broad at its
narrowest point, and several times in its course flows over
cascades, falling hundreds of feet. Of tide-water glaciers the
most remarkable is probably the Muir. It has an area of 350
sq. m.; the main trunk, which is 30 to 40 m. broad, is fed by
26 tributaries, 20 of which are each greater than the Mer de Glace,
and pushes its bergs into the sea from ice cliffs almost 2 m. wide,
standing 100 to 200 ft. above the water, and extending probably
700 to looo ft. beneath its surface. It has been calculated that
the average daily discharge of the Muir in summer is 30,000,000
cubic ft. Its course, which is only about 13 m., has a slope of
zoo ft. per mile, and the main current moves 7 ft. daily. The
character of the Muir was greatly altered by an earthquake in
1899. There are some 30 tide- water glaciers — a considerable
number of them very noteworthy. The Valdez is 30 m. long
and 5000 ft. in altitude. Most of the Alaskan glaciers are re-
ceding, but not all of them; and at times there is a general
advance. The Muir receded 1-6 m. from 1879-1890, the Childs
about 600 yards in 17 years; others over 4, 7 or 10 m. in
20 years.

The Aleutian Islands (<?.».), like the Alexander Archipelago,
are remnants of a submerged mountain system. Their only
remarkable features are the volcanoes on the easterly islands,
already mentioned.

Continental Alaska. — Continental Alaska in the interior is
essentially a vast plateau. " The traveller between the main
drainage areas of the interior is struck by the uniform elevation
of the interfluminal areas. Rounded hills, level meads and
persistent flat-topped ridges, composed of rocks of varying
structure, rise to about the same level and give the impression
that they are the remnants of a former continuous surface.
Occasional limited areas of rugged mountains rise above this
level, and innumerable stream valleys have been incised below it;
but from the northern base of the St Elias and Alaskan ranges
to the southern foothills of the Rocky Mountain system, and
throughout their length, the remnants of this ancient level are to
be seen. In height it varies from about 5000 ft. close to the bases
of the mountain systems to less than 3000 ft. in the vicinity of the

474

ALASKA

main lines of drainage, and slopes gradually towards the north."
The Seward Peninsula is particularly rugged. This great plateau
drains westward through broad, gently flowing streams, the net-
work of whose tributary waters penetrates every corner of the
interior and offers easy means of communication. Both the main
streams and the smaller tributaries often flow through deep
canyons. The Yukon is one of the great drainage systems of the
world. The Yukon itself has a length of more than 2000 m. and
bisects the country from E. to W. Behind the bluffs that form
in large part its immediate border its basin is a rolling country, at
times sinking into great dead levels like the Yukon flats between
Circle City and the Lower Ramparts, some 30,000 sq. m. in area.
Of the two great affluents of the Yukon, the Tanana is for the
most part unnavigable, while the Koyukuk is navigable for more
than 450 m. by river steamers, and for more than 500 m. above
its mouth shows no appreciable diminution in volume. A low
water-parting divides the Yukon valley from the Kuskokwim,
the second river of Alaska in size, navigable by steamers for
600 m. Torrential near its source, it is already a broad, sluggish
stream at its confluence with the East Kuskokwim. The tides
rise 50 ft. near its mouth and the tide-head is 100 m. above the
mouth.

Rocky Mountains. — The Rocky Mountain system in Alaska is
higher and more complex than in Canada. About 100 m. wide
at the international boundary, where the peaks of the British
Mountains on the N. and of the Davidson Mountains on the S. are
7000 to 8000 ft. high, the system runs W.S.W. as the Endicott
Mountains, two contiguous ranges of about 5000 to 6000 ft., and
as these ranges separate, the northern becomes the De Long, the
southern the Baird Mountains, whose elevation rapidly decreases
toward the coast-line. The system is sharply defined on the
north and less so on the south.

Arctic Slope Region. — The Arctic Slope region is divided into
the Anuktuvuk Plateau about 80 m. wide, with a maximum
altitude to the S. of 2500 ft., and between the plateau and the
Arctic Ocean the Coastal Plain. Very little is known of either
part of the region.

Climate. — From the foregoing description of the country it is
evident that the range of climate must be considerable. That of
the coast and that of the Yukon plateau are quite distinct. The
Panhandle, along with the lisiere (foreland), westward to Cook
Inlet might be called temperate Alaska, its climate being similar
to that of the N.W. coast of the United States; while to the
westward and northward the winters become longer and more
severe. The cause of the mild climate of the Panhandle, formerly
supposed to be the Japanese current, or Kuro Shiwo, is now held
to be the general eastward drift of the waters of the North
Pacific in the direction of the prevalent winds. To the warmth
and moisture brought by this means the coastal region owes its
high equable temperature, its heavy rainfall (80-110 in.) and its
superb vegetation. The mean annual temperature is from 54° to
60° F. Winter sets in about the ist of December and the snow is
gone save in the mountains by the ist of May. The thermometer
rarely registers below zero F. or above 75° F.; the difference
between the midwinter and midsummer averages is seldom more
than 25°. The summer is relatively dry, the autumn and winter
wet. The vapour-laden sea air blowing landward against the
girdle of snow and glaciers on the mountain barriers a few miles
inland drains its moisture in excessive rain and snow upon the
lisiere, shrouding it in well-nigh unbroken fog and cloud-bank.
Only some 60 to 100 days in the year are clear. In passing
from the Sitkan district westward toward Kodiak and the
Aleutians (q.v.) the climate becomes even more equable, the
temperature a little lower and the rainfall somewhat less;1
the fogs at first less dense, especially near Cook Inlet, where the
climate is extremely local, but more and more persistent along
the Aleutians. The clear days of a year at Unalaska can be
counted on the fingers; five days in seven it actually rains or
snows. Bering Sea is covered with almost eternal fog. Along

1 At Kodiak, the monthly means range from 28° to 55° with a
total range from -10° to 82° F., as against -3° to 87° F. at Sitka;
the average temperature is 40-6° F., rainfall 59 in.

I the coast N. of Alaska Peninsula the rainfall diminishes to 10 in.
or less within the Arctic circle; the summer temperature is
quite endurable but the winters are exceedingly rigorous.1
East of the mountains in south-eastern Alaska the atmosphere is
dry and bracing, the temperature ranging from -14° to 92° F.
In the farther interior, in the valleys of the Yukon, the Tanana,
the Copper and the Sushitna the summers are much the same
in character, the winters much more severe. On the Yukon
at the international boundary the mean of the warmest month
is higher than that of the warmest month at Sitka, 500 m.
southward. At some points in the Upper Yukon valley the
range of extreme temperatures is as great as from -75° to 90° F.3
The mean heat of summer in the upper valley is about 60°
to 70° F., and at some points in the middle and lower valley
even higher.4 By the middle of September snow flurries have
announced the imminence of winter, the smaller streams congeal,
the earth freezes, the miner perforce abandons his diggings, and
navigation ceases even on the Yukon in October. All winter
snows fall heavily. The air is dry and quiet, and the cold
relatively uniform. In midwinter in the upper valley the sun
rises only a few degrees above the horizon for from four to six
hours a day, though very often quite obscured. In December,
January, February and March the thermometer often registers
lower than -50° F., and the mean temperature is -20°. In May
the rivers open, the cleared land thaws out, and by June the
miner is again at work. Summer is quickly in full ascendancy.
In May and June the sun shines from eighteen to twenty hours
and diffused twilight fills the rest of the day. The rainfall is
light, from 10 to 25 in. according to the year or the locality.
Dull weather is unknown. All nature responds in rich and rapid
growth to the garish light and intense heat of the long, splendid
days. But the Alaska summer is the uncertain season; at
times the nights are cold into July, at times snow falls and there
are frosts in mid-August; sometimes rain is heavy, or again
there is a veritable drought. In the great river valleys S. of
the Yukon basin climatic conditions are much less uniform.

Fauna and Flora. — The fauna of Alaska is very rich and sur-
prisingly varied. The lists of insects, birds and mammals are
especially noteworthy.6 Of these three classes, and of other than
purely zoological interest, are mosquitoes, which swarm in
summer in the interior in vast numbers; sea fowl, which are
remarkably abundant near the Aleutians; moose, and especially
caribou, which in the past were very numerous in the interior and
of extreme economic importance to the natives. The destruction
of the wild caribou has threatened to expose the Indians to
wholesale starvation, hence the effort which the United States
government has made to stock the country with domestic reindeer
from Siberia. This effort made under the direction of the Bureau
of Education has been eminently successful, and in the future the
reindeer seems certain to contribute very greatly to the food,
clothing, means of shelter and miscellaneous industries of the
natives; and not less to the solution of the problems of com-
munication and transportation throughout the interior. It is,
however, the fish and the fur-bearing animals of its rivers and
surrounding seas that are economically most distinctive of and
important to Alaska. The fishing grounds extend along the
coast from the extreme south-east past the Aleutians into Bristol
Bay. Herring are abundant, and cod especially so. There are
probably more than 100,000 sq. m. of cod-banks from 22 to go

* At St Michael the mean annual temperature is about 26°, the
monthly means run from about -2° to 54°, and the extreme recorded
temperatures from about -55° to 77° F. ; at Port Clarence the
annual mean is 22°, monthly means -7° to 51° F. ; extreme range of
temperature, -38° to 77° F. ; at Point Barrow the annual mean is
7-7° F., monthly means -18-6° to 38-l°F., extreme range of tempera-
ture -55° to 65° F.

* The mean annual temperature on the Yukon at the international
line is about 21° F., the monthly means run from -17° to 60° F.,
the range of extreme temperatures from -80° to 90° F.

4 At Fort Yukon five years' records showed mean seasonal tempera-
tures of 14°, 60°, 17°, and -23-8° F. for spring, summer, autumn
and winter respectively; at Holy Cross Mission 20°, 59°, 36° and
0-95°, at Nulato 29°, 60°, 36° and -14°.

6 The Harriman expedition collected in two months 1000 species
of insects, of which 344 species (and 6 genera) were new to science.

ALASKA

475

fathoms deep in Bering Sea and E. of the Alaska Peninsula.
Salmon are to be found in almost incredible numbers. Of marine
mammals, whales are hunted far to the N. in Bering Sea and the
Arctic Ocean, but are much less common than formerly, as are
also the walrus, the sea otter and the fur seal. All these are
disappearing before commercial greed. The walrus is now found
nainly far N. ; the sea otter, once fairly common throughout the
Jeutian district, is now rarely found even on the remoter islands;
he fur seal, whose habitat is the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea,
as been considerably reduced in numbers by pelagic hunting,
here are half-a-dozen species of hair seals and sea-lions. The
number of fur-bearing land animals is equally large. Sables,
rmine, wolverines, minks, land otters, beavers and musk-rats
ave always been important items in the fur trade. There are
ack, grizzly and polar bears, and also two exclusively Alaskan
ecies, the Kodiak and the glacier bear. The grey wolf is
ommon; it is the basal stock of the Alaskan sledge-dog. The
ed fox is widely distributed, and the white or Arctic fox is very
ommon along the eastern coast of Bering Sea; a blue fox, once
vild, is now domesticated on Kodiak and the Aleutians, and
on the southern continental coast, and a black fox, very rare,
ccurs in south-eastern Alaska; the silver fox is very rare.
The Alaskan flora is less varied than the fauna. The forests
of the coastal region eastward from Cook Inlet, and particularly
i south-eastern Alaska, are of fair variety, and of great richness
ad value. The balsam fir and in the south the red cedar
occur in scant quantities; more widely distributed, but growing
only under marked local conditions, is the yellow or Alaska cedar,
. very hard and durable wood of fine grain and pleasant odour.
The Oregon alder is fairly common. Far the most abundant are
st and Alpine hemlocks and the tide-land or Sitka spruce,
be last is not confined to this part of Alaska, but is the char-
cteristic and universal tree. It is of primary economic im-
ortance to the natives, who use it for the most various purposes.
)n the islands of the Alexander Archipelago and on Prince
Villiam Sound it grows to gigantic size; even on the Koyukuk
ad the middle Yukon it attains in places a diameter of 2 ft.
1902 a forest reservation comprising the largest part of the
ilexander Archipelago was created by the United States govern-
nent. The separation of the coast and interior floras is almost
omplete; only along the mountain passes and river valleys,
nd rarely there, is there an exchange of species. Timber, how-
ver, is fairly abundant along the entire course of the Yukon
above Anvik (about 40x3 m. from the mouth), along the great
ributaries of the Yukon, and, so far as explorations have re-
vealed, along every stream in central Alaska; and the woods
of the interior consist almost entirely of spruce. On the Yukon
Bats it grows in a vast forest impenetrably dense.1 The timber
line, which in the Panhandle and along the southern coast of
he continental mass runs from 1800 to 2400 ft., frequently
rises in the interior plateau even to 4000 ft. Next in importance
iter spruce, in the interior, is birch, and then balsam poplar.
Thickets of alders and willows in wet places and new-made land,
spens and large cottonwoods west of the characteristic spruce
ea (as on Seward Peninsula), are also common. Toward the
Arctic circle, the timber becomes, of course, sparse, low, gnarled
nd distorted. The willows in the Arctic drainage basin shrink
shrubs scarcely knee-high. Bushes are common in western
Alaska, but undergrowth is very scanty in the forests. Grasses
TOW luxuriantly in the river bottoms and wherever the tundra
noss is destroyed to give them footing. Most distinctive is the
ubiquitous carpeting of mosses, varying in colours from the pure
white and cream of the reindeer moss to the deep green and brown
of the peat moss, all conspicuously spangled in the brief summer
vith bright flowers of the higher orders, heavy blossoms on
tunted stalks. The thick peat moss or tundra of the undrained
owlands covers probably at least a quarter of Alaska; the
* The trees here grow as large as 10 in. in diameter and 40 or 50 ft.
lign; the branches do not spread, even where there is room, so
hat the tallest tree has a top only four or five feet broad ; the roots,
vhich cannot penetrate the shaded and frozen soil, spread over the
ce or shallowly into the tundra carpeting, and often only by their
natted network prevent the fall of the trees.

reindeer moss grows both on the lowlands and the hills.2 Sedges
available for forage grow in the tundra. In August berries are
fairly abundant over the interior; one of them, the salmon or
cloud berry, preserved in seal oil for the winter, is an important
food of the natives. The grasses are killed by the frosts in
September. The western timber limit is on Kodiak Island.
The Aleutian Islands (q.v.) are almost destitute of trees, but are
covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage. Climatic differ-
ences cannot account for the treeless condition of the country
W. of this point, and the true explanation lies probably in the
fact that in winter, when the seeds of the coastal forests ripen
and are released, the prevalent winds W. of Kodiak are damp
and blow from the S. and S.W., while the spread of the seeds
requires dry winds blowing from the N. and N.W. Such favour-
able conditions occur only rarely.

The Soil of Alaska seems to be in itself rich, and quite capable
of agricultural development; the great impediment to this is in
the briefness of the summer. Contrary, however, to the once
universal belief, the experiments of the department of agri-
culture of the United States have definitely proved that hardy
vegetables in great variety can readily be produced in the coastal
region and at various stations in the Yukon valley; and pre-
sumably, therefore, all over the interior S. of the Arctic circle, save
along Bering Sea; also that there is little doubt of the prac-
ticability of successfully cultivating buckwheat, barley and oats,
and possibly also rye and wheat; that grasses for grazing grow
generally and often in abundance; and in general that the
possibilities of interior Alaska as a live-stock country are very
considerable. It is calculated that a twentieth of south-eastern
Alaska is available for agriculture, and that of the entire country
100,000 sq. m. are pasturable or tillable.

Industry. — The fur and fish resources of Alaska have until
recently held first place in her industries. Herrings furnish
oil and guano, and the young fish are packed as "sardines" at
Juneau. Cod can be taken with comparatively little danger
or hardship. During the Russian occupation a small amount
was shipped to California and the Sandwich Islands. The take
since 1879 has been practically constant. The take of halibut
is increasing steadily. The salmon industry dates from 1878.
The total output (in 1901, 100,000,000 ft; in 1906, about
72,000,000 Ib), which since 1900 has been more than half the
total salmon product of the United States, is more than ten
times the product of all other fish.3 On the Karluk river,
Kodiak Island, is the greatest salmon fishery in the world.
More than 3,000,000 salmon have been canned here in one
season. The second salmon stream is the Nushagak, flowing into
Bristol Bay; this bay is the richest fishing field of Alaska,
furnishing in 1901, 35 % of the total production. The recklessly
wasteful manner in which these fisheries are conducted, and the
inadequate measures taken by the United States government
for their protection, threaten the entire industry with destruc-
tion. From 1867 to 1902 the value of the total fishery product
was estimated at $60,000,000. The fur-seal industry has been
better protected but still unavailingly. (See SEAL FISHERIES
and BERING SEA ARBITRATION.) The value of the fur seals taken
from 1868 to 1902 was estimated at $35,000,000 and that of
other furs at $17,000,000. The walrus, hunted for its ivory
tusks, and the sea otter, rarest and most valuable of Alaskan
fur animals, are near extermination; the blue fox is now bred
for its pelt on the Aleutians and the southern continental coast;
the skins of the black and silver fox are extremely rare, and in
general the whole fur industry is discouragingly decadent. The
whale fishery also has greatly fallen off; there is no profit on the
oil and the whales are sought for the baleen alone; they are
much less numerous too than they once were, and have to be
sought farther and farther north.

Minerals. — The timber resources of Alaska are untouched

2 280 species of mosses proper, of which 46 were new to science,
and 1 6 varieties of peat moss (Sphagnum) were listed by the
Harriman expedition ; and 74 species or varieties of ferns.

8 The value of the totalproduct of Alaska's fish canneries was in
J9°5 $7.735.782, or 29-3% of the total for the United States; in
1900 it was 17-4 % of the country's total.

476

ALASKA

and the serious exploitation of her minerals is very recent. As
early as 1861 gold discoveries were made on the Stikine river;
repeated discoveries, culminating in the Cassiar district "boom,"
were made in British Columbia from 1857 to 1874; colourings
along the Yukon were reported in 1866-1867 and systematic
prospecting of the upper river began about 1873. Juneau was
founded in 1880; the same year the opposition of the Indians
was withdrawn that had prevented the crossing of the mountain
passes to the interior, and after 1880 repeated and scattered
discoveries were made on the Lewes, Pelly, Stewart and other
streams of the Upper Yukon country in Canada. As early as
1883-1885 there was a considerable mining excitement due to
these discoveries, and a much greater one in 1887 after the dis-
covery of coarse gold on Forty Mile Creek in American terri-
tory; but these were as nothing to the picturesque and feverish
rush that followed the location of the first Klondike claim in
Canadian territory in August 1896. (SEE KLONDIKE.) The mines
in American territory were temporarily deserted for the new
diggings. Other gold districts are scattered over the whole
interior of Alaska. Nome (?.».) was the scene of a great gold
mining stampede in 1900. The quartz mines near Juneau are
among the greatest stamp mills of the world (SEE JUNEAU).
The product of gold and silver (of the latter some 1.3 % of the
total) from 1895 to 1901 was more than $32,000,000 from
Alaska proper (not including that from the Canadian Yukon
fields) as against a production of $5,000,000 in 1880-1896. The
gold product of the Canadian Yukon territory from 1896-1903
was about $96,000,000, as estimated by the Canadian Geological
Survey. In 1905 the product of gold from Alaska was valued
at $15,630,000 (mines report); and from 1880 to 1906 the
production of gold, according to the estimate of A. H. Brooks,
was more than $100,000,000. The gravest problem of mining
in the interior country, even graver than that presented by
the climate, is transportation; in 1900 the Tanana fields, for
example, were provisioned from Circle City, about 125 m.
distant, at the rate of a cent per lb mile (i.e. $2000 for moving
a ton 100 m.). Even higher rates prevailed in the copper country
in 1902. Various other minerals in addition to gold have been
discovered, and several of them, notably copper and silver (the
latter appearing with the gold deposits), may probably be
profitably exploited. In 1905 the product of copper was valued
at $759,634, that of silver at $80,165 (mines report). Coal, and
in much larger quantities lignite, have been found in many
parts of Alaska. Most important, because of their location,
are deposits along the Alaska Peninsula and between Circle
City and Dawson. The latter furnishes fuel to the river steam-
boats, and it is hoped may eventually supply the surrounding
mining region. There are valuable deposits of gypsum on
Chicagof Island, and marble quarries are being developed on
Prince of Wales Island.

As against $7,200,000 paid for Alaska in 1867, the revenues
returned to the United States in the years 1867-1903 totalled
$9>555>9°9 (namely, rental for the Fox and Pribilof Islands,
$999,200; special revenue tax on seal-skins, $7,597,351;
Alaskan customs, $528,558; public Jands, $28,928; other
sources $401,872). It has been estimated that in the same
period the United States drew from Alaska fish, furs and gold
to the value of about $150,000,000; that up to 1903 the imports
from the states aggregated $100,000,000; and that $25,000,000
of United States capital was invested in Alaska.

Since 1896 communication with the outer world has been
greatly increased. Alaskan mails leave the states daily, many
post-offices are maintained, mail is regularly delivered beyond
the Arctic circle, all the more important towns have telegraphic
communication with the states,1 there is one railway in the
interior through Canadian territory from Skagway, and other
railways are planned. The total mileage in 1906 was 136 m.
In that year the Alaskan Central Railroad (from Seward to
Fairbanks, 463 m.) was chartered; 45 m. of this road were in

1 Seattle, Sitka and Valdez are connected by cable ; telegraph
lines run from the Panhandle inland to the Yukon and down its
valley to Fort St Michael.

operation in 1905. One long military road as an "All American "
route from Valdez has long been built.

Population. — The population in 1867 at the time of the cession
from Russia is estimated at 30,000, of which two-thirds were
Eskimo and other Indians. Population returned in 1880,
33,426; in 1890, 32,052; in 1900, 63,592, of whom approximately
48 % were whites, 46 % natives and 6 % Japanese and Chinese;
(1910 census) 64,356. The Asiatics are employed in the salmon
canneries. The natives of Alaska fall under four ethnologic
races: the Eskimo or Innuit — of these the Aleuts are an off-
shoot; the Haidas or Kaigani, found principally on Prince of
Wales Island and thereabouts; the Thlinkits, rather widely
distributed in the " Panhandle "; and the Tinnehs or Atha-
pascans, the stock race of the great interior country. In 1890
the pure-blooded natives numbered 23,531, of whom 6000 were
Haidas, Thlinkits or other natives of the coastal region, 1000
Aleuts, 3400 Athapascans and 13,100 Eskimo. The natives have
adopted many customs of white civilization, and on the Aleutians,
and in coastal Alaska, and in scattered regions in the interior
acknowledge Christianity under the forms of the Orthodox
Greek or other churches. The rapid exhaustion in late years
of the caribou, seals and other animals, once the food or stock-
in-trade of the Aleuts and other races, threatens more and more
the swift depletion of the natives. They have also felt the fatal
influence of the liquor traffic. From 1893 to 1895 the United States
expended $55,000 to support the natives of the Fur Seal Islands.
This policy threatens to become a continued necessity throughout
much of Alaska. There is a small government Indian reservation
on Afognak Island, near Kodiak. The white population is
extremely mobile, and few towns have an assured or definite
future. The prosperity of the mining towns of the interior is
dependent on the fickle fortune of the gold-fields, for which they
are the distributing points. Sitka, Juneau (the capital) and
Douglas, both centres of a rich mining district, Skagway, shipping
point for freight for the Klondike country (see these titles),
and St Michael, the ocean port for freighting up the Yukon,
are the only towns apparently assured of a prosperous future.
Wrangell (formerly Fort St Dionysius, Fort Stikine and Fort
Wrangell), founded in 1833, is a dilapidated and torpid little
village, of some interest in Alaskan history, and of temporary
importance from 1874 to 1877 as the gateway to the Cassiar mines
in British Columbia. Its inhabitants are chiefly Thlinkit Indians.

Government. — Alaska, by an act of Congress approved the 7th
of May 1906, received the power to elect a delegate to Congress.
Before this act and the elections of August 1906 Alaska
was a governmental district of the United States without
a delegate in Congress. Its administration rests in the hands of
the various executive departments, and is partly exercised by a
governor and other resident officials appointed by the president.
It is a military district, a customs district (since 1868), is organ-
ized into a land district, and constitutes three judicial divisions.
In 1867-1877 the government was in the hands of the depart-
ment of war, although the customs were from the beginning
collected by the department of the treasury, with which the
effective control rested from 1877 until the passage of the so-
called Organic Act of I7th May 1884. This act extended over
Alaska the laws of the state of Oregon so far as they should be
applicable, created the judicial district and a land district, put in
force the mining laws of the United States, and in general gave
the administrative system the organization it retained up to the
reforms of 1899-1900. The history of government and political
agitation has centred since then in the demand for general land
legislation and for an adequate civil and criminal law, in protests
against the enforcement of a liquor prohibition law, and in
agitation for an efficiently centralized administration. As the
general land laws of the United States were not extended to
Alaska in 1884, there was no means, generally speaking, of gaining
title to any land other than a mining claim, and so far as any
method did exist its cost was absolutely prohibitive. After
partial and inadequate legislation in 1891 and 1898, the regular
system of land surveys was made applicable to Alaska in 1899,
and a generous homestead law was provided in 1903. An

ALASKA

477

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adequate code of civil and criminal law and provisions for civil
government under improved conditions were provided by Con-
gress in 1899 and 1900. The agitation over prohibition dates
from 1868; the act of that year organizing a customs district
forbade the importation and sale of firearms, ammunition and
distilled spirits; the Organic Act of 1884 extended this prohibi-
tion to all intoxicating liquors. The coast of Alaska offers
:ceptional facilities for smuggling, and liquor has always been
ery plentiful; juries have steadily refused to convict offenders,
.d treasury officials have regularly collected revenue from
.loons existing in defiance of law. The prohibition law is still
upon the statute-books. The chief weaknesses in the colonial
.ministration of the territory, particularly prior to 1900 — but
inly to a slightly less extent since — have been decentralization
,nd a lax civil service. The concomitants of these have been
irresponsibility and inefficiency. The governor has represented
ic president without possessing much power; the department
war has had ill-defined duties; the department of justice has,
in theory, had charge of the general law; the department of the
interior has administered the land law; the agents of the bureau
if education have superintended the stocking of Alaska with
ideer; the United States Fish Commission has investigated
.e condition of marine life without having powers to protect it.
ie treasury department has charted the coasts, sought to
enforce the prohibition law, controlled and protected the fur seals
and fisheries, and incidentally collected the customs. Since the
creation of the department of commerce and labour (1903), it has
taken over from other departments some of these scattered
functions. All in all, the government has proved itself without
power to protect the most valuable industries of the district, and
for many years there has been talk of a regular territorial govern-
.ent. The paucity of permanent residents and the poverty of
local treasury seem to make such a solution an impossible one.
History. — The region now known as Alaska was first explored
iy the Russian officers Captain Vitus Bering and Chirikov in 1 741.
ey visited parts of the coast between Dixon Entrance and Cape
t Elias, and returned along the line of the Aleutians. Their
iedition was followed by many private vessels manned by
,ders and trappers. Kodiak was discovered in 1763 and a
ttlement effected in 1784. Spanish expeditions in 1774 and
775 visited the south-eastern coast and laid a foundation for
ibsequent territorial claims, one incident of which were the
botka Sound seizures of 1789. Captain James Cook in 1778
,de surveys from which the first approximately accurate chart
the coast was published; but it was reserved for Vancouver
1793-1794 to make the first charts in the modern sense of the
tricate south-eastern coast, which only in recent years have
in superseded by new surveys. Owing to excesses committed
y private traders and companies, who robbed, massacred and
ideously abused the native Indians, the trade and regulation of
ie Russian possessions were in 1799 confided to a semi-official
trporation called the Russian-American Company for a term of
•enty years, afterwards twice renewed for similar periods. A
onopoly of the American trade had previously been granted
1788 to another private company, the Sholikof. Alexander
aranov (1747-1819); chief resident director of the American
mpanies (1790-1819), one of the early administrators of the
ew company, became famous through the successes he achieved
governor. He founded Sitka (q.v.) in 1804 after the massacre
the natives of the inhabitants of an earlier settlement (1799)
t an adjacent point. The headquarters of the company
•ere at Kodiak until 1805, and thereafter at Sitka. In 1821
.ussia attempted by ukase to exclude navigators from Bering
and the Pacific coast of her possessions, which led to
mediate protest from the United States and Great Britain.
!s led to a treaty with the United States in 1824 and one
ith Great Britain in 1825, by which the excessive demands
of Russia were relinquished and the boundaries of the
.ussian possessions were permanently fixed. The last charter of
ie Russian-American Company expired on the 3ist of December
861, and Prince Maksutov, an imperial governor, was appointed
administer the affairs of the territory. In 1864 authority was

granted to an American company to make explorations for a
proposed Russo-American company's telegraph line overland
from the Amur river in Siberia to Bering Strait, and through
Alaska to British Columbia. Work was begun on this scheme in
1865 and continued for nearly three years, when the success of the
Atlantic cable rendered the construction of the line unnecessary
and it was given up, but not until important explorations had
been made. In 1854 a Californian company began importing ice
'from Alaska. Very soon thereafter the first official overtures by
the United States for the purchase of Russian America were
made during the presidency of James Buchanan. In 1867, by a
treaty signed on the 3Oth of March, the purchase was consum-
mated for the sum of $7,200,000, and on the i8th of October 1867
the formal transfer of the territory was made at Sitka.

Since its acquisition by the United States the history of Alaska
has been mainly that of the evolution of its administrative
system described above, and the varying fortunes of its fisheries
and sealing industries. Since the gold discoveries a wonderful
advance has been made in the exploration of the country. A
military reservation has been created with Fort Michael as a centre.
The two events of greatest general interest have been the Fur
Seal Arbitration of 1893 (see BERING SEA ARBITRATION), and the
Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute, settled by an international
tribunal of British and American jurists in London in 1903.
The boundary dispute involved the interpretation of the words,
quoted above, in the treaties of 1825 and 1867 defining the
boundary of the Russian (later American) possessions, and also
the determining of the location of Portland Canal, and the
question whether the coastal girdle should cross or pass around
the heads of the fjords of the coast. -The tribunal was an ad-
judication board and not an actual court of arbitration, since its
function was not to decide the boundary but to settle the meaning
of the Anglo-Russian treaty, which provided for an ideal (and not
a physical) boundary. This boundary did not fit in with geo-
graphical facts; hence the adjudication was based upon the
motive of the treaty and not upon the literal interpretation of
such elastic terms as " ocean," " shore " and " coast-line." The
award of the tribunal made in October 1903 was arrived at by
the favourable vote of the three commissioners of the United
States and of Lord Alverstone, whose action was bitterly resented
by the two Canadian commissioners; it sustained in the main the
claims of the United States.

AUTHORITIES. — W. H. Dall and M. Baker, " List of Charts, Maps,
and Publications relating to Alaska," in United States Pacific Coast
Pilot, 1879; Monthly Catalogue United States Public Documents,
No. 37 (1898), and Bulletin 227, United States Geological Survey
(1904), for official documents; H. H. Bancroft, Alaska 1730-1885,
pp. 595-609; and various other bibliographies in titles mentioned
below, especially in Brooke's The Geography and Geology of Alaska.

General. — United States Monthly Summary of Commerce and
Finance, July 1903, "Commercial Alaska, 1867-1003. Area, Popula-
tion, Productions, Commerce . . . "; W. H. Dall, Alaska and its
Resources (Boston, 1870); C. Sumner, Speech on "Cession of Russian-
America to the United States," in Works, vol. xi. (Boston, 1875) ;
C. H. Merriam, editor, Harriman Alaska Expedition (New York,
1901-1904, 3 vols.).

Physiography and Climate. — United States Department of
War, Explorations in Alaska, 1869-1900 (Washington, IQOI);
United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports since 1897 — The
Geography and Geology of Alaska : A Summary of Existing Know-
ledge," by Alfred H. Brooks (Washington, 1906; Professional Paper,
No. 45), with various maps (see National Geographic Mag., May
1904, for a map embodying all knowledge then known) ; " Altitudes
in Alaska " (Bulletin 169, by H. Gannett) ; " Geographic Dictionary
of Alaksa " (Bulletin 299, Washington, 1906), by M. Baker;
United States Post Office, " Map of Alaska " (1901); United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bulletins and maps; Bulletin American
Geographical Society, February 1902, F. S. Schrader, " Work of the
United States Geological Survey in Alaska "; Journal of Franklin
Institute, October and November 1904, W. R. Abercrombie — " The
Copper River Country of Alaska "; I. C. Russell, Glaciers of North
A merica.

Industries.— United States Census, 1880, Ivan Petroff, Report
on the Population, Industries and Resources of Alaska; United
States Census, 1890 and 1900; on reindeer, Fifteenth Annual Report
on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson
(Washington, 1906) ; on agriculture, United States Department of
Agriculture, Experiment Stations, Bulletin Nos. 48, 62, 82 ...
(1898-1900); Seal and Salmon Fisheries and General Industries of

478

ALASSIO— ALAVA

Alaska, 1868-1895 (Washington, 1898) (United States Treasury,
also 55 Congress, I Session, House Document 92, vols. vi.-x.), 4 vols. ;
D. S. Jordan et al., The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands (or Report
of the Fur Seal Investigation, 1896-1897 (Washington, 1898), 4
vols.; also many special reports on the seals published by the
United States Treasury; for Report of British seal experts, Great
Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United States, No. 3 (1897),
No. i (1898).

History and Government. — H. H. Bancroft, Alaska, 1730-1885
(San Francisco, 1886); W. H. Dall, "Alaska as it was and is,
1865-1895," in Bulletin of the Philadelphia Society of Washington,-
xiii.; Governor of Alaska, Annual Report to the Secretary of the
Interior; Fur Seal Arbitration, Proceedings (Washington, 1895,
16 vols.) ; also Great Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United
States, Nos. 6, 7, 8 (1893), No. I (1895) ; Alaskan Boundary Tribunal,
Cases, Counter-cases, Arguments, Atlases of United Stales and Great
Britain (Washington, 1903 seq.); and a rich periodical literature.

Population, Natives. — United States National Museum, Ann.
Report (1896); W. Hough, " Lamp of the Eskimo " (long, and of
general interest); F. Knapp and R. L. Childe, The Thlinkeets of
South-Eastern Alaska (Chicago, 1896).

ALASSIO, a town of Liguria, Italy, on the N.W. coast of the
Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 57 m. S.W. of the town
of the same name by rail. Pop. (1901) 5630. It is mainly
noticeable as a health resort in winter and a bathing-place in
summer, and has many hotels. The anchorage is safe, and the
bay full of fish; the harbour has a certain amount of trade.
The old town contains one or two interesting churches, and
commands a fine view.

ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, the spirit of revenge, which
prompts the members of a family to commit fresh crimes to
obtain satisfaction. These crimes necessitate further acts of
vengeance, and the curse is thus transmitted from generation
to generation. The word is also used for a man's evil genius,
which drives him to sin without any provocation; a man so
driven is sometimes called Alastor. The epithet is applied to
Zeus and the Erinyes as the deities of revenge and punishment.

ALA-TAU (" Variegated Mountains ") , the name of six mountain
ranges in Asiatic Russia. Three of these are in the government
of Semiryechensk in Central Asia, all belonging' to the Tian-
shan system: — (i) the Terskei Ala-tau, south of and parallel
to the lake of Issyk-kul; (2) the Kunghei Ala-tau, and (3) the
Trans- Ili Ala-tau, both N. of and parallel to the same lake;
and (4) the Dzungarian Ala-tau, lying N. of the Ili depression.
The first three link together the Tian-shan and the Alexander
Range. Their mean elevation is 6000-7000 ft. ; their culminating
point, Talgar, on a transverse ridge between (2) and (3), reaches
15,000 ft.; the limits of perpetual snow run at 11,000-11,700 ft.
The Dzungarian Ala-tau reach a maximum altitude of 1 1 ,000 ft.
and have a mean altitude of 6250 ft. From the middle of the
Alexander Range another range (5) called Ala-tau, or Talastau,
strikes west by south. The name Ala-tau also enters into the
designation of (6), a range between the upper Yenisei and the
upper Ob, in the government of Tomsk, namely, the Kuznetsk
Ala-tau, forming an outlier of the Altai Mountains, and reaching
6000-7000 ft. in altitude.

ALAUNA, ALAUNUS, the Celtic names of two rivers, &c., in
Roman Britain. Hence the modern Allan Water, river Alyn, &c.

ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770-1843), Spanish

general and statesman, was born at Vittoria in 1770. He served
first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when
he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. He
was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the
flagship of his uncle Admiral Alava. In politics he followed
a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne in 1808
he was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the
new constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain.
After the national rising against French aggression, and the
defeat of General Dupont at Bailen in 1808, Alava joined the
national independent party, who were fighting in alliance with
the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at
the English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who
regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides-de-
camp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank
of brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand, Alava
was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard,

the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy release.
He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who appointed
him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. It was therefore his
remarkable fortune to be present at the battle of Waterloo with
Wellington's staff. He is supposed to have been the only man
who was present at both Waterloo and Trafalgar. Four years
later he was recalled owing, it is said, to the marked kindness
he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. On the
breaking out of the revolution of 1820 he was chosen by the
province of Alava to represent it in the Cortes, where he became
conspicuous in the party of the Exaltados, and in 1822 was made
president. In the latter year he fought with the militia under
Francisco Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority
of the Cortes against the rebels. When the French invested
Cadiz, Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the
due d'Angoule'me, and the negotiations resulted in the restoration
of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal policy. No sooner
had he regained power, however, than he ceased to hold himself
bound by his promises, and Alava found it necessary to retire
first to Gibraltar and then to England. On the death of Ferdi-
nand he returned to Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria
Christina against Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to
London in 1834 and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection
of La Granja he refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declar-
ing himself tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently
obliged to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843.
Frequent and honourable mention of Alava is made in Napier's
History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met both in
lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence.

ALAVA, one of the Basque Provinces of northern Spain;
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre,
S. by Logrono, and W. by Burgos. Pop. (1900) 96,385; area
1175 sq. m. The countship of Trevino (190 sq. m.) in the
centre of Alava belongs to the province of Burgos. The surface
of Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where a
part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary. It is separated
from Logrono by the river Ebro, and its other rivers are the
Zadorra and the Ayuda. The climate is mild in summer, fitful
in autumn and spring, and very cold in winter, as even the plains
are high and shut in on three sides by mountains snow-clad
during several months. The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding
wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp and fruits. Oil and a poor
kind of wine called chacoli are also produced. Many of the
mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts, beeches
and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead and marble.
Salt is also found in large quantities; but mining and quarrying
are not practised on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt
being worked. There are mineral waters in many places.
Other local industries of some importance include smelting,
and manufactures of beds, furniture, railway carriages, matches,
paper, sweets and woollen and cotton goods. Bread-stuffs,
colonial products and machinery are largely imported. Few
provinces in Spain are inhabited by so laborious, active and
well-to-do a population. The primary schools are numerously
attended, and there are very good normal schools for teachers
of both sexes, and a model agricultural farm. The public roads
and other works of the province are excellent, and, like those of
the rest of the Basque provinces, entirely kept up by local
initiative and taxes. Railways from Madrid to the French
frontier, and from Saragossa to Bilbao, cross the province.
The capital is Vitoria (pop. 1900, 30,701), which is the only town
with more than 3500 inhabitants.

For a fuller account of the history, people and customs of Alava,
see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES, with the works there cited.
A very elaborate bibliography is given in the Cdtalogo de las obras
referentes d las provinces de Alava y Navarra, by A. A. Salazar
(Madrid, 1887.) The following books by J. J. Landazuri y Romarate
contain much material for a provincial history: — Historia ecclest-
astica, &c. (Pamplona, 1797); Historia civil, &c. (Vitoria, 1798);
Compendios historicos de la ciudad y villas de . . . Alava, &c.
(Pamplona, 1798); Suplemento d los cuatro libros de la historta de
. . . Alava (Vitoria, 1799); and Los varones illustres Alavenses
(Vitoria, 1798). See also M. Risco in vol. 33 of Hispania Sagrada,
by H. Florez, &c. (Madrid, 1754-1879).

ALB— ALBACETE

479

ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white), a liturgical vestment of the
Catholic Church. It is a sack-like tunic of white linen, with
narrow sleeves and a hole for the head to pass through, and when
gathered up round the waist by the girdle (cingulum) just clears
the ground. Albs were originally quite plain, but about the
loth century the custom arose of ornamenting the borders and
the cuffs of the sleeves with strips of embroidery, and this be-
came common in the i2th century. These at first encircled the
whole border; but soon it became customary to substitute for
them square patches of embroidery or precious fabrics. These
' parures " " apparels " or " orphreys " (Lat. parurae, grammata,
aurifrisia, &c.), were usually four in number, one being sewn on
the back and another on the front of the vestment just above
the lower hem, and one on each cuff. When, as occasionally
happened, a fifth was added, this was placed on the breast just
below the neck opening. These " apparelled albs " (albae
paratae) continued in general use in the Western Church till the
1 6th century, when a tendency to dispense with the parures
began, Rome itself setting the example.

The growth of the lace industry in the 1 7th century hastened
the process by leading to the substitution of broad bands of lace
as decoration; occasionally, as in a magnificent specimen pre-
served at South Kensington, nearly half the vestment is thus

Apparelled Alb in the South Kensington Museum.

From Braun's Liturgische Geivandung.

composed of lace. At the present time, so far as the Roman
Catholic Church is concerned, apparelled albs are only in regular
use at Milan (Ambrosian Rite), and, partially, in certain churches
in Spain. The decree of the Congregation of Rites (May 18,1819)
says nothing about apparels, but only lays down that the alb
must be of white linen or hemp cloth. There is no definite rule
as to the material or character of the ornamentation, and attempts
have been made, especially in England, to revive the use of the
apparelled alb.

In the Roman Church the alb is now reckoned as one of the
vestments proper to the sacrifice of the Mass. It is worn by
bishops, priests, deacons and subdeacons under the other
eucharistic vestments, either at Mass or at functions connected
with it. It is sometimes also worn by clerics in minor orders,
whose proper vestment is, however, the surplice — itself a modi-
fication of the alb (see SURPLICE). The alb is supposed to be
symbolical of purity, and the priest, when putting it on, prays:
" Make me white and purify my heart, 0 Lord," &c. In the
middle ages the parures, which originally had no mystic intention
whatever, were taken to symbolize the wounds of Christ; whence
probably is derived the custom surviving at the cathedral of
Toledo, of the singers of the Passion on Good Friday being vested
in apparelled albs.

In England at the Reformation the alb went out of use with
the other " Mass vestments," and remained out of use in the
Church of England until the ritual revival of the igth century.
It is now worn in a considerable number of churches not only

by the clergy but by acolytes and servers at the Communion.
Where the ritual, as in most cases, is a revival of pre-Reformation
uses and not modelled on that of modern Rome, these albs are
frequently apparelled. For the question of its legality see
VESTMENTS.

Both the alb and its name are derived ultimately from the
tunica alba, the white tunic, which formed part of the ordinary
dress of Roman citizens under the Empire. As such it was worn
both in and out of church, the few notices remaining which
suggest a special tunic for ministers at the Eucharist merely
implying that it was not fitting to use for so sacred a function
a garment soiled by everyday wear. The date of its definite
adoption as a liturgical vestment is uncertain; at Rome — where
until the i3th century it was known as the linea or camisia (cf.
the modern Italian camice for alb) — it seems to have been thus
used as early as the sth century. But as late as the 9th and loth
centuries the alba is still an everyday as well as a liturgical
garrnent, and we find bishops and synods forbidding priests to
sing mass in the alba worn by them in ordinary life (see Braun,
p. 62). Throughout the middle ages, moreover, the word alba
was somewhat loosely used. In the medieval inventories are
sometimes found albae, described as red, blue or black; which
has led to the belief that albs were sometimes not only made of
stuffs other than linen, but were coloured. It is clear, however,
from the descriptions of these vestments that in some cases they
were actually tunicles, the confusion of terms arising from the
similarity of shape (see DALMATIC); in other cases the colour
applied to the parures, not to the albs as a whole. Silk albs
appear in the inventories, but only very exceptionally.

The equivalent of the alb in the ancient Churches of the East
is the sticharion (anxdptov) of the Orthodox Church (Armenian
shapik, Syrian Kutina, Coptic stoicharion or tuniah). It is worn
girdled by bishops and priests in all rites, by subdeacons in the
Greek and Coptic rites. By deacons and lectors it is worn un-
girdled in all the rites. The colour of the vestment is usually
white for bishops and priests (this is the rule in the Coptic
Church); for the other orders there is no rule, and all colours,
except black, may be used. Its material may be linen, wool,
cotton or silk; but silk only is the rule for deacons. In the
Armenian and Coptic rites the vestment is often elaborately
embroidered; in the other rites the only ornament is a cross
high in the middle of the back, save hi the case of bishops of the
Orthodox Church, whose sticharia are ornamented with two
vertical red stripes (irora.ij.oi, " rivers "). In the East as in
the West the vestment is specially associated with the ritual of
the Eucharist.

The whole subject is exhaustively treated by Father Joseph Braun
in Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907). See also
bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.

ALBA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, on the
river Tanaro, in the province of Cuneo. From the town of the
same name it is 33 m. N.E. direct; it is 42 m. S.S.E. of Turin
by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,900. It contains a fine cathedral, with
a Gothic facade, reconstructed in 1486, and is an important
commercial centre. It occupies the site of the ancient Alba
Pompeia, probably founded by Pompeius Strabo (consul 89 B.C.)
when he constructed the road from Aquae Statiellae (Acqui)
to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). Probably this was the road
taken by Decimus Brutus when he succeeded, after the raising
of the siege of Mutina in 43 B.C., in occupying Pollentia just
before Mark Antony's cavalry came in sight. Alba was the
birthplace of the emperor Pertinax. It became an episcopal
see dependent on Milan in the 4th century. A small museum
of local antiquities was established in 1897.

See F. Eusebio in Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze
Storiche (Rome, 1904), vol. v. p. 485.

ALBACETE, an inland province of south-eastern Spain,
formed in 1833 out of the northern half of Murcia, and bounded
on the N. by Cuenca, E. by Valencia and Alicante, S. by Murcia,
and W. by Granada and Jaen. Pop. (1900) 237,877; area
5737 scl- m- The northern part of Albacete belongs to the high
plains of New Castile, the southern is generally mountainous,

480

ALBACETE— ALBA LONGA

traversed by low ranges or isolated groups of hills, which cul-
minate in the Sierra de Alcaraz on the borders of Granada, where
several summits reach 5000 ft. Besides many smaller streams,
two large rivers water the province, the Segura in the south-
west, and the Jucar in the north-east; both rising beyond the
borders of Albacete, and ultimately flowing into the Mediter-
ranean. The fertile glens of the Alcaraz district are richly
wooded, and often, from their multitude of fruit trees, resemble
the huerlas or gardens of Alicante; but broad tracts of land are
destitute of trees, and suitable only for pasture. These barren
regions are thinly peopled; and for the whole of Albacete the
density of population (41-3 per sq. m. in 1900) is lower than in
any other Spanish province, except Soria.

The climate is generally mild and healthy, although, among
the higher mountains, the snow lies for several months. Wheat
and other cereals are cultivated, with fruits of many kinds,
olives, and vines which yield a wine of fair quality; while saffron
is largely produced, and some attention is given to the keeping
of bees and silkworms. Stock-farming, for which the wide
plains afford excellent opportunities, employs many of the
peasantry; the bulls of Albacete are in demand for bull-fighting,
and the horses for mounting the Spanish cavalry. There is also
a good breed of mules. Sulphurous and other mineral springs,
both hot and cold, exist in several districts, and deposits of silver,
iron, copper, sulphur, coal and other minerals have been dis-
covered; but the exploitation of these is retarded by lack of
communications, and, apart from building materials, sulphur
and salt, the actual output is insignificant. Manufactures are
almost confined to the spinning of hemp, and the making of
coarse cloth, porcelain, earthenware and cutlery. Brandy
distilleries are numerous, and there is some trade in wood;
but no local industry can rival agriculture and stock-breeding,
which furnish the bulk of the exports. Albacete (pop. 1900,
21,512), the capital, and the other important towns of Almansa
(11,180) and Hellin (12,558), are described under separate
headings. Alcaraz, which gives its name to the mountain range
already mentioned, is a picturesque old town with the ruins of
a Moorish castle, and a fine Roman aqueduct; pop. (1900)
4501. Caudete (5913), Chinchilla, or Chinchilla de Monte- Aragon
(6680), La Roda (7066), Tobarra (7787), Villarrobledo (10,125)
and Yeste (6591) are important markets for the sale of agri-
cultural produce. The railway from Madrid to Albacete passes
south-westward to Chinchilla, where it bifurcates, one line
going to Murcia, and the other to Alicante. A large part of the
province is only accessible by road, and even the main highways
maintained by the state are ill kept. Education is very back-
ward even in the towns; many of the inhabitants carry arms;
and crimes of violence are not infrequent.

ALBACETE, the capital of the above province, on the Madrid-
Alicante railway, and at the confluence of the river Balazote with
the canal of Maria Christina, which flows into the river Jucar,
16 m. N. Pop. (1900) 21,512. Albacete comprises the pictur-
esque old upper town and the new or lower town, with law-
courts, schools, barracks, hospitals, a council-hall, a bull-ring
and other modern buildings, mostly erected after the city became
a provincial capital in 1833. It is surrounded by a fertile plain,
and has considerable trade in saffron and agricultural produce.
A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annually
in September, and extends over several days. The manufacture
of matches is aided by the existence of sulphur workings in
the vicinity; and Albacete formerly had an extensive trade in
cutlery, from which it was named the Sheffield of Spain. De-
spite the importation of cutlery from England and Germany,
Albacete is still famous for its daggers, which are held in high
repute by Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse
manufacture, but with richly ornamented handles; and they
frequently bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murder-
ous appearance.

ALBA FUCENS (mod. Albe), an ancient Italian town occupy-
ing a lofty situation (3347 ft.) at the foot of the Monte Velino,
4 m. N. of Avezzano. It was originally a town of the Aequi,
though on the frontier of the Marsi, but was occupied by a

Roman colony (304 B.C.) owing to its strategic importance. It
lay on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria, which was
probably prolonged beyond Tibur at this very period. In the
Second Punic war Alba at first remained faithful, but after-
wards refused to send contingents and was punished. After
this it became a regular place of detention for important state
prisoners, such as Syphax of Numidia, Perseus of Macedonia,
Bituitus, king of the Arverni. It was attacked by the allies in
the Social War, but remained faithful to Rome; and its strong
position rendered it a place of some importance in the civil wars.
Its prosperity, in the imperial period, can only be inferred from
the number of inscriptions found there. It is chiefly remarkable
for its finely preserved fortifications. The external walls, which
have a circuit of about 2 m., are constructed of polygonal
masonry; the blocks are carefully jointed, and the faces
smoothed. With our present knowledge of such constructions,
their date cannot certainly be determined. They are not pre-
served to any very considerable height; but the arrangement
of the gates is clearly traceable ; as a rule they come at the
end of a long, straight stretch of wall, and are placed so as to
leave the right side of any attacking force exposed. On the
north there is, for a length of about 150 yds. a triple line of
defences of later date (possibly added by the Roman colonists),
inasmuch as both the city wall proper and the double wall thrown
out in front of it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced
with finer polygonal masonry (in which horizontal joints seem
to be purposely avoided). A mile to the north of the city a huge
mound with a ditch on each side of it (but at a considerable
distance from it) may be traced for a couple of miles. Within
the walls there are hardly any buildings of a later date. Ex-
cavations have only been made casually, though remains of
buildings and of roads can be traced, and also an extensive
system of underground passages perhaps connected with the
defences of the place. The hill at the western extremity was
occupied by a temple of the Tuscan order, into which was built
the church of S. Pietro; this contains ancient columns, and
some remarkably fine specimens of Cosmatesque work. It is
the only monastic church in the Abruzzi in which the nave is
separated from the aisles by ancient columns. The collegiate
church of S. Nicola in the village contains a remarkable stauro-
theca of the nth (?) century, and a wooden triptych in imitation
of the Byzantine style with enamels of the I3th century.

A very good description of the site, with plans, is given by C.
Promis, L'Antichila di Alba Fucense (Rome, 1836). (T. As.)

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Latium, situated on the
western edge of the Albanus Lacus, about 12 m. S.E. of Rome.
It was, according to tradition, founded by Ascanius, and was the
oldest of all Latin cities — the mother indeed of Rome, by which,
however, it was destroyed, it is said under Tullus Hostilius. By
this act Rome succeeded to the hegemony of the Latin league.
It has by many topographers been placed between the Albanus
Mons and the Albanus Lacus, according to the indication given
by Dionysius (i. 66), at the monastery of Palazzolo; but the
position is quite unsuitable for an ancient city, and does not at all
answer to Livy's description, ab situ porreciae in dorso urbis Alba
longa appellate.', and it is much more probable that its site is to
be sought on the western side of the lake, where the modern
Castel Gandolfo stands, immediately to the north of which the
most important part of the archaic necropolis was situated.
Confirmation of this may be found in Cicero's description (Pro
Milone, 85) of the destruction of the shrines and sacred groves of
Alba by the construction of Clodius's villa, in the local applica-
tion of the adjective Albanus, and in the position of Castel
Gandolfo itself, which exactly suits Livy's description. No
traces of the ancient city, except of its necropolis, the tombs of
which are overlaid with a stratum of peperino 3 ft. thick, are
preserved. The view that the modern Albano occupies the site
of Alba Longa was commonly held in the i sth and i6th centuries,
but was disproved by P. Cluver (1624). But it is certain that no
city took the place of Alba Longa until comparatively late times.
The name Albanum, from about 150 B.C. till the time of Con-
stantine, meant a villa in the Alban territory. The emperors

ALBAN— ALBANIA

481

'

formed a single estate out of a considerable part of this district,
including apparently the whole of the lake, and Domitian was
especially fond of residing here. The imperial villa occupied the
site of the present Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and con-
siderable remains of it still exist. To the south was a camp for
the imperial bodyguard, with baths, an amphitheatre, a large
water reservoir, &c. The first legion known to have been
quartered there is the II. Parthica, founded by Septimius
Severus; but it was probably constructed earlier. In some of
the tombs of these legionaries coins of Maxentius have been
found, while the Liber Pontificalis records that Constantine gave
to the church of Albano " omnia scheneca deserta vel domos intra
urbem Albanensem," which has generally been taken to refer to
the abandoned camp. It was at this period, then, that the
civilas Albanensis arose. The lapis Albanus is a green grey
volcanic stone with black and white grains in it (hence the
modern name, peperino), much used for building material.
See T. Ashby in Journal of Philology, xxvii., 1901 , 37. (T. As.)
ALBAN, SAINT, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, is
said to have been born at Verulamium (the modern St Albans in
Hertfordshire) towards the close of the 3rd century, and to have
served for seven years in Rome in the army of the emperor
Diocletian. On his return to Britain he settled at his native place
and was put to death as a Christian during the persecution of
Diocletian (c. 286-303). According to tradition, when peace was
restored, great honours were paid to his tomb. A church was
built on the spot, c. 793, by King Offa of Mercia. A monastery
was subsequently added, and around it the present town of St
Albans gradually grew up. Pope Adrian IV., who was born in
the neighbourhood, conferred on the abbot of St Alban's the right
of precedence over his fellow abbots, a right hitherto attached to
the abbey of Glastonbury. St Alban is commemorated in the
Roman martyrology on the 22nd of June; but it is impossible to
determine with certainty whether he ever existed, as no mention
of him occurs till the middle of the 6th century.

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (1905), i. 95;
D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (1862), I. i. 3-34, ii. 688.

ALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Italian
painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant,
and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation; but
Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so strong an
inclination for painting, that on the death of his father he devoted
himself entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvert, with
whom Guido Reni was at the same time a pupil. He was soon
left by Calvert entirely to the care of Guido, and contracted with
him a close friendship. He followed Guido to the school of the
Caracci; but after this, owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship
began gradually to cool. They kept up for a long time a keen
competition, and their mutual emulation called forth some of
their best productions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still
spoke of each other with the highest esteem. Albani after having
greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, went to
Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many years.
Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal Caracci, the whole
of the frescoes in the chapel of San Diego in the church of San
Giacomo degli Spagnuoli. His best frescoes are those on mytho-
logical subjects, of which there is a large number in the Verospi,
now Torlonia Palace. On the death of his wife he returned to
Bologna, where he married a second time and resided till his
death. His wife and children were very beautiful and served him
for models. The learning displayed in the composition of his
pictures, and their minute elaboration and exquisite finish, gave
them great celebrity and entitle them to a distinctive place
among the products of the Bolognese school. A number of his
works are at Bologna, and others at Florence, the Louvre,
Dresden and St Petersburg. Among the best of his sacred
subjects are a " St Sebastian " and an " Assumption of the
Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at Rome. He was
among the first of the Italian painters to devote himself to the
painting of cabinet pictures. A rare etching, the " Death of
Dido," is attributed to him.

ALBANI, the stage name of MARIE LOUISE EMMA CECILE

i. 16

LAJEUNESSE (1847- ), Canadian singer, who was born at
Chambly, in the province of Quebec, on the 27th of September
1847. She made her first public appearance in Montreal, at the
age of seven, and afterwards studied in the United States, Paris
and Italy. In 1870 she made her first appearanceatMessina, and
after two successful seasons appeared in London in 1872 with the
Royal Italian Opera. Later she abandoned opera for oratorio,
and sang at all the principal festivals. She has made several
tours of Canada and of the United States, and in 1886 sang at
the opening of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London the
ode written by Tennyson for the occasion. She frequently sang
before Queen Victoria, the German emperor and others of the
crowned heads of Europe, and received numerous marks of their
esteem. In 1897 she was awarded the gold Beethoven medal by
the London Philharmonic Society, " as a mark of appreciation
of her exceptional genius and musical attainments, and of her
generous and artistic nature." She married in 1878 Ernest Gye,
the theatrical manager. Her stage name of Madame Albani was
taken from that of an extinct Italian family.

See Morgan, Canadian Men and Women of the Time (1898).

ALBANIA, the ancient name of a district in the eastern
Caucasus, consisting, according to Strabo (xi. 4. 1-8), of the valley
of the Cyrus (Kur) and the land lying between it and the Caucasus
range from Iberia to the Caspian Sea, i. e. the modern Shirvan.
In reality the Albani inhabited also the mountain valleys and the
land to the north towards Sarmatia, the modern Daghestan
(Pliny vi. 39). Dionysius of Halicarnassus quotes a tradition
that the name arose from the alleged fact that the people were
the descendants of emigrants from Alba in Italy, but it would
seem that the race was of Lesghian (not Georgian) descent. Strabo
describes them as tall, well made, and in character simple and
honest; he says that payment was in kind and that the people
could not count beyond a hundred. They worshipped the sun,
and more particularly the moon, the latter being perhaps identical
with the great Nature Goddess of Asia Minor (see GREAT MOTHER
OF THE GODS), and believed in soothsaying and the virtue of
human sacrifice. Old age was held in high honour, but it was
sacrilege to speak, or even to think, of the dead. The race was
nomadic, and lived on the abundant natural fruits of the land.
In Strabo's time they appear to have been ruled by a single king,
though previously there were twenty-six, each one ruling over
a community distinct only in point of language. The Albani
became known to the Romans during Pompey's pursuit of
Mithradates the Great (65 B.C.), against which they are said to
have opposed a force of 60,000 foot and 20,000 cavalry. Pompey
exacted from them a nominal submission, but their independence
was not seriously affected by the Romans. In the reign of
Hadrian their territory was invaded by the Alani (Th. Mommsen,
Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., 1886), and later they
fell under the Sassanid rule. They were driven finally into
Armenia by the Khazars, and ceased to exist as a separate
people. The district subsequently suffered under t,he successive
invasions of Huns, Varangians (who captured the chief town
Barda in the loth century) and Mongols. (See CAUCASIA,
History; ARMENIA.)

ALBANIA, a portion of the Turkish empire extending along
the western littoral of the Balkan Peninsula from the southern
frontier of Montenegro to the northern confines of Greece.
Albania is perhaps the least-known region in Europe; and
though more than a hundred years have passed since Gibbon
described it as " a country within sight of Italy, which is less
known than the interior of America," but little progress has
yet been made towards a scientific knowledge of this interesting
land and its inhabitants. The wild and inaccessible character
of the country, the fierce and lawless disposition of the people,
the difficulties presented by their language and their complex
social institutions, and the inability of the Turkish authorities
to afford a safe conduct in the remoter districts, combine to
render Albania almost unknown to the foreign traveller, and
many of its geographical problems still remain unsolved. A
portion of the Mirdite region, the Mat district, the neighbourhood
of Dibra. Jakova and Ipek and other localities have never been

482

ALBANIA

thoroughly explored. The northern boundary of Albania under-
went some alteration in consequence of the enlargement of
Montenegro, sanctioned by the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878);
owing to subsequent arrangements providing for the cession
of Dulcigno to Montenegro (November 25, 1880) in exchange
for the districts of Plava and Gusinye, restored to Turkey, the
frontier-line (finally settled December 1884) now ascends the
Boyana from its mouth to Lake Sass (Shas), thence passes north-
ward, and crossing Lake Scutari separates the district of Kutch
Krama on the N. from the territories of the Gruda, Hot and
Klement tribes on the S.; leaving Gusinye and Plava to the
S.E., it turns to the N.W. on reaching the Mokra Planina, and
then follows the course of the Tara river. On the S., Albanian
territory was curtailed owing to the acquisition of the Arta
district by Greece (May 1881), the river Arta now forming the
frontier. On the E. the chains of Shar, Grammes and Pindus
constitute a kind of natural boundary, which does not, however,
coincide with ethnical limits nor with the Turkish administrative
divisions. North-eastern Albania forms part of the Turkish
vilayet of Kossovo; the northern highlands are included in the
vilayet of Shkodra (Scutari), the eastern portion of central
Albania belongs to the vilayet of Monastir, and the southern
districts are comprised in the vilayet of lannina. The boundaries
of the three last-named vilayets meet near Elbassan. The name
Albania (in the Tosk dialect Arberia, in the Gheg Arbenia), like
Albania in the Caucasus, Armenia, Albany in Britain, and
Auvergne (Arvenia) in France, is probably connected with the
root alb, alp, and signifies " the white or snowy uplands."

Physical Features. — The mountain system is extremely com-
plex, especially that of the northern region. On the E. the great
Shar range, extending in a south-westerly direction from the
neighbourhood of Prishtina to that of Dibra, is continued towards
the S. by the ranges of Grammos and Pindus; the entire chain,
a prolongation of the Alpine systems of Bosnia and Dalmatia,
may be described as the backbone of the peninsula; it forms
the watershed between the Aegean and the Adriatic, and cul-
minates in the lofty peak of Liubotrn, near Kalkandele, one
of the highest summits in south-eastern Europe (8858 ft.). The
country to the west of this natural barrier may be divided
geographically into three districts — northern, central and
southern Albania. The river Shkumb separates the northern
from the central district, the Viossa the central from the southern.
The highland region of northern Albania is divided into two
portions by the lower course of the Drin; the mountains of
the northern portion, the Bieska Malziis, extend in a confused
and broken series of ridges from Scutari to the valleys of the
Ibar and White Drin; they comprise the rocky group of the
Prokletia, or Accursed Mountains, with their numerous ramifica-
tions, including Mount Velechik, inhabited by the Kastrat and
Shkrel tribes, Bukovik by the Hot, Golesh by the Klement,
Skulsen (7533 ft.), Baba Vrkh (about 73036 ft.), Maranay near
Scutari, and the Bastrik range to the east. South of the Drin
is another complex mountain system, including the highlands
inhabited by the Mirdites and the Mat tribe; among the principal
summits are Deia Mazzuklit, Mal-i Vels, Kraba, Toli and Mnela.
Central Albania differs from the northern and southern regions
in the more undulating and less rugged character of its surface;
it contains considerable lowland tracts, such as the wide and
fertile plain of Musseki, traversed by the river Simen. The
principal summit is Tomor (7916 ft.), overhanging the town of
Berat. Southern Albania, again, is almost wholly mountainous,
with the exception of the plains of lannina and Arta; the most
noteworthy feature is the rugged range of the Tchika, or Khimara
mountains, which skirt the sea-coast from south-west to north-
east, terminating in the lofty promontory of Glossa (ancient
Acroceraunia) . Farther inland the Mishkeli range to the north-
east of Lake lannina and the Nemertzika mountains run in a
parallel direction. In the extreme south, beyond the basin of
the Kalamas, the mountains of Suli and Olyzika form a separate
group. The rivers, as a rule, flow from east to west; owing to
the rapidity of their descent none are navigable except the
Boyana and Arta in their lower courses. The principal rivers

are the Boyana, issuing from Lake Scutari, and consequently
regarded as a continuation of the Montenegrin Moratcha, the
Drin, formed by the confluence of the White and Black Drin,
which, flowing respectively to the south and north through a long
valley at the foot of the Shar range, take a westerly direction
after their junction, the Matia, the Arzen, the Shkumb (ancient
Genusos), the Simen (Apsos), formed by the junction of the Devol
and Ergene, the Viossa (Adus), which owing to the trend of the
Khimara range takes a north-westerly direction, the Kalamas
(Thyamis) and the Arta (Arachthos), flowing south into the
Ambracian Gulf. A portion of the stream of the Drin has found
its way into the Boyana channel; the result has been a rise in
the level of Lake Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent
lowlands. A proposal to confine the Drin to its former course
by means of a dyke, and to ease the downflow of the Boyana
by a canal opening navigation to Lake Scutari, has long been
considered by the Turkish authorities. The great lakes of
Scutari (135 sq. m.) and Ochrida (107 sq. m.) are among the
most beautiful in Europe; the waters of Ochrida, which find
an outlet in the Black Drin, are of marvellous clearness. Lake
Malik, south by east of Ochrida, is drained by the Devol. The
waters of the picturesque Lake lannina (24 sq. m.) find an issue
by kaiabothra, or underground channels, into the Ambracian
Gulf. The lake of Butrinto (Buthrotum) is near the sea-coast
opposite Corfu.

Climate. — The climate is healthy in the uplands, though sub-
ject to violent changes; in the valleys fever is very prevalent,
especially in the basins of the Boyana, the lower Drin and the
Simen. The winter is short, but exceedingly cold; snow
remains on the Prokletia and other mountains till August, and
sometimes throughout the year. The summer temperature in
the plains is that of southern Italy; in the mountain districts
it is high during the day, but falls almost to freezing-point at
night. The sea-coast is exposed to the fierce bora, or north wind,
during the spring.

Natural Products. — The mountains of Albania are said to be
rich in minerals, but this source of wealth remains practically
unexplored. Iron and coal are probably abundant, and silver-
lead, copper and antimony are believed to exist. Gold mines
were worked in antiquity in the Drin valley, and silver mines in
the Mirdite region were known to the Venetians in the middle
ages. At Selinitza, near Avlona, there is a remarkable deposit
of mineral pitch which was extensively worked in Roman times;
mining operations are still carried on here, but in a somewhat
primitive fashion. The splendid forests, of which there are
70,000 acres in the vilayet of Scutari alone, are undergoing a
rapid process of destruction, as in other lands under Turkish
rule. The principal trees are the oak, the valonia oak, the beech,
ash, elm, plane, celtis, poplar and walnut, which give way in
the higher regions to the pine and fir. The oak forests near
Dibra, where charcoal-making is a considerable industry, and
the beech-woods of the Prishtina district, are especially remark-
able. The sumach is largely grown in the Mirdite district; its
leaves are exported to Trieste for use in tanneries and dyeworks.
In 1898 the export of valonia was estimated at £11,200, of
sumach at £2400. Of fnuit-trees the white mulberry, cherry
and wild pear are plentiful; the chestnut and walnut are some-
times met with, and the olive is grown in the lowland and
maritime districts. The exportation of olive oil in 1898 was
valued at £24,000. The greater part of the country is admirably
suited to viticulture, and wine of tolerable quality is produced.
Tobacco is grown extensively in southern Albania, especially
near Berat and in the upper valley of the Viossa, but the quantity
exported is small. The means of subsistence are mainly provided
by the cultivation of grain and cattle-rearing. Notwithstanding
the primitive condition of agriculture, the deficiency of com-
munications and the damage caused by frequent inundation
Albania furnishes almost the entire corn supply of the Dalmat
coast and islands. Maize is the favourite grain for home con-
sumption, but considerable quantities of this cereal, as well as
barley, rye and oats are exported. The total export of cereals
in 1898 was valued at £70,800. Sheep and goats form almost

ALBANIA

483

the only wealth of the mountaineers of northern Albania;
large cattle are found only on the plains. The slopes of Pindus
afford excellent pasture for the flocks of the Vlach shepherds.
The export of raw hides and wool is considerable; in 1898 these
commodities were valued respectively at £90,400 and £24,000.
The lakes and rivers of Albania abound in fish. The scoranze
(Alb. seraga), a kind of sardine, is taken in great quantities in
Lake Scutari; it is salted and smoked for home consump-
tion and exportation. Sea-fishing is almost wholly neglected.
There are salines at Avlona and other places on the coast.

Commerce and Industries. — The exports in 1898 were estimated
at £480,000, the imports at £1,360,000, the former comprising
agricultural produce, live stock, hides, wool, cheese, eggs,
poultry, olive oil, valonia, sumach leaves, timber, skins of wild
animals, silk, tobacco and salted fish, the latter manufactured
articles, cloth, hardware, furniture, firearms, gunpowder, sugar,
coffee, &c. The monopoly of Albanian commerce formerly
possessed by Venice has descended to Austria-Hungary; the
trade with other countries, except Italy, is inconsiderable.
Owing to the poverty of the people, cheap Austrian goods find
a readier sale than the more expensive and solid British manu-
factures. The maritime traffic is largely conducted by the
steamers of the subsidized Austrian-Lloyd company, Trieste
being the principal commercial centre; the coasting trade is
carried on by small Greek and Turkish sailing vessels. The
trade of the northern and western districts has to some extent
been diverted to Salonica since the opening of the railways from
that town to Mitrovitza and Monastir. The development of
commerce is retarded by lack of communications; the country
possesses no railways and few roads. Several railway lines have
been projected, but there is no great probability of their con-
struction under existing political conditions. The Via Egnatia,
the great Roman highway to the east, is still used; it runs from
Durazzo (Dyrrhachium) to Elbassan and Ochrida. lannina is
connected by carriage-roads with Monastir, Agii Saranta and
Preveza. As a rule, however, bridle-paths supply the only means
of communication. The native industries are inconsiderable,
and many of them are in a languishing condition. The manu-
facture of highly ornate firearms, yataghans and other weapons
at Scutari, Jakova and Prizren has declined, owing to the im-
portation of modern rifles and revolvers. Gold and silk em-
broidery, filigree work, morocco and richly-braided jackets
are produced for home use and for sale in Bosnia, Macedonia
and Montenegro.

Population. — The population of Albania may be estimated
at between 1,600,000 and 1,500,000, of whom 1,200,000 or
1,100,000 are Albanians. Of the other races the Slavs (Serbs
and Bulgars) are the most numerous, possibly numbering 250,000.
Servian settlements exist in various parts of northern Albania;
there is a strong Bulgarian colony in the neighbourhood of Dibra
and Ochrida; farther south, Mount Zygos and the Pindus
range — the " Great Walachia " of the middle ages — are in-
habited by Vlachs or Tzintzars, who possibly number 70,000.
Some Turkish colonies are also found in the south-eastern
districts. There is a considerable Greek-speaking population
in Epiros (including many Mahommedan Albanians), which
must, however, be distinguished from the genuine Greeks of
lannina, Preveza and the extreme south; these may be esti-
mated at 100,000. The population of the vilayet of Scutari
is given as 237,000, that of the vilayet of lannina as 552,000.
The principal towns are Scutari (Albanian Shkoder, with the
definite article Shkodr-a), the capital of the vilayet of that name,
pop. 32,000; Prizren, 30,000; lannina (often incorrectly
written loannina), capital of the southern vilayet, 22,000;
Jakova, 12,000; Dibra, 15,000; Prishtina, 11,000; Ipek
(Slav. Fetch), 15,000; Berat, 15,000; Ochrida, 11,000; Tirana,
12,000; Argyrokastro, 11,000; Kortcha (Slav. Goritza), 10,000;
Elbassan (perhaps ancient Albanopolis) , 8000; Metzovo, 7500;
Preveza, 6500; Avlona, 6000; Durazzo, 5000; Parga, 5000;
Butrinto, 2000; and Kroi'a, the ancient fortress of Scanderbeg,
5000. All these, except Elbassan, Metzovo and Kro'ia, are
described in separate articles.

oescr

The Albanians are apparently the most ancient race in south-
eastern Europe. History and legend afford no record of their
arrival in the Balkan Peninsula. They are probably the descend-
ants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in
historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians and
Epirots; the Macedonians and Epirots are believed by Hahn
to have formed the core of the pre-Hellenic Tyrrheno-Pelasgian
population which inhabited the southern portion of the penin-
sula and extended its limits to Thrace and Italy. The Illyrians
were also " Pelasgian," but in a wider sense. Of these cognate
races, which are described by the Greek writers as barbarous
or non-Hellenic, the Illyrians and Epirots, he thinks, were re-
spectively the progenitors of the Ghegs, or northern, and the
Tasks, or southern, Albanians. The Via Egnatia, which Strabo
(vii. fragment 3) describes as forming the boundary between the
Illyrians and Epirots, practically corresponds with the course
of the Shkumb, which now separates the Ghegs and the Tosks.
The same geographer (v. 2. 221) states that the Epirots were also
called Pelasgians; the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at Dodona
(Homer, II. xvi. 234), and the neighbourhood of the sanctuary
was called Pelasgia (Herodotus ii. 56). The meaning of the
term " Pelasgian " is, however, too obscure to furnish a basis
for ethnographical speculation; in the time of Herodotus it
may have already come to denote a period rather than a race.
The name Task is possibly identical with Tuscus, Etruscus,
while the form Tyrrhenus perhaps survives in Tirana. The large
number of Slavonic local names in Albania, even in districts
where no trace of a Slavonic population exists, bears witness
to the extensive Servian and Bulgarian immigrations in the
early middle ages, but the original inhabitants gradually ousted
or assimilated the invaders. The determination with which
this remarkable race has maintained its mountain stronghold
through a long series of ages has hitherto met with scant ap-
preciation in the outside world. While the heroism of the
Montenegrins has been lauded by writers of all countries, the
Albanians — if we except Byron's eulogy of the Suloits — still
remain unsung. Not less noticeable is the tenacity with which
isolated fragments of the nationhavepreservedtheirpeculiarchar-
acteristics, language, customs and traditions. The Albanians
in Greece and Italy, though separated for six centuries from the
parent stock, have not yet been absorbed by the surrounding
populations.

The Albanians, both Ghegs and Tosks, call themselves Shkii-
petar, and their land Shkupenia or Shkilperia, the former being
the Gheg, the latter the Tosk form of the word. Shkilpetar has
been variously interpreted. According to Hahn it is a parti-
cipial from shkyipoij, " I understand," signifying " he who
knows " the native language; others interpret it with less
probability as " the rock-dweller," from shkep, shkip, N. Alb.
shkamp, "rock." The designations Arber (Gr. 'Ap/SaJ'trr/j,
Turk. Arnaout), denoting the people, and Arbenia or Arberia,
the land, are also, though less frequently, used by the Albanians.
A district near Kroia is locally known as Arbenia; the Tosk
form Arberia strictly applies only to the mountain region near
Avlona. The region inhabited by a more or less homogeneous
Albanian population may be roughly marked out by a line
drawn from the Montenegrin frontier at Berane to Mitrovitza
and the Servian frontier near Vranya; thence to Uskiib, Prilep,
Monastir, Fiorina, Kastoria, lannina and Parga. These limits,
however, are far from including all the members of a widely
scattered race. The Albanians in Greece, whose settlements
extend over Attica, Boeotia, the district of Corinth and the
Argolid peninsula, as well as southern Euboea and the islands
of Hydra, Spetzae, Poros and Salamis, descend from Tosk
immigrants in the i4th century. They played a brilliant part
in the War of Independence (1821-1829), and to-day supply the
Greek army with its best soldiers. They were estimated by
Leake at 200,000. A large number still speak the Albanian
language; many of the older men, and a considerable proportion
of the women, even in the neighbourhood of Athens, are ignorant
of Greek. The Albanian settlements in southern Italy and
Sicily were founded in 1444, 1464 and 1468; minor immigrations

ALBANIA

followed in the three succeeding centuries. In southern Italy
there are 72 Albanian communes, with 154,674 inhabitants; in
Sicily 7 communes, with 52,141 inhabitants. The Italian and
Sicilian Albanians are of Tosk descent, and many of them still
speak a variation of the Tosk dialect. There are also several
Albanian settlements in European Turkey and Asia Minor, some
founded by military colonists who received grants of land from
successive sultans, others owing their origin to enforced migra-
tions after insurrections in Albania. The only genuine division
of the Albanian race is that of Ghegs and Tosks; the Liaps,
who inhabit the district between the Viossa and the sea, and
the Tshams or Chams, who occupy the coast-land south of the
Kalamas, are subdivisions of the Tosk family. The name Gheg
(Ggg£-a) is not adopted by the Ghegs themselves, being regarded
as a nickname; the designation Tosk (Toskg-a) is restricted by
the Tosks to the inhabitants of a small region north of the lower
Viossa (Toskeria).

National Characteristics. — While the other primitive popu-
lations of the peninsula were either hellenized or latinized,
or subsequently absorbed by the Slavonic immigration, the
Albanians to a great extent remained unaffected by foreign
influences. Retaining their original language and preserving
the customs and institutions of remote antiquity, they present
a distinct type, and differ in many essential particulars from the
other nations of the peninsula. The Ghegs especially, not-
withstanding their fierce and lawless character, their super-
stition, ignorance and predatory propensities, possess some
noteworthy qualities rarely found in eastern Europe: simple,
brave, faithful, and sometimes capable of devoted attachment,
these wild mountaineers make excellent soldiers and trustworthy
retainers; they have long furnished a bodyguard to the sultan
and, like the Tosks, are much employed as kavasses and attend-
ants at foreign embassies and consulates in the East. The native
disposition of the Tosks has been modified by intercourse with
the Greeks and Vlachs; while the Gheg devotes his attention
exclusively to fighting, robbery and pastoral pursuits, the Tosk
occasionally occupies himself with commercial, industrial or
agricultural employments; the Gheg is stern, morose and
haughty, the Tosk lively, talkative and affable. The natural
antipathy between the two sections of the race, though less
evident than in former times, is far from extinct. In all parts
of Albania the vendetta (gyak,jak) or blood-feud, the primitive
lex talionis, is an established usage; the duty of revenge is a
sacred tradition handed down to successive generations in the
family, the village and the tribe. A single case of homicide
often leads to a series of similar crimes or to protracted warfare
between neighbouring families and communities; the murderer,
as a rule, takes refuge in the mountains from the avenger of blood,
or remains for years shut up in his house. It is estimated that
in consequence of these feuds scarcely 75% of the population
in certain mountainous districts die a natural death. A truce
(bessa, literally " faith," " pledge "), either temporary or per-
manent, is sometimes arranged by mediation, or among the
Ghegs, by the intervention of the clergy; a general bessa has
occasionally been proclaimed by special irade of the sultan, the
restoration of peace being celebrated with elaborate ceremonies.
So stringent are the obligations of hospitality that a household
is bound to exact reparation for any injury done to a guest as
though he were a member of the family. No traveller can
venture into the mountain districts without the bessa of one
of the inhabitants; once this has been obtained he will be
hospitably welcomed. In some districts there is a fixed price of
blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the compensation paid
by the homicide to the relatives of his victim is 1200 piastres
(about £10), at Khimara 2000 piastres; once the debt has been
acquitted amicable relations are restored. Notwithstanding
their complete subjection, women are treated with a certain
respect, and are often employed as intermediaries in the settle-
ment of feuds; a woman may traverse a hostile district without
fear of injury, and her bessa will protect the traveller or the
stranger. Women accompany their male relatives to the battle-
field for the purpose of tending the wounded and carrying away

the dead. The bride brings no dowry to her husband; she is
purchased at a stipulated price, and earnest-money is paid at
the betrothal, which usually takes place while the contracting
parties are still children. It is customary for young men who
are attached to each other to swear eternal brotherhood (com-
pare the Slavonic pobratimstvo); the contract is regarded as
sacred, and no instance has been known of its violation. The
costume of the Tosks differs from that of the Ghegs; its dis-
tinctive feature is the white plaited linen fustanella or petticoat,
which has been adopted by the Greeks; the Ghegs wear trews
of white or crimson native cloth adorned with black braid, and
a short, close-fitting jacket, which in the case of wealthy persons
is embellished with gold lace. The fez is worn by both races,
and in the northern highlands yataghans and firearms are almost
invariably carried. The costume of the Mirdite and Mat tribes
is peculiar. It consists of a white felt cap, a long white tunic
bound with a red girdle, white linen trousers and opinki, or
sandals.

Tribal System. — The tribal organization in northern Albania
is an interesting survival of the earliest form of social combina-
tion; it may be compared in many respects with that which
existed in the Scottish highlands in the time of the Stuart kings.
The practical autonomy which the Gheg mountaineers enjoy has
been won by a prolonged and successful resistance to Turkish
domination; as a rule they pay no taxes, they are exempt from
the conscription, they know nothing of the Ottoman law, and the
few Turkish officials established amongst them possess no real
authority. Their only obligation to the Turkish government is to
furnish a contingent in time of war; the only law they recognize
is either traditional custom (a<f<?/) or the unwritten Kanun-i Leks
Dukajinil, a civil and criminal code, so called from its author,
Leka Dukajini, who is supposed to have lived in the I3th or I4th
century. The tribe or mat (" mountain ") is often composed of
several clans (phis-i, phdrea)oi baryaks (literally " standards ")
each under a chief or baryaktar (standard-bearer), who is, strictly
speaking, a military leader; there are in each clan a certain
number of elders or voi'vodes (Albanian kru-ye, pi. krene-le) who
form a council and, like the baryaktar, hold their office by
hereditary right; they preside over the assemblies of the tribes-
men, which exercise the supreme legislative power. The clan is
generally subdivided into smaller communities (mahale), each
administered by a local notable oijobar. The jobars superintend
the execution of the laws, collect fines and administer capital
punishment; they are in contact with the buluk-bashi, or resident
representative of the tribe at Scutari, who forms the only link
between the mountaineers and the Turkish government. He
communicates to the tribesmen the orders of the vali, which must
be framed in accordance with their customs and institutions.
The tribes of northern Albania, or Ghegeria, may be classified in
seven groups as follows: — (i) The Mirdites, who inhabit the
alpine region around Orosh to the south-east of Scutari — the most
important of all in respect of numbers (about 1 7,000) and political
independence. A Roman Catholic tribe, occupying an inaccess-
ible district, they have hitherto defeated every effort of the
Turks to encroach on their autonomy. Their hereditary chiefs,
or capidans, belong to the family known as Der a e Jon Markut
(the house of John Marco), which has ruled for 200 years and is
supposed to be descended from Scanderbeg. In 1868 the reign-
ing chief, Bib Doda, died, and his son and successor Prenk was
detained as a hostage by the Turks. The Mirdites consequently
refused to contribute their customary contingent to the Turkish
army, and eventually Prenk was restored. His ambiguous con-
duct, however, led to the despatch of two expeditions against
the Mirdites and the devastation of their territory. In 1880
Prenk was kidnapped by the Turkish authorities and exiled to
Anatolia; another member of the ruling family was appointed
kaimakam, but the Mirdites refused to obey him, and their
district has ever since been in a state of anarchy. No Moslem is
allowed to remain in Mirdite territory. (2) The Mi-shkodrak
(Upper Scutari) group or confederation, also known as the
Malsia-Madhe (Great Highlands), is composed of the Klement,
Grud-a, Hot, Kastrat and Shkrel tribes, which occupy the

ALBANIA

mountainous district north-east of Scutari. Owing to the proxi-
mity of the capital this group is comparatively subject to the
Turkish power, and pays a small annual tribute; the chiefs, who
assess and collect the tribute, form a kind of administrative
council; the confederation has also an official representative
council at Scutari, called the Jibal, under the presidency of a
Serkarde or Moslem official. (3) The Dukajin, whose territory
lies between that of the last-named group and the district of
Jakova, include the Pulati, Shalla, Shoshi and other tribes; they
are more independent and more savage than the Mi-shko'drak
and have never paid tribute from time immemorial. (4) The
Puka group, known as " the Seven Baryaks of Puka," dwell on
the south side of the river Drin; they are nominally administered
by a Turkish kaimakam, who is a mere spectator of their pro-
ceedings. (5) The Malsia Jakovs, a group of two Catholic and
three Moslem tribes, extend in the direction of Jakova, where they
maintain an official representative; they are entirely exempt
from taxation. (6,7) The Malsia-Lezhs, who occupy the Alessio
highlands, and the Malsia Krues, who inhabit the region north of
Kroia, live in a state of extreme poverty and pay no tribute; the
Malsia Krues are much addicted to brigandage. To these seven
groups, which are included under the general appellation of
Malissori, or " highlanders," may be added the Malsia of Dibra
who extend to the west and north of that town, and form a large
separate group; they are notorious for their fierce lawless
:haracter, and maintain themselves by plundering the Bulgarian
peasants in their neighbourhood. In general the attitude of the
Albanians in the north-eastern districts towards the Slavonic
peasantry may be compared with that of the Kurds towards the
Armenians. In the region east of Kroia the Mat tribe which
iccupies the upper valley of the Matia, presents an entirely
'ifferent organization; their district is governed by four wealthy
.mihes, possessing hereditary rank and influence. Towards the
>uth the tribal organization becomes looser and is gradually
ipplanted by a kind of feudal system; among the powerful
•istocratic houses may be mentioned the Vh'ores at Avlona who
;e stated to own over 150 sq. m. of land, and the Toptans at
The principal landowners, who reside in fortified houses
.re all Moslems; their estates are cultivated on the metayer
item. Since the time of All Pasha, who broke the power of the
chieftains, southern Albania has been subject to the central
kish power; before that period the mountaineers of Suli and
umara enjoyed an independence similar to that of the Ghee
ibes.

Religions— The great majority of the Albanians, probably
lore than three-fifths, are Moslems. The conversion of the
hnstian population to Islam appears to have taken place during
le 1 6th and 1 7 th centuries. Like the Cretan Moslems and the
lulganan Pomaks, the Albanian Mahommedans retain many
Christian traditions and customs; it is said that many thousands
them secretly adhere to their original faith. In the vilayet of
ptan they form about 55% of the population; central Albania
almost entirely Moslem; in southern Albania, however there
a considerable Christian population, whose limits practically
pmcide with those of the Greek-speaking districts Of the
stian population (about 600,000), some 1 10,000 are Roman
tholic Ghegs, some 90,000 are Orthodox Tosks, and some
400000 are Orthodox Slavs, Greeks and Vlachs. The Roman
tholic Ghegs appear to have abandoned the Eastern for the
/estern Church in the middle of the i3th century. Their bishops
nd priests, who wear the moustache in deference to popular
Tejudice, are typical specimens of the church militant. Some of
Gheg tribes, such as the Puka, Malsia Jakovs and Malsia
ies, are partly Roman Catholic, partly Moslem; among fellow-
imen the difference of religion counts for little. The Mirdites
exclusively Roman Catholic, the Mat-i exclusively Moslem
e head of the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the archbishops
cutan (with three suffragans), Prizren and Durazzo; the
mitred abbot of St Alexander is the spiritual chief of the Mirdites.
Orthodox Church has metropolitans at Prizren, Durazzo
at, lannma and Kortcha; the Bulgarian exarchate maintains
a bishop at Dibra. Of the Albanians in Sicily the great inajSy

485

(44,79i) remain faithful to the Greek Church; in Italy 116482
follow the Latin ritual, and 38, 192 the Greek. All the Albanians
m Greece belong to the Orthodox Church.

Education.— Education is almost non-existent, and the vast
majority of the population, both Christian and Moslem are
totally lUiterate Instruction in the Albanian language is pro-
hibited by the Turkish government for political reasons a
smgle.exception has been made in the case of an American school
for girls at Kortcha. There are Turkish primary and secondary
schools in some of the towns; in the village mosques instruction
m the Koran is given by the imams, but neither reading nor
writing is taught. The aristocratic Moslem families send their
sons to be educated in Constantinople or Vienna. At Scutari
a college and a seminary are maintained by the Jesuits with
aid of the Austrian government; the Franciscans have
several primary schools, and three lay schools are supported
by the Italian government; in all these institutions Italian
is the language of instruction. Thereare two Servian seminaries
at Prizren In southern Albania there are Greek schools in the
towns and a large Greek gymnasium at lannina. The priests
of the Greek Church, on whom the rural population depend
for instruction, are often deplorably ignorant. The merchant
families of lannma are well educated; the dialect spoken in that
town is the purest specimen of colloquial Greek.

Language.— Albanian is peculiarly interesting as the onlv
surviving representative of the so-called Thraco-Illyrian group
of languages which formed the primitive speech of the peninsula
: has afforded an attractive study to philologists, amongst
whom may be mentioned Malte-Brun, Leake, Xylander, Hahn
Miklosich and G. Meyer. The analysis of the language presents
great difficulties, as, owing to the absence of literary monuments
no certainty can be arrived at with regard to its earlier forms
and later development. The groundwork, so far as it can be
ascertained, and the grammar are Indo-European, but a large
number of words have been borrowed from the Latin or Italian
and Greek, and it is not always easy to decide whether the
mutilated and curtailed forms now in use represent adopted
words or belong to the original vocabulary. There is also a
considerable admixture of Turkish and Slavonic words Not-
withstanding certain points of resemblance in structure and
phonetics, Albanian is entirely distinct from the neighbouring
languages; m its relation to early Latin and Greek it may be
regarded as a co-ordinate member of the Aryan stock It
possesses seven vowels; among the consonants are the aspirated
d and t as in Greek, and many other sounds, such as b, d, sh, zh
trench j), and hard g, which are wanting in Greek, but exist in
the Slavonic languages. There are three declensions, each with
a definite and indefinite form; the genitive, dative and ablative
are usually represented by a single termination; the vocative
is formed by a final o, as memmo from memme, " mother "
The neuter gender is absent. There are two conjugations- the
passive formation, now wanting inmostlndo-European languages
has been retained, as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, " I seek," forms

hovhn na ,-,,. ii T _ 1 , *« .,.i

11 ,, , ""° .ivxr in/-»_y J. SCCK. lOrHlS

kerko-n-em "I am sought." The infinitive is not found- ;
in Greek, Rumanian and Bulgarian, it is replaced by the sub-
junctive with a particle. The two auxiliary verbs are Mm
I have and y&m, I am." An interesting and characteristic
feature of the language is the definite article, which is attached

X?%end Jl the ,VfOTd/ <e-g- mik ("fri«id," amicus), mik-u
(the friend;' ; kun ("dog"), kien-i; Shkumb, Shkumb-i
1 he suffix-article likewise appears in Rumanian and Bulgarian
but in no other Latin or Slavonic language; it is in each case
iorm of the demonstrative pronoun. Another remarkable
analogy between the Albanian and the neighbouring languages
is found m the formation of the future; the Albanian do (<rd
pers. sing of dova, "I will"), like the Greek W, is prefixed
without change to all persons of the verb: a similar usage in
Servian and Bulgarian, as well as in Rumanian (especially the
Macedonian dialect) , is peculiar to these languages in the Slavonic
and Latin groups. These and other points of similarity, possibly
only accidental, have led to the conjecture that the primitive
Lllynan language may have exerted some kind of influence on

486

ALBANIA

the other idioms of the peninsula. In the absence of literary
culture the Albanian dialects, as might be expected, are widely
divergent; the limits of the two principal dialects correspond
with the racial boundaries of the Ghegs and Tosks, who under-
stand each other with difficulty; the Albanians in Greece and
Italy have also separate dialects. In writing Albanian the Latin
character is employed by the Ghegs, the Greek by the Tosks;
neither alphabet suffices to represent the manifold sounds of the
language, and various supplementary letters or distinguishing
signs are necessary. In the use of these no uniform system has
yet been adopted. An alphabet of fifty-two letters, some pre-
senting ancient Phoenician and Cretan forms, was found by
Hahn in partial use at Elbassan and Tirana; its antiquity,
however, has not been established. The Tosks generally use the
Greek language for written communications. The native folk-
lore and poetry of the Albanians can hardly compare with that
of the neighbouring nations in originality and beauty. The
earliest printed works in Albanian are those of the Catholic
missionaries; the first book containing specimens of the language
was the Dictionarium Latino- Epiroticum of Bianchi, printed in
1635. The literature of the last two centuries consists mainly
of translations and religious works written by ecclesiastics,
some of whom were natives of the Albanian colonies in Italy.
The most noteworthy Albanian writer was Girolamo di Rada
(b. 1815), a poet, philologist and collector of national folklore.
Among his successors may be mentioned Vincenzo Dorsa and
Demetrio Camarda.

Antiquities. — Albania abounds in ancient remains, which as
yet have been little explored. Fragments of " Cyclopean "
structures were discovered by Hahn at Kretzunista, Arinista,
and other sites in the district of Argyrokastro; the walls, partly
" Cyclopean," of an ancient city (perhaps Bullis) are visible
at Gradisti on the Viossa. Masonry of this type, however,
occurring in Illyria and Dalmatia (e.g. at Spalato and on the
island of Lesina) has been shown by modern archaeologists
to belong to the Roman period. In general, the remains of the
classical epoch attest the influence of Roman rather than of
Greek civilization. At Pollina, the ancient Apollonia, are the
remnants of a Doric temple, of which a single column is still
standing. A little north of Preveza are the considerable ruins
of Nikopolis, founded by Octavian to commemorate the victory
of Actium. At Khimara (anc. Chimaera) the remains of an
old Greek city may still be seen; at Santi Quaranta (anc.
Onchesmos) the walls and towers of a later town are in good
preservation. Few traces remain of the once celebrated Dyr-
rhachium. The ruins of Pandosia, Ephyra, Elatea, Phoenike,
Buthrotum, Akrolissos and other towns may be identified.
The most important and interesting remains, however, are those
of Dodona (q.v.). Of the medieval ruins those of Kroia, the
stronghold of Scanderbeg, are the most interesting.

Medieval History. — After the division of the Roman empire,
the lands inhabited by the Albanian race became provinces of the
Byzantine empire; northern Albania from Scutari to Berat
formed the thema or province of Dyrrachium (Durazzo, Albanian
Dourtz), southern Albania and Epirus the thema of Nikopolis.
The country was overrun by the Goths in the 4th and sth cen-
turies, but reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 640 northern
Albania was invaded by the Serbo-Croats; it continued with
interruptions under Servian rule till 1360. In 861 the Bulgarians
conquered the southern portion of the country and Epirus as far
as Khimara; under their powerful tsar Simeon (893-927), who
defeated the Servians, they established their rule on the Adriatic
littoral, except at Durazzo, which remained Byzantine, and
colonized these regions in great numbers. A new Bulgarian
dynasty, that of Shishman, was founded at Ochrida after
the death of Simeon. Shishman's son Samuel (976-1014) cap-
tured Durazzo; he extended his sway over a great part of the
Balkan Peninsula, but was eventually defeated in 1014 by the
emperor Basil II., who put out the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian
prisoners. Southern Albania and Epirus fell once more under
Byzantine rule, which, however, was shaken by numerous
revolts. In 1081 the Normans under Robert Guiscard possessed

themselves of Durazzo; Guiscard 's son Bohemund defeated the
Greeks in several battles and again (1107) laid siege to Durazzo,
which had been surrendered to them by treachery; failing to
take the city, he retired to Italy in 1 109. Southern Albania and
Epirus remained under Byzantine domination till 1204, when,
after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, Michael
Comnenus, a member of the imperial family, withdrew to Epirus
and founded an independent sovereignty known as the Despotate
of Epirus at lannina; his realm included the whole of southern
Albania, Acarnania and Aetolia. The despotate of Epirus was
held by the Comnenus family till 1318, and by princes of the
house of Orsini till 1358. Meanwhile Durazzo, with Berat and
Central Albania, had passed into the hands of the Sicilian kings
of the house of Anjou, who ruled these regions, which they styled
the " Kingdom of Albania," from 1271 to 1368, maintaining a
constant warfare with the Byzantine emperors. The Servians
again installed themselves in Upper Albania about 1180, and
the provinces of Scutari and Prizren were ruled by kings of the
house of Nemanya till 1360; Stefan Dushan (1331-1358),
the greatest of these monarchs, included all Albania in his
extensive but short-lived empire, and took the title of Imperator
Romaniae Slawniae et Albaniae (emperor of the Greeks, Slavs
and Albanians).

Period of Native Rule. — After the death of Dushan and the
break-up of the Servian empire, a new epoch began when Albania
fell under the rule of chieftains more or less of native origin. A
portion of Upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366-
1421), which, though apparently Servian by descent, assimilated
itself with its Albanian subjects and embraced the faith of Rome.
Alessio and a tract of the interior in the direction of Ipek was
governed by the Dukajin. The northern portion of the " king-
dom of Albania," including Durazzo and Kroia, was ruled by the
family of Thopia (1359-^1392) and afterwards by that of Kas-
triota, to which Scanderbeg belonged; the southern portion with
Berat, by the Musaki (1368-1476). In the middle of the i4th
century a great migration of Albanians from the mountainous
districts of the north took place, under the chiefs Jin Bua Spata
and Peter Liosha; they advanced southwards as far as Acarnania
and Aetolia (1358), occupied the greater portion of the despotate
of Epirus, and took lannina and Arta. In the latter half of the
century large colonies of Tosks were planted in the Morea by
the despots of Mistra, and in Attica and Boeotia by Duke Nerio
of Athens. As the power of the Balshas declined, the Venetians
towards the close of the i4th century established themselves at
Scutari, Budua, Antivari and elsewhere in northern Albania.

Period of Turkish Ride. — The advance of the Turks into
Albania began with the capture of lannina in 1431. For once in
the history of the country the Albanian chiefs combined against
the invader under a single leader, the celebrated George Kastriota
(see SCANDERBEG), who fought thirteen campaigns in the period
1444-1466. In 1478 Kroia, which the Venetians had occupied
after Scanderbeg's death, surrendered to Mahontmed II., and in
1479 Scutari, after a memorable defence by the Venetians and
their Montenegrin allies, was reduced by blockade. Many of
its native Christian defenders emigrated to Dalmatia and Italy;
others took refuge in the mountains with the Roman Catholic
Ghegs. In 1502 the Turks captured Durazzo, and in 1571
Antivari and Dulcigno, the last Venetian possessions in Albania.
Notwithstanding the abandonment of Christianity by a large
section of the population after the Turkish conquest, the
authority of the sultans was never effectively established, and
succeeding centuries present a record of interminable conflicts
between the tribesmen and the Turks, between the Christians
and the converts to Islam, or between all combined and the
traditional Montenegrin enemy. The decline of the Ottoman
power, which began towards the end of the i7th century,
was marked by increasing anarchy and lawlessness in the
outlying portions of the empire. About 1760 a Moslem
chieftain, Mehemet of Bushat, after obtaining the pashalik of
Scutari from the Porte, succeeded in establishing an almost
independent sovereignty in Upper Albania, which remained
hereditary in his family for some generations. In southern

ALBANUS LACUS— ALBANY

487

Albania AH Pasha of Tepelen (b. about 1750), an able, cruel and
unscrupulous man, subdued the neighbouring pashas and chiefs,
crushed the Suliotes and Khimarrhotes, and exercised a practi-
cally independent sovereignty from the Adriatic to the Aegean.
He introduced comparative civilization at lannina, his capital,
and maintained direct relations with foreign powers. Eventually
he renounced his allegiance to the sultan, but was overthrown by
a Turkish army in 1822. Shortly afterwards the dynasty of
Scutari came to an end with the surrender of Mustafa Pasha, the
last of the house of Bushat, to the grand vizier Reshid Pasha, in
1831.

The opposition of the Albanians, Christian as well as Moslem,
to the reforms introduced by the sultan Mahmud II. led to the
devastation of the country and the expatriation of thousands of
its inhabitants. During the next half-century several local
revolts occurred, but no movement of a strictly political character
took place till after the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878), when some
of the Moslems and Catholics combined to resist the stipulated
transference of Albanian territory to Austria-Hungary, Servia
and Montenegro, and the Albanian League was formed by an
assemblage of chiefs at Prizren. The movement, which was
instigated by the Porte with the object of evading the provisions
of the treaty, was so far successful that the restoration of Plava
and Gusinye to Albania was sanctioned by the powers, Monte-
negro receiving in exchange the town and district of Dulcigno.
The Albanian leaders, however, soon displayed a spirit of inde-
pendence, which proved embarrassing to Turkish diplomacy and
caused alarm at Constantinople; their forces came into con-
flict with a Turkish army under Dervish Pasha near Dulcigno
(November 1880), and eventually the league was suppressed. A
similar agitation on a smaller scale was organized in southern
Albania to resist the territorial concessions awarded by the
powers to Greece. In the spring of 1903 serious disturbances
took place in north-western Albania, but the Turks succeeded in
pacifying the revolted tribesmen, partly by force and partly by
concessions. . These movements were far from displaying a
genuinely national character. In recent years attempts have
been made by Albanians resident abroad to propagate the
national idea among their compatriots at home; committees
have been formed at Brussels, Bucharest, Athens and elsewhere,
and books, pamphlets and newspapers are surreptitiously sent
into the country. Unity of aim and effort, however, seems
foreign to the Albanians, except in defence of local or tribal
privileges. The growth of a wider patriotic sentiment must
depend on the spread of popular education; certainly up to
1908 no appreciable progress had been made in this direction.

AUTHORITIES. — F. C. H. Pouqueville, Voyage de la Crete (Paris,
1820); W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (London, 1835);
J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), Reise durch die
Gebiete des Drin und Vardar (Vienna, 1867) ; F. Bopp, Cher das
Albanesische (Berlin, 1854); J- P- Fallmerayer, Das albanesische
Element in Griechenland (Munich, 1864); N. Camarda, Saggia di
grammatologia comparata salla lingua albanese (Leghorn, 1865) ;
Viscountess Strangford, The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic (London,
1865) ; H. F. Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London,
1869); F. Miklosich, Albanes. Forschungen (Vienna, 1870); C. Hopf,
Chroniques greco-romaines inedites ou peu connues (Berlin, 1873);
i. Hecquard, Histoire et description de la Haute Albanie ou Guegarie
(Paris, undated) ; S. Gopchevich, Oberalbanien und seine £iga(Leipzig,
1881); F. Tajani, Le Istoria Albanesi (Salerno, 1886); G. Gelchich,
La Zedda e la dinastia dei Balshi (Spalato, 1899); S. Larabros,
]H dvonaroXoyia. rijs 'ArTt/ojs Kal 7} ds TI)V \wpav kicoliaiau T&V 'AX/Savwc,
in the 'ETrtrripls TOV Uapixuraov (Athens, 1896); Theodore Ippen,
' Beitrage zur inneren Geschichte der Turkei im 19. Jahrhundert
speciell Albaniens," in the Osterreichisch- Ungarische Revue, vol.
xxviii. ; A. Philippson, Thessalia und Epirus (Berlin, 1897). See also
Murray's Greece, ed. 1900, pp. 720-731 and 760-814, and Blue-book
Turkey, No. 15, Part ii., 1886. (J. D. B.)

ALBANUS LACUS (mod. Lago di Albano), a lake about 12 m.
S.E. of Rome. It is generally considered to have been formed
by a volcanic explosion at the margin of the great crater of the
Albanus Mons; it has the shape of a crater, the banks of which
are over 400 ft. in height from the water-level, while the water is
as much as 560 ft. deep in the S. portion. It is fed by subter-
ranean springs. According to the legend, the emissarium (outlet)
which still drains it was made in 398-397 B.C., the Delphic oracle

having declared that Veii could only be taken when the waters
of the lake reached the sea. It is over a mile in length, hewn in
the rock, and about 6 ft. high and 4 ft. broad ; it has vertical shafts
at intervals, and a sluice chamber at its egress from the lake. In
the time of Domitian the whole lake belonged to the imperial
domain. (See ALBA LONGA.)

ALBANUS MONS (mod. Monte Cavo, from an early city of the
name of Cabum? '), the highest point of the volcanic Alban
hills, about 13 m. S.E. of Rome, 3115 ft. above sea-level. It is
upon the line of the rim of the inner crater of the great volcano,
while Tusculum and Algidus Mons mark the edge of the earlier
outer crater, which was about 7 m. wide. The lakes of Albano
and Nemi were probably formed by volcanic explosions at the
margin of the great crater; though a view has also been expressed
that the basins are the result of subsidence. The name Albanus
Mons is also used generally of the Alban group of hills in which
there seem to have been some remains of volcanic activity in
early Roman times, which covered the early necropolis of Alba
Longa, and occasionally produced showers of stones, e.g. in the
time of Tullus Hostilius (Liv. i. 31), and perhaps much later.
In 193 B.C. it is recorded (ib. xxxv. 9) that such a shower occurred
at Aricia, Lanuvium and on the Aventine. Upon the Mons
Albanus stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, where the annual
festival of the Latin League was held. The foundations and
some of the architectural fragments of the temple were still in
existence until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist
monastery by Cardinal York. The road which ascended to the
temple from the rim of the lake is still well preserved.

ALBANY, DUKES OF. The territorial designation of Albany
was formerly given to those parts of Scotland to the north of
the firths of Clyde and Forth. The title of duke of Albany
was first bestowed in 1398 by King Robert III. on his brother,
Robert Stewart, earl of Fife (see I. below); but in 1425 it
became extinct. The dukedom was re-created, c. 1458, in favour
of Alexander Stewart, " lord of Annandale and earl of March "
(see II. below), whose son and successor (see III. below) left no
legitimate heir. The title of duke of Albany was next bestowed
upon Henry Stuart, commonly known as Lord Darnley, by
Mary, queen of Scots, in 1565. From him the title passed to
his son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. The title
was by him given, at his birth, to Charles, his second son, after-
wards King Charles I. By Charles II. it was again bestowed,
in 1660, on James, duke of York, afterwards King James II.
On the sth of July 1716 Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburgh
[Osnabriick] (1715-1728), youngest brother of King George I.,
was created duke of York and Albany, the title becoming extinct
on his death without heirs in 1728. On the ist of April 1760
Prince Edward Augustus, younger brother of King George III.,
was created duke of York and Albany; he died without heirs on
the i7th of September 1767. On the 29th of November 1784
the title of duke of York and Albany was again created in favour
of Frederick, second son of George III., who died without heirs
on the 5th of January 1827. The title of duke of Albany was
bestowed on the 24th of May 1881 on Prince Leopold, youngest
son of Queen Victoria (see IV. below).

I. ROBERT STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1345-1420), regent
of Scotland, was a son of King Robert II. by his mistress,
Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were
married about 1349. In 1361 he married Margaret, countess of
Menteith, and after his widowed sister-in-law, Isabel, countess of
Fife, had recognized him as her heir, he was known as the earl
of Fife and Menteith. Taking an active part in the government
of the kingdom, the earl was made high chamberlain of Scotland
in 1382, and gained military reputation by leading several
plundering expeditions into England. In 1389 after his elder
brother John, earl of Carrick, had been incapacitated by an
accident, and when his father the king was old and infirm, he
was chosen governor of Scotland by the estates; and he retained
the control of affairs after his brother John became king as Robert
III. in 1390. In April 1398 he was created duke of Albany;

1 See Th. Mommsen in Bulletino dell' Istituto (1861), 206; Corpus
Inscrip. Lot. (Berlin, 1887), xiv. 2228.

ALBANY, DUKES OF

but in the following year his nephew David, duke of Rothesay,
the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor, although the
duke himself was a prominent member of the advising council.
Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 1402 the latter
died in prison at Falkland. It is not certain that Albany was
responsible for the imprisonment and death of Rothesay, whom
the parliament declared to have died from natural causes; but
the scanty evidence points in the direction of his guilt. Restored
to the office of governor, the duke was chosen regent of the
kingdom after the death of Robert III. in 1406, as the new king,
James I., was a prisoner in London; and he took vigorous steps
to prosecute the war with England, which had been renewed a
few years before. He was unable, or as some say unwilling, to
effect the release of his royal nephew, and was soon faced by a
formidable revolt led by Donald Macdonald, second lord of the
Isles, who claimed the earldom of Ross and was in alliance with
Henry IV. of England; but the defeat of Donald at Harlaw
near Aberdeen in July 1411 freed him from this danger. Con-
tinuing alternately to fight and to negotiate with England, the
duke died at Stirling Castle in September 1420, and was buried
in Dunfermline Abbey. Albany, who was the ablest prince
of his house, left by his first wife one son, Murdac (or Murdoch)
Stewart, who succeeded him as duke of Albany and regent, but
at whose execution in 1425 the dukedom became extinct.

See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun,
Scotichronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T. Hearne
(Oxford, 1722); and P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1850). See also Sir W. Scott's Fair Maid of Perth.

II. ALEXANDER STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1454-1485),
was the second son of James II., king of Scotland, by his wife,
Mary, daughter of Arnold, duke of Gelderland. Created duke
of Albany before 1458, he also received the lordship of the Isle
of Man, and was afterwards captured by an English ship when
journeying to Gelderland in 1468. He was soon released, and
as he grew to manhood began to take part in the government
and defence of Scotland, being appointed in quick succession
high admiral, warden of the marches, governor of Berwick and
lieutenant of the kingdom. Soon, however, he quarrelled with
his brother, King James III. Some of his actions on the marches
aroused suspicion, and in 1479 he was seized and imprisoned in
Edinburgh Castle; but he soon made his escape, and reaching
Paris in September 1479 was welcomed by King Louis XI.
Louis, however, would not assist him to attack his brother
the king, and crossing to England he made a treaty with King
Edward IV. at Fotheringhay in June 1482. Like Edward
Baliol, he promised to hold Scotland under English suzerainty
in return for Edward's assistance, and with Richard, duke of
Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III., he marched at the
head of the English forces to Edinburgh. Meanwhile his sup-
porters in Scotland had seized James, and professed their
readiness to recognize Albany, declaring at the same time their
distrust of Gloucester. A compromise, however, was arranged,
and the restoration of his lands and offices was promised to
Albany, who in turn agreed to be faithful to James; but about
the same time the duke with remarkable duplicity had sworn
he would keep the treaty with Edward. Again he was appointed
lieutenant of the kingdom, a truce was made with the English,
and James, released from custody, restored his brother and
created him earl of Mar and Garioch. The fraternal peace was
soon disturbed. Failing to obtain possession of the king's person,
Albany renewed negotiations with Edward, and in February
1483 made a new treaty at Westminster on the lines of that
of Fotheringhay. A fresh reconciliation followed between the
brothers, but in July 1483, during Albany's absence in England,
he was sentenced to death for treason. After making a raid on
Lochmaben he went to France, where in 1485 he was accidentally
killed. Albany's first wife was Catherine, daughter of William,
third earl of Orkney and first earl of Caithness, who bore him
three sons and a daughter. This marriage was dissolved in
1478, and as its issue was regarded as illegitimate the title of
duke of Albany descended to John (see below), his only son by

his second wife, Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne, daughter of
Bertrand II., count of Auvergne and of Bouillon, whom he
married in 1480.

III. JOHN STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1481-1536), regent
of Scotland, was born about 1481. He was brought up in
France, where he owned large estates, and held the office of
admiral of France. In 1515, at the request of the Scottish
parliament, and in spite of Henry VIII. 's efforts to prevent him,
Albany came to Scotland, was inaugurated regent in July, and
proceeded to organize resistance to the influence of England
and of Margaret Tudor, the queen dowager, sister of Henry VIII.
In August he seized the latter and her children at Stirling, and
subsequently was occupied in suppressing the rebellion of the
Homes, Angus (the second husband of Margaret), and James
Hamilton, earl of Arran; Alexander, third Lord Home, being
beheaded in October 1516. Albany was declared on the i2th
of November heir to the throne, and on the 6th of June 1517
he returned to France. In August he concluded the treaty of
Rouen, by which the alliance between France and Scotland
was renewed and a daughter of Francis I. was to marry James V.,
and next year he obtained the relaxation of certain dues on
Scottish imports into France. Meanwhile Margaret had returned
immediately on Albany's departure, and disorders had broken
out owing to the rivalry between Angus and Arran. Francis I.
had secretly engaged himself to Henry VIII. not to allow
Albany's departure from France, but he returned at the close
of 1521 and immediately became the object of Henry VIII. 's
and Wolsey's attacks. He reconciled himself temporarily with
Margaret, supported her divorce from Angus, and was now
accused by the English government, in all probability unjustly,
of having seduced her and of harbouring schemes of marrying
her himself, together with designs against the life of the young
king. These accusations were repudiated by the Scots, and
Henry's demand for the regent's dismissal refused. War broke
out in 1522, and in September Albany advanced to within four
miles of Carlisle with a large army. The Scots, however, showed
unwillingness to fight outside their own frontiers, and Albany
agreed to a truce and disbanded his troops. On the 25th of
October he departed hastily to France, leaving the borders
exposed to the enemy. On the 25th of September 1523 he once
more landed in Scotland, bringing with him supplies from France
and a considerable body of troops, and on the 3rd of November,
after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, retreated hastily, and
quitted Scotland finally on the zoth of May 1524. On the
3oth of July his regency was terminated by the declaration, of
James V. as king. He accompanied Francis I. in his disastrous
Italian campaign of 1525, being detached to make a diversion in
Naples against the Spanish. Between 1 530 and 1535 he acted as
French ambassador in Rome, conducted Catherine de' Medici, his
wife's niece, to Paris on her marriage to Henry (afterwards
Henry II.) in 1534, and negotiated the marriage of James V.

The regent Albany was a singularly unfortunate commander
in the field, but a successful ruler and administrator, and the
Scottish court of session owed to him its institution. But he
regarded himself more the subject of the king of France than of
the king of Scotland, subordinated the interests of the latter
state to the former, and disliked his official duties in Scotland,
where the benefits of his administration were largely diminished
by his want of perseverance and frequent absence. He appears
to have been a man of honourable and straightforward conduct,
whose character must be cleared from the aspersions of Wolsey
and the English authorities. He married his cousin Anne de
la Tour d'Auvergne, but left no legal issue, and all his honours
became extinct at his death.

IV. LEOPOLD GEORGE DUNCAN ALBERT, duke of Albany,
eighth child and youngest son of Queen Victoria, was born on the
7th of April 1853. The delicacy of his health seemed to mark
him out for a life of retirement, and as he grew older he evinced
much of the love of knowledge, the capacity for study and the
interest in philanthropic and ecclesiastical movements which
had characterized his father, the prince consort. He matricu-
lated at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872, living with

ALBANY

489

his tutor at Wykeham House, St Giles's, and diligently pursued
his favourite studies of science, art and the modern languages.
In 1876 he left the university with the honorary degree of D.C.L.,
and resided at Boyton House, Wiltshire, and afterwards at
Claremont. On coming of age in 1874, he had been made
a privy councillor and granted an annuity of £15,000. He
travelled on the continent, and in 1880 visited the United States
and Canada. He was a trustee of the British Museum, a bencher
of Lincoln's Inn, and continued to take an active part in the
promotion of education and knowledge generally. Like his
father and other members of his family he was an excellent
public speaker. On the 24th of May 1881 he was created duke
of Albany, earl of Clarence and Baron Arklow. On the 27th of
April 1882 he married Helene Frederica Augusta, princess of
Waldeck-Pyrmont, and his income was raised by parliament to
£25,000. Having gone to the south of France for his health in
the spring of 1884, he was attacked by a fit, the cause or the
consequence of a fall in a club-house at Cannes, on the 27th of
March, and died very unexpectedly on the following morning.
His death was universally regretted, from the gentleness and
graciousness of his character, and the desire and ability he had
shown to promote intellectual interest's of every kind. He left
a daughter, born in February 1883, and a posthumous son,
Arthur Charles Edward, born on the ipth of July 1884, who
succeeded to the dukedom of Albany, and who on the 3oth of
July 1900 became duke of Saxe-Coburg on the death of his
uncle.

ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS
OF (1752-1824), eldest daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus
of Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 2oth of September
1752. In her youth she was a canoness of Ste. Wandru at Mons,
but in her twentieth year she was affianced, at the instigation
of the duke of Berwick and with the secret connivance of the
French Court, to Prince Charles Edward Stuart, " the Young
Pretender," self-styled count of Albany. She was wedded to
the prince at Macerata, near Ancona, on Good Friday 1774,
and the married pair for over two years resided in the old
Stuart palace at Rome. Pretty, intelligent, charming and witty,
Louise fascinated Roman society, wherein she gained the nick-
name of " Queen of Hearts." The union, however, which was
obviously intended to give an heir to the Stuart prince, proved
childless, and Louise's married life became far from happy. In
1774 the pair moved to Florence, where in December 1780 Louise,
terrified at her husband's violence and fearing for the safety of
her life, fled to a neighbouring convent and threw herself on the
protection of her brother-in-law, Henry Stuart, Cardinal York,
who invited her to Rome. Louise had already in Florence
formed the acquaintance of the great Italian tragic poet, Vittorio
Alfieri, who had been captivated by her engaging manners, her
youthful beauty and -her literary powers. The poet now
followed her to Rome, but the friendship between Alfieri and his
sister-in-law does not seem to have aroused any suspicion in
the mind of Cardinal York until 1783, when, after a visit to his
brother in Florence, he suddenly requested Pope Pius VI. to
banish Alfieri from papal territory. In 1784, however, a legal
separation between the count and countess of Albany was
arranged, and by Charles's death in 1788 Louise found herself
freed from matrimonial bonds. In company with Alfieri (to
whom rumour said she had been secretly married) she now
visited Paris and London, and was cordially received at the
English court, George III. granting her an annual pension of
£1600 from the privy purse. Returning to Italy, Alfieri and
the countess settled at Florence, where the poet died on the
gth of October 1803, and was buried in the church of Santa
Croce beneath Canova's vast monument erected at Louise's
expense. The countess continued to reside in the house on the
Lung' Arno at Florence, patronising men of science and letters
and holding nightly receptions, at which all visitors were expected
to treat their hostess with the etiquette due to reigning royalty.
She died on the 2gth of January 1824 and was buried in Santa
Croce, where in the south transept a marble monument by
jiovannozzi and Santarelli commemorates her. By her will

the countess bequeathed all her property, including many historic
objects of art and documents, to the companion of her old age,
the French painter, Francois Xavier Fabre, who ultimately gave
the greater part of his legacy to the museum of his native town
of Montpellier. Two excellent portraits of the countess of
Albany and of Alfieri, painted by this artist, now hang in the
Uffizi Gallery at Florence.

See Vernon Lee, The Countess of Albany (1884); Marchesa
Vitelleschi, A Court in Exile. (H. M. V.)

ALBANY, a river of Canada, forming part of the boundary
between the province of Ontario and the district of Keewatin.
It rises in Lake St Joseph in 91° 25' W. and 50° 55' N., and
flows E.N.E. into James Bay, its total length being over 400 m.
It is navigable for nearly half its length, to Martin's Falls.
There are four Hudson's Bay Company's posts on its banks,
including Fort Albany at its mouth. The Ogoki and Kenogami
rivers are the principal tributaries.

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Dougherty county,
Georgia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Kinchafoona Creek, and at
the head of navigation on the Flint river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of
Macon, about 200 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 203 m. N.E.
of Pensacola. Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4606 (2903 of negro
descent); (1910) 8190. It is served by the Central of Georgia,
the Georgia Northern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Albany &
Northern and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and by steam-
boats connecting it with Apalachicola at the mouth of the
Apalachicola river. Its importance is largely due to these
transportation facilities and to the resources of the surround-
ing country, which produces timber, lime, cotton, Indian corn,
sugar-cane, wheat, oats, fruit, melons, hay and vegetables.
Albany ships much cotton, and has a cotton compress, a cotton
mill, cotton-seed oil and guano factories, brick yards, lumber
mills and ice factories. It is a summer and winter resort and
is the home of the Georgia Chautauqua. The city owns and
operates the electric-lighting plant and artesian water-works.
It was settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1838 and received
its present city charter in 1907.

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, New
York, U.S.A., and the capital of the state. It is situated on the
W. bank of the Hudson river, just below the mouth of the
Mohawk, 145 m. N. of New York City and 165 m. W. of Boston.
Pop. (1880) 90,758; (1890) 94,923; (190°) 94.I51, °f whom
17,718 were foreign-born (6612 being Irish, 5903 German, 1361
English and 740 Russian) and 1178 were negroes; (1910)
100,253. Albany is a terminus of the New York Central
& Hudson River, the Delaware & Hudson and the West
Shore railways, and is also served by the Boston &
Maine railway, by the Erie and Champlain canals (being a
terminus of each), by steamboat lines on the. Hudson river
and by several inter-urban electric railways connecting with
neighbouring cities.

Albany is attractively situated on a series of hills rising sharply
from the river. The older portions of the city are reminiscent
of Dutch colonial days, and some fine specimens of the Dutch
and later colonial architecture are still standing. Perhaps the
most famous of these is the Schuyler mansion (now St Francis
de Sales Orphan Asylum), built in 1760-1761. The Van
Rensselaer manor-house, built in 1765, was pulled down in
1893 and was reconstructed on the campus of Williams College,
Williamstown, Massachusetts, where it is used as a fraternity
club-house. Among the public buildings, the finest is the
new State Capitol, one of the largest and most imposing in
America. It occupies a commanding position in Capitol Square
(7-84 acres), one of the highest points in the city. It is built of
white Maine granite, and cost about $25,000,000. Its dimensions
are 300X400 ft. The corner-stone was laid in 1871, and the build-
ing was completed, with the exception of the central tower and
dome, in 1904. The legislature first met in it in 1879. The
original designs were by Thomas Fuller, who also designed the
parliamentary buildings at Ottawa; but the plans underwent
many changes, Isaac Gale Perry, Leopold Eidlitz and H. H.
Richardson being associated with the work before its completion.

490

ALBANY

The beautiful " western staircase " of red sandstone (from plans
by Perry) and the senate chamber (designed by Richardson)
are perhaps the most notable parts of the structure. The build-
ing houses the various executive departments, the legislature
and the court of appeals. A large and handsome building of
white granite was begun in 1908 directly opposite the Capitol
to accommodate the department of education and the magni-
ficent state library (about 450,0x30 volumes). Other important
buildings are the old state hall, a handsome white marble
building erected in 1842; the city hall, a beautiful French
Gothic building of pink granite trimmed with red sandstone,
designed by H. H. Richardson; the Federal Building; the
State Museum of Natural History; the galleries of the Albany
Institute and Historical and Art Society, in State Street, opposite
the Capitol; Harmanus Bleecker Hall, a theatre since 1898;
and the Ten Eyck and Kenmore hotels. Among the finest
office buildings are the structures of the Albany City Savings
Institution, National Commerical Bank, Union Trust Company,
Albany Trust Company, the National Savings Bank, First
National Bank, the New York State National Bank (1803,
probably the oldest building in the United States used con-
tinuously for banking purposes) and the Albany Savings Bank.
The Fort Orange Club, the Catholic Union, the Albany Club,
the University Club, the City Club of Albany, the Country
Club, the German Hall Association and the Adelphi Club are
the chief social organizations. The principal church buildings
are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Roman
Catholic), a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, built of brown-
stone, with spires 210 ft. high; the cathedral of All Saints
(Protestant Episcopal), an English Gothic structure of pink
sandstone designed by R. W. Gibson and begun in 1883; St
Peter's Episcopal Church (French Gothic), of Hudson River
bluestone; Emmanuel Baptist Church, of white granite; the
Madison Avenue Reformed Church; and St Joseph's (Roman
Catholic), of bluestone and Caen stone with marble trimmings.
Among the educational institutions are the Albany Medical
College (1839) and the Albany Law School (1851), both incor-
porated since 1873 with the Union University, the Collegiate
Department of which is at Schenectady; the Albany College
of Pharmacy (1881), also part of Union University; the Albany
Academy (1813), in which Joseph Henry, while a member of
the faculty, perfected in 1826-1832 the electro-magnet and
began his work on the electric telegraph; the Albany Academy
for Girls, founded in 1814 as the Albany Female Academy (name
changed in 1906); and a State Normal College (1890), with a
Model School. The hospitals and charitable institutions include
St Vincent's Orphan Asylum, the Lathrop Memorial (for children
of working mothers), Albany City Hospital, the Homeopathic
Hospital, St Peter's Hospital, the Albany City Orphan Asylum
and the House of the Good Shepherd. There are a county
penitentiary and a State armoury. The city has 95 acres of
boulevards and avenues under park supervision and several
fine parks (17, with 307 acres in 1907), notably Washington
(containing Calverley's bronze statue of Robert Burns, and
Rhind's "Moses at the Rock of Horeb"), Beaver and Dudley,
in which is the old Dudley Observatory — the present Observatory
building is in Lake Avenue, south-west of Washington Park, where
is also the Albany Hospital. In the beautiful rural cemetery,
north of the city, are the tombs of President Chester A. Arthur
and General Philip Schuyler. The city owns a fine water-supply
and a filtration plant covering 20 acres, with a capacity of
30,000,000 gallons daily and storage reservoirs with a capacity
of 227,000,000 gallons.

The first newspaper in Albany was the Gazette, founded in
1771. The Argus, founded in 1813 by Jesse Buel (1778-1839)
and edited from 1824 to 1854 by Edwin Croswell (1797-1871),
was long the organ of the coterie of New York politicians known
as the " Albany Regency," and was one of the most influential
Democratic papers in the United States. Previously to their
holding office, Daniel Manning (1831-1887), secretary of the
treasury in President Cleveland's cabinet, was president of the
Argus company, and Daniel Scott Lament (1851-1905), secretary

of war during President Cleveland's second administration,
was managing editor of the newspaper. The Evening Journal,
founded in 1830 as an anti-Masonic organ, and for thirty-five
years edited by Thurlow Weed, was equally influential as an
organ of the Whig and later of the Republican party.

Albany is an important railway and commercial centre,
particularly as a distributing point for New England markets,
as a lumber market and — though to a much less extent than
formerly — as a depot for transhipment to the south and west.
Among the city's manufactories are breweries, iron and brass
foundries, stove factories, knitting mills, cotton mills, clothing
factories, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, cigar
and cigarette factories, and manufactories of adhesive pastes,
court plaster, spring beds, ribbed underwear, aniline dyes,
chemicals, gas meters, fire-brick, and glazed paper and card-
board. The value of the total factory product in 1905 was
$20,208,715, which was 17 % greater than that for 1900.

History. — Albany was probably the second place to be per-
manently settled within the borders of the original Thirteen
Colonies. It seems likely that French traders ascended the
river as far as the site of the present city in the first half of the
sixteenth century, and according to some writers a temporary
trading post was established here about 1 540. Albany's authentic
history, however, may be dated from 1614, when Dutch traders
built on Castle Island, opposite the city, a post which they named
Fort Nassau. Three years later the fort was removed to the
mainland, and near here in 1618 the Dutch made their first
treaty with the Iroquois. In 1624 arrived eighteen families
of Dutch Walloons, the first actual permanent settlers, as dis-
tinguished from traders. In that year, on a hill near the site
of the present Capitol, Fort Orange was built, and around it,
as a centre, the new town grew. At first it was known by the
Dutch simply as the " fuyck " (hoop), from the curve in the
river at this point, whence was soon derived the name Bever-
fuyck or Beverwyck. In 1629 the Dutch government granted
to Killiaen van Rensselaer, an Amsterdam diamond merchant,
a tract of land (24 sq. m.) centring at Fort Orange. Over this
tract, the first patroonship granted in the colony, he had the
usual powers and rights of a patroon. The grant was named
Rensselaerwyck in his honour, became a " manor " in 1685,
and remained in the family until 1853. The colonists whom
he settled upon his grant (1630) were industrious, and " Bever-
wyck " became increasingly prosperous. From this time the
town, on account of its favourable commercial and strategic
position at the gateway of the Iroquois country and at the head
of navigation on the Hudson river, was for a century and a half
one of the most important places in the colonies. In 1644, with
the transfer of New Netherlands to English control, the name
" Beverwyck " was changed to " Albany " — one of the titles
of the duke of York (afterward James II.). In 1673 the town
was again for a short time under Dutch control. In 1686
Governor Dongan granted to Albany a city charter, which pro-
vided for an elected council. The first mayor appointed by the
governor was Peter Schuyler (1657-1724). In 1689 was held
here the first inter-colonial convention in America, when delegates
from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New
York met to treat with representatives of the Five Nations
and to plan a system of colonial defence. During the i8th
century there was a great influx of English colonists, and in 1714
the first English church was erected. During the French and
Indian wars Albany was a starting-point for expeditions against
Canada and the Lake Ch'amplain country. In June 1754, in
pursuance of a recommendation of the Lords of Trade, a con-
vention of representatives of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and
Maryland met here for the purpose of confirming and establishing
a closer league of friendship with the Iroquois and of arranging
for a permanent union of the colonies. The Indian affairs having
been satisfactorily adjusted, the convention, after considerable
debate, in which Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hopkins and
Thomas Hutchinson took a leading part, adopted (July n) a
plan for a union of the colonies, which was in great part similar

ALBANY— ALBAY

49

'to one submitted to the convention by Franklin. This plan
provided for a representative governing body to be known as
the Grand Council, to which each colony should elect delegates
(not more than seven or less than two) for a term of three years.
This body was to have control of Indian affairs, impose taxes,
nominate all civil officers, authorize the opening of new lands
to settlement, and in general have charge of colonial defence,
and of the enlistment, equipment and maintenance of an army.
An executive or viceroy, to be known as the president-general,
was to have the veto power over the acts of the Grand Council
and the right of appointment of military officers. Finally, it
was provided that the acts of the Grand Council should be valid
unless vetoed by the crown within a period of three years.
Neither the British government nor the growing party in the
colonies which was clamouring for colonial rights received
the plan with favour — the former holding that it gave the
colonies too much independence, and the latter that it gave them
too little. The strategic importance of Albany was fully recog-
nized during the War of Independence, and it was against Albany
that Burgoyne's expedition was directed. Albany became the
permanent state capital in 1797. In 1839 it became the centre
of the " Anti-Rent War," which was precipitated by the death
of Stephen van Rensselaer (1764-1839), the last of the patroons;
the attempt of his heirs to collect overdue rents resulting in
disturbances which necessitated the calling out of the militia,
spread into several counties where there were Jarge landed
estates, and were not entirely settled until 1847.

See William Barnes, The .Settlement and Early History of Albany
(Albany, 1864) ; J. Munsell, *Khe Annals of Albany (10 vols., Albany,
1850-1859; 2nd ed., 4 volsY 1869-1871); E. B. O'Callaghan,
Documentary History of the State of New York, vol. iii. (Albany,
1850); A. J. Weise, The History of the City of Albany (Albany,
1884) I G. R. Howell and J. Tenney, Bi-Centennial History of Albany
(New York, 1886); Amasa J. Parker, Landmarks of Albany County
(Syracuse, 1897); and Cuyler Reynolds, Albany Chronicles; or
Albany Mayors and Contemporaneous Chronology (Albany, 1907).

ALBANY, a municipal town in the county of Plantagenet, West
Australia, on Princess Royal Harbour, a branch of King George
Sound, 352 m. by rail and 254 m. directly S.S.E. of Perth. Pop.
(1901) 3650. It is the chief health resort of the state, and its
climate is one of the finest in Australia; it has a mean annual
temperature of 58-6° F., and the summer heat is never excessive.
One of the features of the town is the Marine Drive, some 5^ m.
in circuit around the hills overlooking the harbour. Albany has
several flourishing industries, of which the chief are brewing,
coach-building, printing and tanning. In addition it has the
finest harbour in West Australia. A pier extends for 1 700 ft. into
the sea, giving safe accommodation to the large steamers which
call at the port. The Great Southern railway has a line to the
seaward end of the pier, and affords direct communication with
the interior of the colony. The harbour is protected by forts and
there is a garrison in the town. King George Sound, of which
Albany is the township, was first occupied in 1826 and a penal
ettlement was established. No attempt was made to colonize
be locality until after this settlement was given up in 1831.
Albany became a municipality in 1871.

ALBATEGNIUS (c. 850-929), an Arab prince and astronomer,
correctly designated Mahommed ben Gebir al Batani, his surname
being derived from his native town, Batan in Mesopotamia.
From his observations at Aracte and Damascus, where he died, he
was able to correct some of Ptolemy's results, previously taken on

ust. He compiled new tables of the sun and moon, long
accepted as authoritative, discovered the movement of the sun's
apogee, and assigned to annual precession the improved value
of 55". Perhaps independently of Aryabhatta (born at Patali-
putra on the Ganges 476 A.D.), he introduced the use of sines
in calculation, and partially that of tangents. His principal
work, De Motu Stellarum, was published at Nuremberg in
[537 by Melanchthon, in a blundering Latin translation by
Plato Tiburtinus (fl. 1116), annotated by Regiomontanus.
reprint appeared at Bologna in 1645. The original MS.

preserved at the Vatican; and the Escorial library possesses
MS. a treatise of some value by him on astronomical

chronology. Albategnius takes the highest rank among Arab
astronomers.

See Houzeau, Bibliographie astronomique, \. 467; M. Marie,
Histoire des sciences, ii. 113; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic,
p. 67; Delambre, Hist, de I'astr. au moyen age, ch. ii. ; Phil. Trans.,
!693 (913), where E. Halley supplies corrections to some of the
observations recorded in De Motu Stellarum.

ALBATROSS (from the Port. Alcatraz, a pelican), the name
of a genus of aquatic birds (Diomedea), closely allied to the
petrels, and belonging, like them, to the order Tubinares. In
the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnaeus, there is a
reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of
the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. The beak is large, strong
and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook;
the wings are narrow and very long; the feet have no hind toe,
and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The best
known is the common or wandering albatross (D. exulans), which
occurs in all parts of the Southern Ocean. It is the largest and
strongest of all sea-birds. The length of the body is stated at
4 ft., and the weight at from 15 to 25 Ib. It sometimes measures
as much as 17 ft. between
the tips of the extended
wings, averaging probably
from 10 to 12 ft. Its
strength of wing is very
great. It often accom-
panies a ship for days —
not merely following it, but
wheeling in wide circles
round it — without ever
being observed to alight on
the water, and continues its
flight, apparently untired, in
tempestuous as well as in
moderate weather. It has
even been said to sleep on
the wing, and Moore alludes
to this fanciful " cloud-
rocked slumbering " in his
Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on the animal
refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess at times
that it is unable to fly and rests helplessly on the water.
The colour of the bird is white, the back being streaked trans-
versely with black or brown bands, and the wings dark. Sailors
capture the bird for its long wing-bones, which they manu-
facture into tobacco-pipe stems. The albatross lays one egg;
it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 in. long. In
breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island groups, like
the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan da Cunha, where
it has its nest — a natural hollow or a circle of earth roughly
scraped together — on the open ground. The early explorers of
the great Southern Sea cheered themselves with the companion-
ship of the albatross in its dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of
him who shot with his cross-bow the bird of good omen is familiar
to readers of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Several
species of albatross aje known; for the smaller forms see
MALLEMUCK.

ALBAY, a city and the capital of the province of Albay, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, near an inlet on the W. shore of the Gulf of
Albay, 215 m. by wagon-road S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903)
14,049; in October 1907 the towns of Daraga (pop. 1903, 18,695)
and Legaspi (pop. 1903, 9206) were merged with Albay, making
its total population, on the basis of the 1903 census, 41,950.
Albay is one of the most important cities of the Philippine
Islands. It is built on level ground near the S. base of Mount
Mayon, a beautiful volcanic peak, 7916 ft. high, from which it is
sheltered by the Linguin hills. The surrounding country is one
of the most important hemp-producing districts in the Philip-
pines; sinamay is woven here, and large quantities of hemp are
shipped from here to Manila. Cocoa, copra, sugar and sweet
potatoes are other important products of the district. The
language is Bicol. The old town, called Cagsaua, which stood a
short distance E.N.E. of the new, was completely destroyed by

492

ALBEDO— ALBEMARLE

an eruption of the volcano in 1814 (about 1200 people being
killed), and the new town was almost entirely destroyed by the
insurgents in February 1900, an ancient stone church of much
beauty (in what was formerly Daraga) being left standing on an
elevated site commanding a view of the surrounding country.
The town was rebuilt on a larger scale by Americans.

ALBEDO (from Lat. albus, white), " whiteness," a word used
principally in astronomy for the degree of reflected light; the
light of the sun which is reflected from the moon is called the
albedo of the moon.

ALBEMARLE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The name Albe-
rnarle, which now forms the title of the earldom held by the
English family of Keppel, is an early variant of the French
Aumale (Lat. Alba Maria), other forms being Aubemarle and
Aumerle, and is described in the patent of nobility granted in
1696-1697 by William III. to Arnold Joost van Keppel as
" a town and territory in the dukedom of Normandy."

The fief of Aumale (q. v.) was granted by the archbishop of
Rouen to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the
Conqueror, who erected it into a countship. On Odo's death
his son Stephen succeeded not only to the countship of Aumale,
but to the lordships of Holderness, of Bytham in Lincolnshire,
&c., which were subsequently known as the " Fee and Honor
of Albemarle." Stephen, who as a crusader had fought valiantly
at Antioch, died about 1127, leaving by his wife Ha wise, daughter
of Ralph de Mortimer, a son — William of Blois, known as " le
Gros." William, who distinguished himself at the battle of the
Standard (1138), and shared with King Stephen in the defeat
of Lincoln (1141), married Cicely, daughter of William Fitz-
Duncan, grandson of Malcolm, king of Scotland, who as " lady
of Harewood " brought him vast estates. He founded abbeys
at Meaux in Holderness and at Thornton, and died in 1179.
His elder daughter and heiress Hawise married (i) William de
Mandeville, 3rd earl of Essex (d. 1189), (2) William de Fortibus
(de Fors, de Fortz or des Forts1), (3) Baldwin de Betun or
Bethune, all of whom bore the title of earls of Albemarle.

Soon after the death of Baldwin (October 13, 1213), William
de Fortibus, Ha wise's son by her second husband, was established
by King John in the territories of the countship of Albemarle,
and in 1215 the whole of his mother's estates were formally
confirmed to him. He is described by Bishop Stubbs as " a
feudal adventurer of the worst type," and for some time was
actively engaged in the struggles of the Norman barons against
John and Henry III. He was one of the twenty-five executors
of the Great Charter; but in the war that followed sided with
John, subsequently changing sides as often as it suited his policy.
His object was to revive the independent power of the feudal
barons, and he co-operated to this end with Falkes de Breaute
(q.v.) and other foreign adventurers established in the country
by John. This brought him into conflict with the great justiciar,
Hubert de Burgh, and in 1219 he was declared a rebel and ex-
communicated for attending a forbidden tournament. In 1220
matters were brought to a crisis by his refusal to surrender
the two royal castles of Rockingham and Sauvey of which he
had been made constable in 1216. Heniy III. marched against
them in person, the garrisons fled, and they fell without a blow.
In the following year, however, Albemarle, in face of further
efforts to reduce his power, rose in revolt. He was now again
excommunicated by the legate Pandulph at a solemn council
held in St Paul's, and the whole force of the kingdom was set
in motion against him, a special scutage — the " scutagium de
Bihan " — being voted for this purpose by the Great Council.
The capture of his castle of Bytham broke his power; he sought
sanctuary and, at Pandulph's intercession, was pardoned on
condition of going for six years to the Holy Land. He remained
in England, however, and in 1223 was once more in revolt with
Falkes de Breaut6, the earl of Chester and other turbulent spirits.
A reconciliation was once more patched up; but it was not

1 The name was derived from Fors, a commune in the canton of
Prahecq in Poitou. It is spelt Forz in a deed of 1233, and the best
vernacular form is, according to Thomas Stapleton (Preface to the
Liber de Antiquitate, Camden Soc., 1846, p. xxxiv. note), de Fortz.

until the fall of Falkes de Breaute that Albemarle finally settled
down as an English noble. In 1225 he witnessed Henry's third
re-issue of the Great Charter; in 1227 he went as ambassador
to Antwerp; and in 1230 he accompanied Henry on his expedi-
tion to Brittany. In 1241 he set out for the Holy Land, but
died at sea, on his way there, on the 26th of March 1242. By
his wife Avelina of Montfichet, William left a son, also named
William, who married (i) Christina (d. 1246), daughter and
co-heiress of Alan, lord of Galloway, (2) in 1248 Isabella de
Redvers (1237-1292-3), daughter of Baldwin de Redvers, earl of
Devon and lord of the Isle of Wight. He played a conspicuous
part in the reign of Henry III., notably in the Mad Parliament
of 1258, and died at Amiens in 1260. His widow, Isabella, on
the death of her brother Baldwin, 8th earl of Devon, in 1261,
called herself countess of Devon. She had two children, Thomas,
who died in 1269 unmarried, and Avelina, who married (1269)
Edmund Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and died without issue
in 1274. The " Honor of Albemarle " was claimed, in 1278, by
John de Eston, or Aston, as heir of Amicia, younger daughter of
William le Gros; but he released his right to the earldom of
Albemarle to the crown in exchange for certain lands in Thornton.

The title of Albemarle, thus extinguished, was several times
revived before it became attached to the family of its present
holders. In 1385 Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester,
was summoned to parliament as " duke of Albemarle," but he
seems never subsequently to have used the title. In any case
this creation became extinct with the death of his son Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, in 1399. In 1411 Thomas Plantagenet,
second son of Henry IV., was created earl of Albemarle and duke
of Clarence, but at his. death at the battle of Beauge (March
22, 1421) these honours became extinct. That of Albemarle
was, however, soon revived (c. 1423) in favour of Richard de
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose title of earl of Aumerle,
however, died with him.

In 1660 Charles II. bestowed the title of duke of Albemarle
on General Monk (q.v.). Monk's hereditary claim to this semi-
royal peerage was a very shadowy one, being based — as was also
his subordinate style of Baron Beauchamp — on his descent
from the youngest of the three co-heiresses of Richard, earl of
Warwick, and, with yet more remote applicability, on that
from Arthur Plantagenet, a natural son of Edward IV. The
title became extinct in 1688, on the death of Christopher, 2nd
duke of Albemarle.

Finally, as mentioned above, the title of earl of Albemarle
was bestowed by William III., without any shadow of hereditary
claim, on his Dutch favourite Arnold Joost van Keppel (see
below), by whose descendants it is still held. The motive for
choosing this title was probably that, apart from its dignified
traditions, it avoided the difficulty created by the fact that the
Keppels had as yet no territorial possessions in the British
Islands.

ARNOLD JOOST VAN KEPPEL, ist earl of Albemarle, and lord
of Voorst in Gelderland (c. 1670-1718), son of Oswald van
Keppel and his wife Anna Geertruid van Lintello, was born in
Holland about 1670. He became page to William III., accom-
panied him to England in 1688, and was made groom of the bed-
chamber and master of the robes in 1695. On the loth oi
February 1696/7 he was created earl of Albemarle, Viscount
Bury and Baron Ashford. In 1700 William gave him lands of
enormous extent in Ireland, but parliament obliged the king to
cancel this grant, and William then bestowed on him £50,000.
The same year he was made a knight of the Garter. Meanwhile
he had served both with the English and Dutch troops, was
major-general in 1697, colonel of several regiments and governor
of Bois-le-Duc. Of handsome person and engaging disposition,
he rivalled Portland, whose jealousy he aroused in the royal
favour, possessed William's full confidence and accompanied
him everywhere. In February 1702 he was sent by William,
then prostrated with his last illness, to Holland to arrange the
coming campaign, and only returned in time to receive William's
last commissions on his deathbed. After the death of the latter,
who bequeathed to him 200,000 guilders and some lands, he

ALBENGA— ALBERT

493

returned to Holland, took his seat as a noble in the states-general,
and was made a general of horse in the Dutch army. He joined
the forces of the allies in 1703, was present at Ramillies in 1706
and at Oudenarde in 1708, and distinguished himself at the
siege of Lille. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 1710, led
Marlborough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch
forces in 1712, being defeated at Denain after the withdrawal of
Ormonde and the English forces and taken prisoner. He died
on the soth of May 1718, aged 48. He married Geertruid,
daughter of Adam van der Denijn, by whom, besides a daughter,
he had a son, William Anne, who succeeded him as 2nd earl of
Albemarle.

Of the later earls mention need only be made of the sixth,
GEORGE THOMAS KEPPEL (1799-1891), British general, second
son of the fourth earl, born on the i3th of June 1799. Educated
at Westminster School he entered the army as ensign, i4th Foot,
in 1815. He joined his regiment in Belgium and took part in the
Waterloo campaign and the march to Paris, joined the second
battalion in Corfu, and was transferred to the 22nd Foot, with
which he served in Mauritius and at the Cape, returning home in
1819, when he was appointed equerry to the duke of Sussex.
Promoted to a lieutenancy in the 24th Foot, he was transferred
to the 2oth Foot, and went to India, where he was aide-de-camp
to the marquess of Hastings until his resignation in 1823, when
Keppel returned to England, travelling overland through Persia,
Moscow and St Petersburg. He published in 1825 an account of
his travels, entitled Journey from India to England. He was
aide-de-camp to the Marquess Wellesley, lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, for two years, was promoted captain in the 62nd Foot,
studied in the senior department of the Royal Military College at
Sandhurst, and in 1827 obtained a half-pay unattached majority.
He did not again serve on full pay, but rose to be a general. In
1829 he visited the seat of the Russo-Turkish war and was with
the British fleet in Turkish waters. In 1832 he was returned in
the Whig interest to the first reformed parliament as member for
East Norfolk and sat until 1835. He was private secretary to
the premier, Lord John Russell, in 1846, and M.P. for Lymington
from 1847 to 1849. He succeeded to the title on the death of his
brother in 1851. He died in 1891 and was buried at Quidenham,
Norfolk. He wrote an account of a Journey across the Balkans,
Memoirs of the Marquis of Rockingham, and an autobigraphy
entitled Fifty Years of My Life.

See G. E. C(ockayne), Complete Peerage, 8 vols. (London, 1887).
For the two Williams de Fortibus, see s.v. Prof. T. F. Tout's articles
in the Diet, of Nat. Biog.

ALBENGA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, on the
N.W. coast of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 52 j m.
S.W. of Genoa by rail. Pop. (1901) 6248. Albenga is the ancient
Album Ingaunum or Albingaunum, the chief town of the In-
gauni, one of the most important of the Ligurian tribes, whose
territory reached as far as Genoa. Under the empire it was a
municpium; an inscription records the restoration of the walls,
forum, harbour, &c., by Constantius A.D. 354. A little way out-
side the town to the E. is a well-preserved Roman bridge nearly
500 ft. long and n^ ft. wide, with 10 arches, each with a span of
37 ft. It belonged to the coast road and is now known as Ponte
Lungo. To the S. of the town is a conspicuous monument, 27 ft.
high, in the form of a rectangular pillar, resembling a tomb; but
as there is no trace of a door to a sepulchral chamber it may be a
shrine. In the town itself there are no Roman remains; but
there is a good Gothic cathedral in brick, and an interesting
octagonal baptistery, attributed to the 8th or gth century, the
arches being supported by ancient columns, and the vaulting
decorated with mosaics. Some of the medieval palaces of
Albenga have lofty brick towers.

See A. d'Andrade in Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale per la Con-
senazione dei monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria (Turin, 1899),
114 seq.

ALBERONI, GIULIO (1664-1752), Spanish-Italian cardinal
and statesman, was born near Piacenza, probably at the village
of Fiorenzuola, on the 3ist of May 1664. His father was a
gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church
in the humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza.

Having gained the favour of Bishop Barni he took priest's orders,
and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome.
During the war of the Spanish succession Alberoni laid the
foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to
the duke of Vend6me, commander of the French forces in Italy;
and when these forces were recalled in 1 706 he accompanied the
duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV.
In 1711 he followed Vendome into Spain as his secretary. Two
years later, the duke having died in the interval, Alberoni was
appointed consular agent for Parma at the court of Philip V. of
Spain, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On
his arrival at Madrid he found the princesse des Ursins all but
omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient
to use her influence in carrying out his plans. In concert with
her he arranged the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farnese of
Parma. The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on
Alberoni's behalf, he speedily rose to high position. He was
made a member of the king's council, bishop of Malaga, and in
1715 prime minister, and was raised to the dignity of cardinal in
1717. His internal policy was exceedingly vigorous. The main
purpose he put before himself was to produce an economic revival
in Spain by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the
trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances. With the
resources thus gained he undertook to enable King Philip V. to
carry out an ambitious policy both in Italy and in France. The
impatience of the king and his wife gave the minister no time to
mature his plans. By provoking England, France, Holland and
the Empire at once it brought a flood of disaster on Spain for
which Alberoni was held responsible. On the sth of December
1719 he was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having
taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment. He
went to Italy, and there had to take refuge among the Apennines,
Pope Clement XL, who was his bitter enemy, having given strict
orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement, Alberoni boldly
appeared at the Conclave, and took part in the election of
Innocent XIII. (1721), after which he was for a short time im-
prisoned by the pontiff on the demand of Spain. At the next
election (1724) he was himself proposed for the gapal chair, and
secured ten votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XIII.
Benedict's successor, Clement XII. (elected 1730), named him
legate of Ravenna, in which capacity he incurred the pope's
displeasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted
to reduce the little republic of San Marino to subjection to Rome.
He was consequently replaced by another legate in 1740, and
soon after he retired to Piacenza. Clement XII. appointed him
administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 1730.
The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of lepers.
The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni obtained
the consent of the pope to the suppression of the hospital, which
had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it by a college for the
education of seventy poor boys for the priesthood, under the
name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. He died on
the 1 6th of June 1752, leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow
the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense
wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left
a large quantity of manuscripts; but the genuineness of the
Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753,
has been questioned.

An Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni up to 1719 was published by
Jean Rousset de Missy at the Hague in 1719. A laudatory life,
Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni, was published by Stefano
Bersani, a priest educated at his college, at Piacenza, in 1861. Giulio
Alberoni e il suo secolo, by Giovanni Bianchi (1901), is briefer and
more critical. See also Lettres intimes de J. Alberoni, edited by
M. E. Bourgeois (1892).

ALBERT (1522-1557), prince of Bayreuth, surnamed THE
WARLIKE, and also ALCIBIADES, was a son of Casimir, prince
of Bayreuth, and a member of the Franconian branch of the
Hohenzollern family. Born at Ansbach on the 28th of March
1522, he lost his father in 1527 and came under the guardianship
of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of the
reformed doctrines. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share
of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality

494

ALBERT

was Kulmbach he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of
Brandenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature
marked him out for a military career; and having collected a
small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor Charles V. in
his war with France in 1543. The peace of Crepy in September
1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a con-
siderable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack
the league of Schmalkalden, he took pains to win Albert's
assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate,
Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by John
Frederick, elector of Saxony, but was released as a result of the
emperor's victory at Miihlberg in the succeeding April. He
then followed the fortunes of his friend Maurice, the new elector
of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which pro-
posed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with Henry II.
of France. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when
the treaty of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated
himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Fran-
conia. Having extorted a large sum of money from the burghers
of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French
king, and offered his services to the emperor. Charles, anxious
to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's
demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of
the lands taken from the bishops of Wiirzburg and Bamberg;
and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor
on the retreat from Metz in January 1553. When Charles left
Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in
Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was
formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against
his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on
the pth of July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity
Albert was put to flight. Henry II., duke of Brunswick, then
took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert
had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he
was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to fly to France.
He there entered the service of Henry II., and had undertaken
a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on
the 8th of January 1557.

See J. Voigt, Markgraf Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-
Kulmbach (Berlin, 1852).

ALBERT I. (c. 1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg, sur-
named THE BEAR, was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of
Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of
Saxony. He inherited the valuable Saxon estates of his father
in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-
half of the lands of the Billungs. About 1 1 23 he received from
Lothair, duke of Saxony, the margraviate of Lusatia, and, after
Lothair became German king, accompanied him on the disastrous
expedition to Bohemia in 1 1 26, when he suffered a short imprison-
ment. In 1128 his brother-in-law, Henry II., margrave of the
Saxon north mark, died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving
this fief, attacked Udo, the succeeding margrave, and was con-
sequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothair. In spite of this, he
went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services
there were rewarded, in 1134, by the investiture of the north
, mark, which was again without a ruler. For three years he was
occupied in campaigns against the Wends, and by an arrange-
ment made with Pribislaus, duke of Brandenburg, Albert secured
this district when the duke died in 1150. Taking the title
margrave of Brandenburg, he pressed the warfare against the
Wends, extended the area of his mark, did much for the spread
of Christianity and civilization therein, and so became the founder
of the margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1137 his cousin, Henry
the Proud, had been deprived by King Conrad III. of his Saxon
duchy, which was given to Albert. After meeting with some
success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from
Saxony, and also from his mark by Henry, and compelled to
take refuge in South Germany, and when peace was made in
1 142 he renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties
of Weimar and Orlamunde. It was possibly at this time that
Albert was made arch-chamberlain of the Empire, an office
which afterwards gave the margraves of Brandenburg the

rights of an elector. A feud with Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
was followed, in 1158, by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and
in 1162 Albert accompanied the emperor Frederick I. to Italy,
and distinguished himself at the storming of Milan. In 1164 he
joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and
peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among
his six sons, and died on the i3th of November 1170, and was
buried at Ballenstadt. His personal qualities won for him the
surname of " the Bear," and he is also called by later writers
" the Handsome."

See L. von Heinemann, Albrecht der Bar (Darmstadt, 1864).

ALBERT III. (1414-1486), elector of Brandenburg, surnamed
ACHILLES because of his knightly qualities, was the third son of
Frederick I. of Hohenzollern, elector of Brandenburg, and was
born at Tangermiinde on the gth of November 1414. After
passing some time at the court of the emperor Sigismund, he
took part in the war against the Hussites, and afterwards dis-
tinguished himself whilst assisting the German king, Albert II.,
against the Poles. On the division of territory which followed
his father's death in 1440, Albert received the principality of
Ansbach; and although his resources were very meagre he soon
took a leading place among the German princes, and was especially
prominent in resisting the attempts of the towns to obtain self-
government. In 1443 he formed a league directed mainly against
Nuremberg, over which town members of his family had formerly
exercised the rights of burgrave. It was not until 1448, however,
that he found a pretext for attack, and the war which lasted
until 1453 ended in a victory for the Nurembergers, and the
recognition of their independence. He supported the emperor
Frederick III. in his struggle with the princes who desired re-
forms in Germany, and in return for this loyalty received many
marks of favour from Frederick, including extensive judicial
rights which aroused considerable irritation among neighbouring
rulers. In 1457 he arranged a marriage between his eldest son
John, and Margaret, daughter of William III., landgrave of
Thuringia, who inherited the claims upon Hungary and Bohemia
of her mother, a granddaughter of the emperor Sigismund.
The attempt to secure these thrones for the Hohenzollerns
through this marriage failed, and a similar fate befell Albert's
efforts to revive in his own favour the disused title of duke of
Franconia. The sharp dissensions which existed among the
princes over the question of reform culminated in open warfare
in 1460, when Albert was confronted with a league under the
leadership of the elector palatine, Frederick I., and Louis IX.
(the Rich) , duke of Bavaria-Landshut. Worsted in this struggle,
which was concluded in 1462, Albert made an alliance with his
former enemy, George PodSbrad, king of Bohemia, a step which
caused Pope Paul II. to place him under the ban.

In 1470 Albert, who had inherited Bayreuth on the death of
his brother John in 1464, became elector of Brandenburg owing to
the abdication of his remaining brother, the elector Frederick II.
He was soon actively engaged in its administration, and by the
treaty of Prenzlau in 1472 he brought Pomerania also under
his supremacy. Having established his right to levy a tonnage
on wines in the mark, he issued in February 1473 the important
dispositio Achillea, which decreed that the mark of Brandenburg
should descend in its entirety to the eldest son, while the younger
sons should receive the Franconian possessions of the family.
After treating in vain for a marriage between one of his sons
and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, Albert handed over the government of Brandenburg
to his eldest son John, and returned to his Franconian possessions.
In 1474 he married his daughter Barbara to Henry XL, duke of
Glogau, who left his possessions on his death in 1476 to his widow
with reversion to her family, an arrangement which was resisted
by Henry's kinsman, John II., duke of Sagan. Aided by Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, John invaded Brandenburg, and
the Pomeranians seized the opportunity to revolt. Under these
circumstances Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, com-
pelled the Pomeranians to own his supremacy, and after a
stubborn struggle secured a part of Duke Henry's lands for his
daughter in 1482. His main attention was afterwards claimed

ALBERT

495

by the business of the Empire, and soon after taking part in the
election of Maximilian as king of the Romans he died at Frankfort
on the nth of March 1486. He left a considerable amount of
treasure. His first wife was Margaret of Baden, by whom he
had six children; and his second was Anne of Saxony, by whom
he had thirteen.

Albert was a man of relentless energy and boundless ambition,
who by reason of his physical and intellectual qualities was one
of the most prominent princes of the isth century.

See Das kaiserliche Buck des Markgrafen Albrecht Achilles,
Vorkurfurstliche Periode, 1440-14^0, edited by C. Hofler (Bayreuth,
1850); Kurfurstliche Periode, edited by J. von Minutoli (Berlin,
1850) ; Quellensammlung zur Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern,
Band I., edited by C. A. H. Burkhardt (Jena, 1857); O. Franklin,
Albrecht Achilles und die Nuremberger, 1449-1453 (Berlin, 1866);
Polilische Korrespondenz des Kurfiirsten Albrecht Achilles, 1470-
1486, edited by F. Priebatsch (Leipzig, 1894-1898); J. G. Droysen,
Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886).

ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EM-
MANUEL) (1819-1861), prince-consort of England, was born at
Rosenau on the 26th of August 1819. He was the second son
of the hereditary duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (belonging to the
Ernestine or elder branch of the royal .family of Saxony) by his
first wife, the princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (d. 1831),
from whom the duke was separated in 1824. His father's sister
married the duke of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen

ictoria of England, Prince Albert's wife, was thus his first

iusin. They were born in the same year. Albert and his elder
irother, Ernest, were close companions in youth, and were
educated under the care of Consistorialrath Florschiitz, sub-
sequently proceeding to the university of Bonn. There Prince
Albert devoted himself especially to natural science, political
economy and philosophy, having for teachers such men as Fichte,
Schlegel and Perthes; he diligently cultivated music and paint-
ing, and excelled in gymnastic exercises, especially in fencing.
The idea of a marriage between him and his cousin Victoria had
always been cherished by their uncle, King Leopold I. of Belgium,
and in May 1 836 the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and his two sons
paid a visit to Kensington Palace, where Princess Victoria, as she
then was, lived, for the purpose of making acquaintance for the
first time. The visit was by no means to the taste of King
William IV., who disapproved of the match and favoured Prince
Alexander of Orange. But Leopold's plan was known to Princess
Victoria, and William's objections were fruitless. Princess
Victoria, writing to her uncle Leopold (May 23, 1836), said that
Albert was " extremely handsome "; and (June 7) thanked him
for the " prospect of great happiness you have contributed to
give me in the person of dear Albert. He possesses every quality
that could be desired to render me perfectly happy." No formal
engagement was entered into, but the situation was privately
understood as one which in time would naturally develop. After
the queen came to the throne, her letters show her interest in
Albert's being educated for the part he would have to play. In
the winter of 1838-1839 the prince travelled in Italy, accompanied
by Baron Stockmar, formerly Leopold's doctor and private
secretary, and now the queen's confidential adviser. On the loth
of October 1839 he and Ernest went again to England to visit the
queen, with the object of finally settling the marriage. Mutual
inclination and affection at once brought about the desired
result. They became definitely engaged on the isth of October,
and on the loth of February 1840 the marriage was celebrated at
the chapel-royal, St James's.

The position in which the prince was placed by his marriage,
while it was one of distinguished honour, was also one of consider-
able difficulty; and during his lifetime the tactful way in which
he filled it was very inadequately appreciated. The public life of
the prince-consort cannot be separated from that of the queen,
and it is unnecessary here to repeat such details as are given in
the article on her (see VICTORIA, QUEEN). The prejudice against
him, on account of what was regarded as undue influence in
politics, was never fully dissipated till after his death. His
co-operation with the queen in dealing with the political responsi-
bilities which devolved upon the sovereign represented an amount

of conscientious and self-sacrificing labour which cannot easily
be exaggerated; and his wisdom in council could only be
realized, outside a very small circle, when in later years the
materials for the history of that time became accessible. He was
indeed a man of cultured and liberal ideas, well qualified to take
the lead in many reforms which the England of that day sorely
needed. He was specially interested in endeavours to secure the
more perfect application of science and art to manufacturing
industry. The Great Exhibition of 1851 originated in a sugges-
tion he made at a meeting of the Society of Arts, and owed the
greater part of its success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts.
He had to work for its realization against an extraordinary out-
burst of angry expostulations. Every stage in his project was
combated. In the House of Peers, Lord Brougham denied the
right of the crown to hold the exhibition in Hyde Park; in the
Commons, Colonel Sibthorp prophesied that England would be
overrun with foreign rogues and revolutionists, who would sub-
vert the morals of the people, filch their trade secrets from them,
and destroy their faith and loyalty towards their religion and
their sovereign. Prince Albert was president of the exhibition
commission, and every post brought him abusive letters, accusing
him, as1 a foreigner, of being intent upon the corruption of
England. He was not the man to be balked by talk of this kind,
but quietly persevered, looking always to the probability that the
manufacturing power of Great Britain would be quickened by
bringing the best manufactured products of foreign countries
under the eyes of the mechanics and artisans. A sense of the
artistic was at this time almost wholly wanting among the
English people. One day the prince had a conversation with a
great manufacturer of crockery, and sought to convert him to the
idea of issuing something better than the eternal willow-pattern
in white with gold, red or blue, which formed the staple of middle
and lower class domestic china. The manufacturer held out that
new shapes and designs would not be saleable; but he was
induced to try, and he did so with such a rapid success that a
revolution in the china cupboards of England was accomplished
from that time. The exhibition was opened by the queen on the
ist of May 1851, and was a colossal success; and the realized
surplus of £150,000 went to establish and endow the South
Kensington Museum (afterwards renamed "Victoria and Albert")
and to purchase land in that neighbourhood. Similar institu-
tions, on a smaller scale but with a kindred aim, always found in
him warm advocacy and substantial support. It was chiefly at
meetings in connexion with these that he found occasion for the
delivery of addresses characterized by profound thought and
comprehensiveness of view, a collection of which was published
in 1857. One of the most favourable specimens of his powers as
a speaker is the inaugural address which he delivered as president
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when
it met at Aberdeen in 1859. The education of his family and the
management of his domestic affairs furnished the prince with
another very important sphere of action, in which he employed
himself with conscientious devotedness.

The estates of the duchy of Cornwall, the hereditary appanage
of the prince of Wales, were so greatly improved under his
father's management that the rent-roll rose from £11,000 to
£50,000 a year. Prince Albert, indeed, had a peculiar talent for
the management of landed estates. His model farm at Windsor
was in every way worthy of the name; and the grounds at
Balmoral and Osborne were laid out entirely in conformity with
his designs.

A character so pure, and a life so useful and well-directed in
all its aims, could scarcely fail to win respect among those who
were acquainted with the facts. As the prince became better
known, public mistrust began to give way. In 1847, but only
after a significantly keen contest with Earl Powis, he was elected
chancellor of the university of Cambridge; and he was after-
wards appointed master of the Trinity House. In June 1857 the
formal title of prince-consort was conferred upon him by letters
patent, in order to settle certain difficulties as to precedence that
had been raised at foreign courts.

But in the full career of his usefulness he was cut off. During

496

ALBERT

the autumn of 1861 he was busy with the arrangements for the
projected international exhibition, and it was just after returning
from one of the meetings in connexion with it that he was seized
with his last illness. Beginning at the end of November with
what appeared to be influenza, it proved to be an attack of
typhoid fever, and, congestion of the lungs supervening, he died
on the 1 4th of December. The grief of the queen was over-
whelming and the sympathy of the whole nation marked a
revulsion of feeling about the prince himself which was not devoid
of compunction for earlier want of appreciation. The magnificent
mausoleum at Frogmore, in which his remains were finally
deposited, was erected at the expense of the queen and the royal
family; and many public monuments to " Albert the Good "
were erected all over the country, the most notable being the
Albert Hall (1867) and the Albert Memorial (1876) in London.
His name was also commemorated in the queen's institution of
the Albert medal (1866) in reward for gallantry in saving life, and
of the order of Victoria and Albert (1862).

By the queen's authority, her secretary, General Grey, compiled
The Early Days of the Prince Consort, published in 1867; and The
Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (1st vol., 1874; 2"d, 1880)
was similarly edited by Sir Theodore Martin. A volume of the
Principal Speeches and Addresses of Prince Albert, with an intro-
duction by Sir Arthur Helps, was published in 1862. See also the
Letters of Queen Victoria (1907). (H. CH.)

ALBERT I. (c. 1250-1308), German king, and duke of Austria,
eldest son of King Rudolph I., the founder of the greatness of the
house of Habsburg, was invested with the duchies of Austria
and Styria, together with his brother Rudolph, in 1282. In 1283
his father entrusted him with their sole government, and he
appears to have ruled them with conspicuous success. Rudolph
was unable to secure the succession to the German throne for
his son, and on his death in 1291, the princes, fearing Albert's
power, chose Adolph of Nassau as king. A rising among his
Swabian dependants compelled Albert to recognize the sovereignty
of his rival, and to confine himself to the government of the
Habsburg territories. He did not abandon his hopes of the
throne, and, in 1298, was chosen German king by some of the
princes, who were dissatisfied with Adolph. The armies of the
rival kings met at Gollheim near Worms, where Adolph was
defeated and slain, and Albert submitted to a fresh election.
Having secured the support of several influential princes by
extensive promises, he was chosen at Frankfort on the 27th of
July 1298, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of
August following. Albert sought to play an important part in
European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel
with France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of
Pope Boniface VIII. to recognize his election led him to change
his policy, and, in 1 299, a treaty was made between Albert and
Philip IV., king of France, by which Rudolph, the son of the
German king, was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French
king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, and, in
1303, was recognized as German king and future emperor by
Boniface, and, in return, admitted the right of the pope alone
to bestow the imperial crown, and promised that none of his
sons should be elected German king without the papal consent.
Albert had failed in his attempt to seize Holland and Zealand,
as vacant fiefs of the Empire, on the death of Count John I. in
1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia for his son
Rudolph on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He also renewed
the claim which had been made by his predecessor, Adolf, on
Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the succession to
the Hungarian throne. His attack on Thuringia ended in his
defeat at Lucka in 1307, and, in the same year, the death of his
son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern Europe. His
action in abolishing all tolls established on the Rhine since
1 250, led to the formation of a league against him by the Rhenish
archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine; but aided
by the towns, he soon crushed the rising. He was on the way
to suppress a revolt in Swabia when he was murdered on the
jst of May 1308, at Windisch on the Reuss, by his nephew John,
afterwards called " the Parricide," whom he had deprived of his
inheritance. Albert married Elizabeth, daughter of Meinhard IV.,

count of Gorz and Tirol, who bore him six sons and five
daughters. Although a hard, stern man, he had a keen sense
of justice when his selfish interests were not involved, and few
of the German kings possessed so practical an intelligence.
He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclama-
tions against private war, formed alliances with the princes in
order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom
attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common
humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he pro-
tected even the despised and persecuted Jews. The stories of
his cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons first appear in
the 1 6th century, and are now regarded as legendary.

See G. Droysen, Albrechts I. Bemuhungen um die Nachfolge im
Reich (Leipzig, 1862); J. F. A. Mucke, Albrecht I. von Habsburg
(Gotha, 1866); A. L. J. Michelsen, Die Landgrafschajt Thiiringen
unter den Konigen Adolf, Albrecht, und Heinrich VII. (Jena, 1860).

ALBERT II. (1397-1439), German king, king of Bohemia
and Hungary, and (as Albert V.) duke of Austria, was born on
the toth of August 1397, the son of Albert IV. of Habsburg, duke
of Austria. He succeeded to the duchy of Austria on his father's
death in 1404. After receiving a good education, he undertook
the government of Austria in 1411, and succeeded, with the aid
of his advisers, in ridding the duchy of the evils which had arisen
during his minority. He assisted the German king, Sigismund,
in his campaigns against the Hussites, and in 1422 married
Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sigismund, who designated
him as his successor. When the German king died in 1 43 7 , Albert
was crowned king of Hungary on the ist of January 1438, and
although crowned king of Bohemia six months later, he was
unable to obtain possession of the country. He was engaged in
warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies, when on the
i8th of March 1438 he was chosen German king at Frankfort, an
honour which he does not appear to have sought. Afterwards
engaged in defending Hungary against the attacks of the Turks,
he died on the 27th of October 1439 at Langendorf, and was
buried at Stuhlweissenburg. Albert was an energetic and war-
like prince, whose short reign gave great promise of usefulness
tor Germany.

See W. Altmann, Die Wahl Albrecht II. zum romischen Konige
(Berlin, 1886).

ALBERT (1490-1545), elector and archbishop of Mainz, and
archbishop of Magdeburg, was the younger son of John Cicero,
elector of Brandenburg, and was born on the 28th of June 1490.
Having studied at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he
entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in 1513 became arch-
bishop of Magdeburg and administrator of the diocese of
Halberstadt. In 1514 he obtained the electorate of Mainz,
and in 1518 was made a cardinal. Meanwhile to pay for the
pallium of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other expenses
of his elevation, Albert had borrowed a large sum of money from
the Fuggers, and had obtained permission from Pope Leo X. to
conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to obtain funds
to repay this loan. For this work he procured the services of
John Tetzel, and so indirectly exercised a potent influence
on the course of the Reformation. When the imperial election
of 1519 drew near, the elector's vote was eagerly solicited by
the partisans of Charles (afterwards the emperor Charles V.)
and by those of Francis I., king of France, and he appears to
have received a large amount of money for the vote which
he cast eventually for Charles. Albert's large and liberal ideas,
his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten, and his political ambi-
tions, appear to have raised hopes that he would be won over
to the reformed faith; but after the Peasants' War of 1525 he
ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism,
and was among the princes who met to concert measures for its
defence at Dessau in July 1525. His hostility towards the
reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother
Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have
exerted himself in the interests of peace, although he was
member of the league of Nuremberg, which was formed in 1538
as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkalden. The new
doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his
dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty

ALBERT

497

to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins.
During his latter years indeed he showed more intolerance
towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the
Jesuits in his dominions. Albert adorned the Stiftskirche at
Halle and the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and
ik as his motto the words Domine, dilexi decorem domus luae.
generous patron of art and learning, he counted Erasmus
iong his friends. He died at Aschaffenburg on the 24th of
iptember 1545.

See J. H. Hennes, Albrecht von Brandenburg, Erzbischof von Mainz
' Magdeburg (Mainz, 1858) ; J. May, Der Kurfurst, Kardinal,
ErzbischoJ Albrecht II. von Mainz und Magdeburg (Munich,
165-1875); W. Schum, Kardinal Albrecht von Mainz und die
'.rfurter Kirchenreformation (Halle, 1878); P. Redlich, Kardinal
Ibrecht von Brandenburg, und das neue Stift zu Halle (Mainz, 1900).
ALBERT (1490-1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order,
id first duke of Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of
ohenzollern, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia,
daughter of Casimir IV., king of Poland. Born at Ansbach on
ie i6th of May 1490, he was intended for the church, and
.ssed some time at the court of Hermann, elector of Cologne,
ho appointed him to a canonry in his cathedral. Turning to
more active life, he accompanied the, emperor Maximilian I.
Italy in 1508, and after his return spent some time in Hungary.
December, Frederick, grand master of the Teutonic Order,
ied, and Albert, joining the order, was chosen as his successor
arly in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to Sigismund I.,
king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes
over east Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish
suzerainty since 1466. The new master, however, showed no
desire to be conciliatory, and as war appeared inevitable, he
made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on tedious
negotiations with the emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling,
uenced by the ravages of members of the order in Poland,
minated in a struggle which began in December 1519. During
e ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert consented
•ly in 1521 to a truce for four years. The dispute was referred
the emperor Charles V. and other princes, but as no settlement
reached the master continued his efforts to obtain help in
view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited
Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the
reformer, Andreas Osiander, by whose influence he was won
over to the side of the new faith. He then journeyed to Witten-
berg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to cast aside the
senseless rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia
into an hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which
commended itself to Albert, had already been discussed by
some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously,
and he assured Pope Adrian VI. that he was anxious to reform
the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran
doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion,
but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to
spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother,
George, prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before Sigismund
of Poland. After some delay the king assented to it provided
that Prussia were held as a Polish fief; and after this arrange-
ment had been confirmed by a treaty made at Cracow, Albert
was invested with the duchy by Sigismund for himself and his
heirs on the loth of February 1525. The estates of the land
then met at Konigsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the
new duke, who used his full powers to forward the doctrines
of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without
protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert
refused to appear and was placed under the ban; while the
order, having deposed the grand master, made a feeble effort to
recover Prussia. But as the German princes were either too
busy or too indifferent to attack the duke, the agitation against
him soon died away. In imperial politics Albert was fairly
active. Joining the league of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison
with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded
themselves together to overthrow Charles V. after the issue of
the Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty
id personal inclination among others, he did not take a

prominent part in the military operations of this period. The
early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous.
Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands
and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles
and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did
something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools
in every town and by giving privileges to serfs who adopted a
scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded
a university at Konigsberg, where he appointed his friend
Osiander to a professorship in 1549. This step was the beginning
of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign.
Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification
by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Melanchthon,
who had adherents in Konigsberg, and these theological disputes
soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously
supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened.
There were no longer church lands available with which to
conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and
Albert's rule became unpopular. After Osiander's death in
1552 he favoured a preacher named John Funck, who, with an
adventurer named Paul Scalich, exercised great influence over
him and obtained considerable wealth at the public expense.
The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political
disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death
and the necessity in that event for a regency owing to the youth
of his only son, Albert Frederick. The duke was consequently
obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander,
and the climax came in 1566 when the estates appealed to
Sigismund II., king of Poland, who sent a commission to Konigs-
berg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed;
the question of the regency was settled; and a form of Lutheran-
ism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and
preachers. Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two
years longer, and died at Tapiau on the 2oth of March 1568. In
1526 he had married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick I., king of
Denmark, and after her death in 1547, Anna Maria, daughter
of Eric I., duke of Brunswick. Albert was a voluminous letter-
writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages
of the time. In 1891 a statue was erected to his memory at
Konigsberg.

See J. Voigt, Briejwechsel der beruhmtesten Gelehrten des Zeitalters
der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht von Preussen (Konigsberg,
1841); E. Joachim, Die Politik des letzten Hochmeisters in Preussen,
Albrecht von Brandenburg (Leipzig, 1892); K. Lohmeyer, Herzog
Albrecht von Preussen (Danzig, 1890).

ALBERT III. (1443-1 500) , duke of Saxony, surnamed ANIMOSUS
or THE COURAGEOUS, younger son of Frederick II., the Mild,
elector and duke of Saxony, was born on the 2'7th of January
1443, and after escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen,
who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, passed
some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III. in Vienna.
In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of George
Podebrad, king of Bohemia, but failed to obtain the Bohemian
crown on the death of George in 1471. After the death of the
elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands
together, but in 1485 a division was made by the treaty of Leipzig,
and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining
districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the family of
Wettin. Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert,
in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign against Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led an expedition
against Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, which failed owing
to lack of support on the part of the emperor. In 1488 he
marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king
Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in
1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left as his repre-
sentative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was
successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland,
Flanders and Brabant, but failed to obtain any repayment of
the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns.
His services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian bestowed
upon him the title of hereditary governor (potestat) of Friesland,
but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had

498

ALBERT

to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony,
when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. Groningen was
captured, but soon afterwards the duke died at Emden, on the
1 2th of September 1500. He was buried at Meissen. Albert,
who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats
of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His
loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in
this connexion, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but
his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony.

See F. A. von Langenn, Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte, Stammvater
des koniglichen Houses Sachsen (Leipzig, 1838); O. Sperling, Herzog
Albrecht der Beherzte von Sachsen als Gubernator Frieslands (Leipzig,
1892).

ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony (1828-
1902), was born on the 23rd of April 1828, being the eldest son
of Prince John, who succeeded to the throne in 1854. His educa-
tion was, as is usual with German princes, to a great .extent
military, but he attended lectures at the university of Bonn.
His first experience of warfare was in 1849, when he served as
a captain in the campaign of Schleswig-Holstein against the
Danes. When the war of 1866 broke out, the crown-prince was
placed in command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian
army of Prince Frederick Charles. No attempt was made to
defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected
a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in
the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Iser and
in the battle of Gitchin.' The crown-prince, however, succeeded
in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive battle
of Koniggratz (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) he held the extreme
left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post
with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat
of their allies. During these operations the crown-prince won
the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and
Saxony had entered the North German confederation, he was
placed in command of the Saxon army, which had now become
the XII. army corps of the North German army, and in this
position carried out the necessary reorganization. He was a
firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of war
in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in
the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles, his old opponent.
At the battle of Gravelotte they formed the extreme left of the
German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the
attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle.
In the reorganization of the army which accompanied the march
towards Paris the crown-prince was given a separate command
over the 4th army (army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons,
the Prussian Guard corps and the IV. (Prussian Saxony) corps.
He was succeeded in command of the XII. corps by his brother
Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia. He
took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle
of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army
wheeled round in pursuit of MacMahon; and the actions of
Buzancy and Beaumont on the 29th and 3oth of August were
fought under his direction; in the battle of Sedan itself, with
the troops under his orders, he carried out the envelopment of
the French on the east and north. His conduct in these engage-
ments won for him the complete confidence of the army, and
during the siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section
of the investing force. After the conclusion of the armistice he
was left in command of the German army of occupation, a
position which he held till the fall of the Commune. On the
conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the
army and field-marshal. On the death of his father on the 29th of
October 1873 he succeeded to the throne. His reign was un-
eventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting
himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience
were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to
the German army in general. In 1897 he was appointed arbi-
trator between the claimants for the principality of Lippe. King
Albert married in 1853 Carola, daughter of Prince Gustavus
of Vasa, and granddaughter of the last king of Sweden of the
house of Holstein. He died on the ipth of June 1902.

ALBERT, surnamed THE DEGENERATE (c. 1240-1314), land-
grave of Thuringia, was the eldest son of Henry III., the Illus-
trious, margrave of Meissen. He married Margaret, daughter of
the emperor Frederick II., in 1254, and in 1265 received from
his father Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate. His infatuation
for Kunigunde of Eisenberg caused his wife to leave him, and
after her death in 1270 he married Kunigunde, who had already
borne him a son, Apitz or Albert. He wished to make Apitz
his successor in Thuringia, a plan which was resisted by his two
elder sons, and a war broke out which lasted until 1307, when
he abandoned Thuringia, in return for a yearly payment, but
retained the title of landgrave (see THURINGIA). Albert, who
had married Elizabeth, daughter of Hermann III., count of
Orlamiinde, after the death of his second wife in 1286, died on
the i3th of November 1314.

See F. X. Wegele, Friedrich der Friedige, Markgraf von Meissen,
und die Wettiner seiner Zeit (Nordlingen, 1820); F. W. Tittmann,
Geschichte Heinrich des Erlauchten Markgraven zu Meissen (Leipzig,
1863).

ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT), ARCHDUKE
(1817-1895), Austrian field-marshal, was the eldest son of the
archduke Charles (Karl Friedrich), and was born on the 3rd of
August 1817 at Vienna. After being educated under the careful
superintendence of his father, he entered the Austrian (K.K.)
army as a colonel of infantry in 1837, and was transferred to
the cavalry arm in 1839, becoming a major-general in 1840. A
brief period of leave in this year he spent at the great manoeuvres
in Italy, to learn the art of troop-leading from the first soldier
in Europe, Radetzky. He then took over the command of a
brigade of all arms at Graz. In 1844 he married Princess
Hildegarde of Bavaria. He had been made a lieutenant field-
marshal in the previous year, and was now placed in command of
the forces in Upper and Lower Austria. In this position he did
much to maintain and improve the efficiency of the troops under
his command, at a time when nearly all armies in Europe, with
the exception of Radetzky's in Italy, had sunk to the lowest
level. The influence of Radetzky over the young archduke was
indeed remarkable. At this time the Austrian generals and
staff officers had committed themselves blindly to the strategical
method of the archduke Charles, the tradition of whose practical
soldiership survived only in Radetzky and a few others. Albert
chose to follow the latter, and was thus saved from the pseudo-
scientific pedantry which brought defeat to the Austrian arms
in 1859 and in 1866. His first serious service came in March
1848, when it became his duty, as district commander, to
maintain order in Vienna by force, and at the outbreak of
revolution in Vienna during the month of March he was in
command of the troops who came into collision with the rioters.
Owing to the collapse of the government it was impossible to
repress the disturbances, and he was relieved from a post which
brought much unpopularity and was not suitable to be held by
a member of the imperial family. He went at once to the seat
of war in Italy, and fought under Radetzky as a volunteer
throughout the campaign of 1848, being present at the action of
Pastrengo and the battles of Santa Lucia and Custozza. In the
following campaign he applied for and obtained the command
of a division in the II. corps (FZM. d'Aspre), though his previous
grade had been that of a general commanding-in-chief. The
splendid fighting of the corps at Novara was decisive of the war,
and Radetzky named d'Aspre, Count Thurn, and the archduke
as the general officers worthy of the greatest rewards. The
field-marshal indeed recommended, and almost insisted, that
Albert should receive the much-prized order of Maria Theresa.
In 1850 he became a general of cavalry, and in 1851 military
and civil governor of Hungary. In this important and diffi-
cult position he remained until 1860, when he was relieved at his
own request. Shortly afterwards he was appointed to succeed
Radetzky as commander-in-chief in Italy, and in 1863 he was
promoted field-marshal. In the following year the archduke
lost his wife, soon after the marriage of their elder daughter to
Duke Philip of Wurttemberg. In 1859 and 1864 he was sent
on important military and diplomatic missions to Berlin. When

ALBERT— ALBERTA

499

war became imminent in 1866, the archduke took command of
the field army in Italy. The story of the campaign of 1866 in
Italy will be found under ITALIAN WARS (1848-1870); the
operations of the archduke, who disposed of greatly inferior
forces, were crowned with success in the brilliant victory of
Custozza (June 23), and his reputation as a general-in-chief
was firmly established by only eight days of field operations,
though it is possible that his chief of staff, Lieut. Field-Marshal
von John, contributed not a little to the success of the Austrian
arms. The result of Custozza was the retreat and complete
immobilization of the whole Italian army, so that Albert was
able to despatch the greater part of his troops to reinforce the
Bohemian army, when, after being defeated by the Prussians,
it fell back on Vienna. On the loth of July the archduke was
summoned to Vienna to take supreme command of the forces
which were being collected to defend the capital, but peace
was made before further hostilities took place. From this time,
under various titles, he acted as inspector-general of the army.
Like his father, and with better fortune, he was called upon to
reorganize the military system of his country on an entirely
new plan, learned, as before, by defeat. The principle of universal
short service, and the theory of the armed nation, were necessarily
the groundwork of the reforms, and the consequent preparation
of all the national resources for their task in war, by the super-
intendence of peace administration, by the skilful conduct of
manoeuvres, was thenceforward the task of his lifetime. In
1870 he conducted the military negotiations preparatory to an
alliance with France, which, however, was not concluded. The
tragic death of his daughter, Princess Mathilde, in 1867, and
the death of his brother, Archduke Karl Ferdinand, in 1874,
narrowed still further his family circle, and impelled him to
even greater activity in his military duties, and to effective par-
ticipation in the work of many military charities. He retained
personal control of the army until his last illness, which he
contracted at the funeral of his nephew Francis, ex-king of
Naples. His only remaining brother, the archduke Wilhelm,
had died a few months before, as the result of an accident.
He himself died on the i8th of February 1895. His only son
died in childhood, and his nephew Archduke Frederick (born
1856) inherited his great possessions, including the Albertina,
a famous collection of books, manuscripts, engravings and maps,
founded by Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen.

Amongst the military works of the Archduke Albert may be
named liber die Verantwortlichkeil im Kriege (a work which
created a great sensation, and was translated into English and
French), Gedanken Uber dem Militargeist, Uber die hohere Leitung
im Kriege, and Kritische Betrachtungen iiber den Feldzug 1866 in
Italien. He also was the principal editor of the military works
of his father.

See Duncker, F. M. Erzkerzog Albrecht (Vienna and Prague,
1897) ; Mathes v. Bilabriick, " Gedenkrede auf Weiland Sr. K. u. K.
H. Erzh. Albrecht," Mil.-Wissenschaftl. Verein, 1895; Teuber,
F. M. Erzh. Albrecht, ein Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895).

ALBERT, MADAME (c. 1805-1846), French actress, whose
maiden name was Therese Vernet, was born of a family of players.
She first appeared in children's and ingenue parts, and in comic
opera, and it was not until 1827, two years after her Paris d£but,
that her great talents were seen and appreciated. In Caleb
Valentine, Henry V., Madame Dubarry, Catherine II., Leontine,
Un duel sous le cardinal de Richelieu, and many other plays, her
grace, beauty and distinction of manner made her the idol of
Paris, and her circle of admirers was widened by long tours of
the provinces and abroad. Ill-health compelled her to retire in
1846. She was twice married, about 1825 to Albert Rodrigues,
an actor who played under his Christian name, and in 1846 to
Eugene Bignon (1812-1858), the actor and playwright.

ALBERT OF AIX (fl. c. A.D. noo), historian of the first

j crusade, was born during the later part of the nth century,

. and afterwards became canon and custos of the church of Aix-la-

Chapelle. Nothing else is known of his life except that he was

the author of a Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis, or Chroni-

' con Hierosolymitanum de hello sacro, a work in twelve books,

written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time
of the council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the first
crusade and the earlier history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,
and ends somewhat abruptly in 1121. It was well known during
the middle ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of
Tyre, for the first six books of his Belli sacri historia. In modern
times its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the
verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms
a true record of the events of the first crusade, although contain-
ing some legendary matter. Albert never visited the Holy Land,
but he appears to have had a considerable amount of intercourse
with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable
correspondence. The first edition of the history was published
at Helmstadt in 1584, and a good edition is in the Recueil des
historiens des croisades, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887).

See F. Krebs, Zur Kritik Alberts von Aachen (Miinster, 1881);
B. Kugler, Albert von Aachen (Stuttgart, 1885); M. Pigeonneau,
Le Cycle de la croisade et de lafamille de Bouillon (Paris, 1877) ; H. von
Sybel, Ceschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881) ; F. Vercruysse,
Essai critique sur la chronique d' Albert d'Aix (Liege, 1889).

ALBERTA, a province of western Canada, established in
1905. Area 260,000 sq. m. It is bounded S. by the United
States boundary line, 49° N.; E. by no" W., which divides
it from the province of Saskatchewan; N. by 60° N., which
separates it from the North-West Territories; and W. by the
line of peaks of the Rocky Mountains range, which runs north-
westerly, and divides it from British Columbia. A fertile
province, in the eastern and southern portions its surface con-
sists chiefly of plains almost entirely treeless. As the slopes of
the Rocky Mountains to the west are reached more trees are
found, until in the foot-hills of the mountains bodies of forest
timber occur. Trees become more numerous also northward
in the province, until in the region north of the North Saskat-
chewan river forests are again met with. From the southern
boundary line for two and a half degrees north the prairie is
dry, but of good soil, which grows excellent crops when irrigated.
North of this region the surface of the province is of most fertile
soil, the ordinary rainfall sufficing for agriculture. The appear-
ance of the prairie section of the province is that of undulating
meadows, with rounded sloping ridges covered with shorter
grasses, which serve for the support of great herds of cattle and
horses. The wooded portions of the terrain are dotted with
clumps and belts of trees of moderate size, giving them a park-
like appearance. In winter the snowfall is very light, and even
this is frequently removed by warm winds from the west.
Within a hundred miles of the mountains there is constantly
in view, in clear weather, the beautiful line of snowy peaks
along the western horizon. This continues for hundreds of
miles north-westward. The Rocky Mountains, which give its
charm to Alberta, are ascended by a gradual approach from the
east, but are exceedingly abrupt on their transalpine slope in
British Columbia. The peaks of these mountains are majestic,
many of them reaching a height of more than two miles above
the sea. Among the more notable of these are Robson peak,
13,700 ft.; Athabasca, 13,700; Assiniboine, 11,830; Lyell,
12,000; Mummery, 12,000; Temple, 11,658; and Geikie, 11,000.
Mt. Brown reaches 9050.

Through these Rocky Mountains the explorers and fur-
traders, by ascending the streams running down the eastern
declivities of the mountains, and crossing by short portages to
the streams of the western slope, have succeeded in discovering
passes by which the mountain chain can be crossed, the range
rarely exceeding 60 m. in breadth. The most noted of the
Alberta passes are (i) the Crow's Nest Pass, near the southern
boundary line, through which a branch of the Canadian Pacific
railway runs; (2) the Kicking Horse Pass, through which the
main line of the Canadian Pacific railway is built; 40 m. from
the eastern end of this pass is the Rocky Mountains Park, with
the famous watering-place of Banff as its centre; (3) the Yellow
Head Pass, running west from the northern branch of the
Saskatchewan river; this pass was discovered by Capt. Palliser
(1858), was crossed by Lord Milton and Dr W. B. Cheadle (1861),
and by Sandford Fleming (1871-1872) in the Ocean to Ocean

5°°

ALBERTA

expedition; (4) Peace River Pass. By this pass Alexander
Mackenzie made his celebrated voyage. There are other minor
passes, and no doubt more to be discovered.

With the exception of the southern section, the province of
Alberta may be said to be well watered. Rising from numerous
valleys on the Alberta declivity of the Rocky Mountains between
the international boundary line and 52° N. are streams which
unite to form the Belly river, and farther north the Bow river.
Running eastward these two rivers unite about 112° W., and

Scale, i :8. ooo.ooo

English Miles
o 90 100

Rail~aii ......... _

Onutd Trunk facific l

Canal* .....

flow on under the name of the South Saskatchewan river.
North of 52° N. many small streams unite to form the Red Deer
river, which flowing south-eastward joins the South Saskat-
chewan near 110° W. Between 52° and 53° N. rises the great
river, the North Saskatchewan. It receives a southern tributary,
the Battle river, which joins it about 108° W. Pursuing their
courses eastward the North and South Saskatchewan rivers
unite in the Saskatchewan (Cree, rapid-flowing river), which
finds its way to Lake Winnipeg, and thence by way of Nelson
river to Hudson Bay. It is one of the mightiest rivers of the
continent.

Between 53° and 54° N. begins the height of land running
north-easterly, north of which all the waters of Alberta flow
toward the Arctic Sea. In northern Alberta, on the northern

slope, gathering its tributaries from rills in the Rocky Mountains,
the river Athabasca runs north and empties into Lake Athabasca
near 58° N. North of 56° N. flows through and from the Rocky
Mountains the Peace river. After descending north-eastward
to within a few miles of Lake Athabasca, it is met by a stream
emerging from that lake. The united river carrying down the
waters of the Athabasca slope is called the Slave river, which,
passing through Great Slave Lake, emerges as the great
Mackenzie river, which falls into the Arctic Sea. Alberta thus
gives rise to the two great rivers Saskatchewan and Mackenzie.
While a number of fresh-water, or in some cases brackish, lakes
each less than 100 sq. m. in extent are situated in Alberta, two
of more considerable size are found. These are Lake Athabasca.
3085 sq. m. in extent, of which a part is in the province of
Saskatchewan, and the other Lesser Slave Lake some 600 sq. m.
in area.

Climate. — As Alberta extends for 750 m. from north to
south — as great a distance as from Land's End in England to
the north of the Shetland Isles — it is natural that the climate
should vary considerably between parallels of 49° and 60° N.,
and also between 110° and 120° W. It is also further influenced
by the different altitudes above the sea of the several parts of
the province. Dividing the province into three equal parts of
250 m. each from north to south, these may be called (A)
the south, (B) the centre, (C) the north. The following data
may be considered: —

CLIMATIC TABLE

Climate.

Places.

Above the
Sea.

Mean
Winter
Temp.

(A) Moderate and
changeable

Medicine Hat, lat.
50° N.
Calgary, lat. §1°
Banff, lat. 5lJ°

2171 ft.

3421 „
4515 -

14.3° F.

'K ,
15-9

(B) Steady .

Edmonton, lat. 535°

2210 ,,

10-3° „

(C) Severe

Fort Chipewyan, lat.
59° N.

6OO „

7-2° .,

Climate (A) allows, in what is a great ranching district,
cattle and horses to run at large through the whole winter.
Through the mountain passes come at times dry winds from
the Pacific coast, which lick up the snow in a few hours. These
winds are known as Chinook winds. While elevating the tem-
perature they bring more moisture into the air and produce
a change not entirely desirable.

Climate (B) is the steady winter climate of Edmonton district.
This while averaging a lower temperature than (A) is not so
subject to change; it retains the snow for sleighing, which is a
boon to the farmer. This climate is much less influenced by
the Pacific winds than (A).

Climate (C), that of Fort Chipewyan, having a mean winter
temperature of 22-6° lower than Calgary, is a decidedly sub-arctic
climate. It is the region in winter of constant ice and snow, but
its lower altitude gives it a summer climate with a mean tem-
perature of only 1-6° less than Calgary, and 1-8° less than Ed-
monton. It will thus be seen that the agricultural capabilities
of the Athabasca and Peace river districts, not yet fully known,
are full of promise.

Fauna, — The three climatic regions of Alberta have naturallj
a varying fauna. The south and central region was the land of
the bison, its grasses affording a great pasture ground for tens of
thousands of " buffaloes." They were destroyed by whites and
Indians in 1879-1882 on the approach of the Canadian Pacific
railway. Grizzly, black and cinnamon bears are found in the
mountains and wooded districts. The coyote or small wolf, here
and there the grey wolf, the fox and the mountain lion (panther)
occur. The moose and red deer are found in the wooded regions,
and the jumping deer and antelope on the prairies. Wild sheep
and goats live in the Rocky Mountains. The lynx, wolverine,
porcupine, skunk, hare, squirrel and mouse are met. The gopher
is a resident of the dry plains. District (C) is the fur-trader's

ALBERTA

paradise. The buffalo is replaced by the mountain buffaloes, of
which a few survive. The musk-ox comes in thousands every
year to the great northern lakes, while the mink, marten, beaver,
otter, ermine and musk-rat are sought by the fur-trader. Fort
Chipewyan was long known in Hudson's Bay Company history
as the great depot of the Mackenzie river district. Northern
Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the
migratory birds. Here vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and
pelicans resort every year. Cranes, partridges and varieties of
singing birds abound. The eagle, hawk, owl and crow are plenti-
ful. Mosquitoes and flies are everywhere, and the wasp and wild
bee also. In the rivers and lakes pike, pickerel, white fish and
sturgeon supply food for the natives, and the brook trout is found
in the small mountain streams. The turtle and frog also appear.

Flora. — In central and northern Alberta the opening spring
brings in the prairie anemone, the avens and other early flowers.
The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower
family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and
purple. The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass,
very nutritive, but drying up in the middle of summer until the
whole prairie is brown and unattractive. The trees in the wooded
sections of the province are seen in clumps and belts on the hill-
sides. These are largely deciduous. On the north side of the
Saskatchewan river forests prevail for scores and even hundreds
of miles. They contain the poplar or aspen (Populus tremuloides) ,
balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) , and paper or canoe birch
(Betula papyri/era). The Coniferae are found northward and in
the mountain valleys. Some of these are: Jack pine (Finns
Banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine (Pinus flexilis), black pine
(Pinus Murrayana), white spruce (Picea alba), black spruce
(Picea nigra), Engelman's spruce (Picea Engelmanni) , mountain
balsam (Abies subalpina), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii),
mountain larch (Larix Lyallis).

Population. — By the census of 1906 the population of Alberta
was found to be 185,412. It has grown from 73,022 in 1901 (the
area of Alberta being then slightly different). The basis of the
population is Canadian, and the immigration has been chiefly
from (i) the British Isles, (2) United States, (3) continent of
Europe (chiefly Austria, Hungary and Russia). Of the popula-
tion in 1901, 17,245 had immigrated thither from the three
mentioned sources. The following table shows the percentages
of origins: —

I

1901.

Canadian and native born
The British Isles ....
United States
Continent of Europe

54 %
6-8 %
1 6-6 %
24-4 %

Of the Indian and Indian half-breed population there were in
1901, 14,669 of the former and 11,635 of the latter. The Indians
of central Alberta are chiefly plain Crees, a tribe of Algonquin
stock. In southern Alberta are several thousands of Indians on
reserves south and west of Calgary, consisting of the Blackfoots
of Algonquin stock, Sarcees, Piegans and a few Assiniboins.

The chief cities and towns of Alberta are Edmonton (11,167),
Calgary (11,967), Medicine Hat (3020), Lethbridge (2948) and
Strathcona(2927).

Industries. — The chief industries of the people are farming and
ranching. Cattle, horses and sheep are largely reared in the
southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. In this
region irrigation is widely used. Red winter wheat is now pro-
duced to a considerable degree. In the town of Raymond is a
large beet sugar manufactory, and in the vicinity great quantities
of beets are grown by irrigation. In central Alberta coarse
grains — oats and barley — and some wheat are grown, in conjunc-
tion with mixed farming. While washing out the sands of the
North Saskatchewan for gold is still somewhat resorted to, the
only real mining in Albe.rta is that for coal. Vast beds of coal are
found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the
surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds,
and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures is of excellent
quality. In the valley of the Bow river, alongside the Canadian

Ki

Pacific railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are worked, and
the coal. is carried by railway as far east as Winnipeg. The usual
coal deposits of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous
coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern
Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other
parts of the province have pits for private use. The Athabasca
river region, as well as localities far north on the Mackenzie river,
has decided indications of petroleum, though it is not yet de-
veloped. Natural gas has been found at several points. The
most notable gas discovery is that at Medicine Hat, which has
wells with unlimited quantities. The gas is excellent, is used for
lighting the town, supplies light and fuel for the people, and a
number of industries are using the gas for manufacturing.

Communications. — For transportation the North Saskatchewan
is to some extent depended on for carrying freight by steamboats,
but railways are widespread in the province. The Canadian
Pacific railway has its main line running from east to west chiefly
between 50 and 51° N. Over this line passes an enormous trade
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean — the railway with its
"Empress" steamers on the Pacific and also on the Atlantic
Ocean claiming to have as its termini Liverpool and Yokohama.
A branch line of the Canadian Pacific railway runs from Medicine
Hat between 49° and 50° N., passing through the Crow's Nest
Pass of the Rocky Mountains and carrying on trade with British
Columbia. Another branch from Calgary runs southward to
Macleod, and to Lethbridge there comes from the south a branch
cf the Great Northern railway of the United States, connecting
with the state of Montana. From Calgary to Edmonton north-
ward runs a line under the control of the Canadian Pacific railway.
From this railway also run, eastward from Lacombe and
Wetaskiwin, branch lines to complete the system. In 1906 the
new line of the Canadian Northern railway was opened,
connecting Winnipeg, 1000 m. to the east, along the North
Saskatchewan river, with Edmonton. The Grand Trunk Pacific
railway, backed by the Canadian government, forms a new
transcontinental line; the prairie section from Winnipeg to
Edmonton was in 1908 under contract.

Administration, &c. — The local government of Alberta is carried
on by a provincial organization resembling that of the other
Canadian provinces. The capital of the province is Edmonton,
and here reside the lieutenant-governor and cabinet. The
legislature consists of one house — the Legislative Assembly — of
twenty-five members. Responsible government after the British
model is followed, and the revenue is chiefly derived from grants
from the Dominion government. Alberta has a system of muni-
cipal government similar to that of the other provinces.

Education is given by a public-school system, which, while
nominally providing for separate schools for Catholics and Pro-
testants, makes it practically impossible at most points to carry
on such schools. A normal school is situated at Calgary. There
is a college for secondary education in Calgary and another in
Edmonton.

The following are the leading denominations in Alberta: —

Roman Catholics
Presbyterians
Methodists
Church of England
Lutherans .
Greek Church
Mormons
Baptists

1901.

12,957
10,655
9,623
8,888
5,810
4,618
3-212
2,722

The Mormons of Alberta are in the most southerly part of the
province, and are a colony from the Mormon settlements in
Utah, U.S. On coming to Canada they were given lands by the
Dominion of Canada. The organization adopted in Utah among
the Mormons is found also in Alberta, but the Canadian Mormons
profess to have received a later revelation condemning polygamy.

History. — The present province of Alberta as far north as the
height of land (53° N.) was from the time of the incorporation
of the Hudson's Bay Company (1670) a part of Rupert's Land.
After the discovery of the north-west by the French in 1731
and succeeding years the prairies of the west were occupied by

502

ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA— ALBERTINELLI

them, and Fort La Jonquiere was established near the present
city of Calgary (1752). The North-West Company of Montreal
occupied the northern part of Alberta district before the Hudson's
Bay Company succeeded in coming from Hudson Bay to take
possession of it. The first hold of the Athabasca region was
gained by Peter Pond, who, on behalf of the North-West Company
of Montreal, built Fort Athabasca on river La Biche in 1778.
Roderick Mackenzie, cousin of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, built
Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca in 1788. By way of the
North Saskatchewan river Alexander Mackenzie crossed the
height of land, and proceeding northward discovered the river
which bears his name, and also the Arctic Sea. Afterward
going westward from Lake Athabasca and through the Peace
river, he reached the Pacific Ocean, being the first white man
to cross the North American continent, north of Mexico.

As part of the North-West Territories the district of Alberta
was organized in 1875. Additional privileges and a local legis-
lature were added from time to time. At length in 1905 the
district of Alberta was enlarged and the present province formed
by the Dominion parliament. (G. BR.)

ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the
southern of the two western reservoirs of the Nile. It lies in
the Albertine rift-valley between o° 8' and o° 40' S. and 29° 28'
and 29° 52' E., at an elevation of 3004 ft. above the sea.
It is roughly oval in shape and has no deep indentations. On
its N.E. side it is connected by a winding channel, 25 m. long
and from a quarter of a mile to a mile wide, flowing between
high banks, with a smaller sheet of water, Lake Dweru, which
extends north of the equator. Albert Edward Nyanza has a
length of 44 m. and a breadth of 32 m. (maximum measurement).
Dweru is about 20 m. long and 10 across at its widest part.
The area of the two lakes is approximately 820 sq. m., or about
the size of Leicestershire, England. A swampy plain, traversed
by the Ruchuru and other rivers, extends south of the Nyanza
and was once covered by its waters. The plain contains several
salt-pans, and at the S.E. corner are numerous geysers. Along
the eastern shore the low land extends to Kamarangu, a point
about midway between the south and north ends of the lake, a
considerable stretch of ground intervening between the wall of
the rift-valley and the water, two terraces being clearly defined.
The euphorbia trees and other vegetation on the lower terrace
are of small size and apparently of recent origin. At some
distance from the lake runs a belt of forest. North of Kamarangu
the wall of the valley approaches the water in a series of bluffs
some 300 to 350 ft. high. At the N.E. end the hills again recede
and the plain widens to include Dweru. On the west side of
the Nyanza the wall of the rift-valley runs close to the lake
shore and at the N.W. corner the mountains close in on the water.
North of the lake a high alluvial plain stretches to the southern
slopes of the Ruwenzori mountains. From Ruwenzori a sub-
sidiary range, known as the Kipura mountains, runs due south
to the lake shore, where it ends in a low rounded hill. In general,
the plain rises above the lake in a series of bold bluffs, a wide
margin of swamp separating them from the water. The Semliki,
the only outlet of the lake, issues from its N.W. end. Round the
north-eastern shore of the lake are numerous crater lakes, many
salt, the most remarkable being that of Katwe. This lake lies
west of the Dweru channel and is separated from Albert Edward
Nyanza by a ridge of land, not more than 160 ft. in breadth.
The sides of this ridge run down steeply to the water on either
side. The waters of the Katwe lake have a beautiful rose colour
which becomes crimson in the shadows. The salt is highly prized
and is exported to great distances.

The main feeder of Albert Edward Nyanza, and western
head-stream of the Nile, the Ruchuru, rises on the north side of
the volcanoes north of Lake Kivu (see MFUMBIRO). On reaching
the level plain ism. from the lake its waters become brackish,
and the vegetation on its banks is scanty. The reedy marshes
near its mouth form a retreat for a primitive race of fishermen.
Lake Dweru, the shores of which are generally high, is fed by
the streams from the eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori range.
One of these, the Mpango, is a larger river than the Ruchuru.

The outlet of the Nyanza, the Semliki, and the part played
by the lake in the Nile system are described under ALBERT
NYANZA.

A feature of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza is the thick haze
which overhangs the water during the dry season, blotting out
from view the mountains. In the rains, when the sky is clear,
the magnificent panorama of hills encircling the lake on the west
and north-west is revealed. The lake water is clear of a light
green colour, and distinctly brackish. Fish abound, as do
waterfowl, crocodiles and, in the southern swamps, hippo-
potami. In the rainy season the lake is subject to violent
storms.

The entire area of Albert Edward Nyanza was found, by the
work of the Anglo-German Boundary Commission of 1902-1904,
to lie within the limits of the sphere of influence of the Congo
Free State as defined in the agreement of the I2th of May 1894
between that state and Great Britain. Dweru was discovered
in 1875 by H. M. Stanley, then travelling westward from Uganda,
and by him was named Beatrice Gulf in the belief that it was
part of Albert Nyanza. In 1888-1889 Stanley, approaching
the Nile region from the west, traced the Semliki to its source
in Albert Edward Nyanza, which lake he discovered, naming it
after Albert Edward, prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII.
Stanley also discovered the connecting channel between the
larger lake and Dweru. The accurate mapping of the lake was
mainly the work of British officials and travellers, such as Scott
Elliott, Sir F. D. Lugard, Ewart Grogan, J. E. Moore and Sir H.
Johnston; while Emin Pasha and Franz Stuhlmann, deputy-
governor (1891) of German East Africa, explored its southern
shores. (See ALBERT NYANZA and NILE; and the authorities
there quoted.) (W. E. G.; F. R. C.)

ALBERTI, DOMENICO (c. 1710-1740), Italian musician, is
known in musical history as the writer of dozens of sonatas in
which the melody is supported from beginning to end by an
extremely familiar formula of arpeggio accompaniment, conse-
quently known as the Alberti bass. He thus shows how advanced
was the decay of polyphonic sensibility (as a negative preparation
for the advent of the sonata -style) already during the lifetime of
Bach. His works have no other special qualities, though it is
probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age
of seven, were modelled on Alberti in spite of their superior
cleverness.

ALBERTI, LEONE BATTISTA (1404-1472), Italian painter,
poet, philosopher, musician and architect, was born in Venice
on the i8th of February 1404. He was so skilled in Latin verse
that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Philo-
doxius, deceived the younger Aldus, who edited and published
it as the genuine work of Lepidus. In music he was reputed
one of the first organists of the age. He held the appointment
of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence, and thus had
leisure to devote himself to his favourite art. He is generally
regarded as one of the restorers of the ancient style of archi-
tecture. At Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in
the restoration of the papal palace and of the foundation of
Acqua Vergine, and in the ornamentation of the magnificent
fountain of Trevi. At Mantua he designed the church of Sant'
Andrea and at Rimini the celebrated church of San Francesco,
which is generally esteemed his finest work. On a commission
from Rucellai he designed the principal fagade of the church
of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, as well as the family palace
in the Via della Scala, now known as, the Palazzo Strozzi. Albert!
wrote works on sculpture, Della Stalua, and on painting, De
Pictura, which are highly esteemed; but his most celebrated
treatise is that on architecture, De Re Aedificatoria, which has
been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
Alberti died at Rome in the April of 1472.

See Passerini, Cli Alberti di Firenze (1869, 1870); Mancini, V
di Alberti (Firenze, 1882); V. Hoffmann, Studien zu Leon Battista
Alberti's zehn Biichern: De Re Aedificatorid (Frankenberg, 1883).

ALBERTINELLI, MARIOTTO (1474-1515), Italian painter,
was born in Florence, and was a fellow-pupil and partner of
Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted many works. His

ALBERTITE— ALBERT NYANZA

chief paintings are in Florence, notably his masterpiece, the
" Visitation of the Virgin " (1503) at the Uffizi.

ALBERTITE, a variety of asphalt found in Albert county,
New Brunswick. It is of jet-black colour and brilliant pitch-like
lustre. Its percentage chemical composition is: —

503

c.

H.

O.

N.

S.

Ash.

86-04

8-96

1-97

2-93

trace

O-IO

It softens slightly in boiling water, but only fuses imperfectly
when further heated, and it is less soluble than ordinary asphalt
in oil of turpentine.

ALBERT LEA, a city and the county-seat of Freeborn county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 97 m. S. of St Paul. Pop. (1890)
3305; (1900) 4506; (1905, state census) 5657, 1206 being for-
eign-born (461 Norwegians, 411 Danes, 98 Swedes); (1910, U. S.
census) 6192. It is served by two branches of the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, by the main line and one branch of
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, by the Illinois Central,
by the Iowa Central, and by the Minneapolis & St Louis
railways. It is attractively situated between Fountain Lake
and Albert Lea Lake, and is a summer resort. It has a public
library and the Freeborn County Court House, and is the seat
of Albert Lea College (Presbyterian, for women), founded in
1 884, and of Luther Academy (Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran) ,
founded in 1888. Albert Lea is a railway and manufacturing
centre of considerable importance, has grain elevators and
foundries and machine shops, and manufactures bricks, tiles,
carriages, wagons, flour, corsets, refrigerators and woollen
goods. The city is also the centre of large dairy interests, and
there are many creameries in the county. Numerous artesian
wells furnish the city with an ample supply of water of unusual
excellence. Albert Lea was settled in 1855 and received a city
charter in 1878. The city and the lake were named in honour of
Lieutenant Albert Miller Lea (1808-1891), a West Point graduate
(1831) who, on behalf of the United States government, first
surveyed the region and described it in a report published in
1836. He was a lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the Con-
federate army during the Civil War.
ALBERT NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the northern

1 of the two western reservoirs of the Nile, lying in the western
(Albertine) rift-valley, near its north end. The southern reser-
voir is Albert Edward Nyanza (q.v.). Lake Albert lies between
i° 9' and 2° 17' N. and 30° 30' and 31° 35' E., at an elevation
of about 2000 ft. above the sea. Its greatest length is about
100 m., its greatest width 22 m., its area being approximately
1640 sq. m., about the size of Lancashire, England. South of
the lake is a wide plain, traversed by the Semliki river, which
enters the Nyanza through a swamp of tall weeds, chiefly ambach
and papyrus. Both east and west the walls of the rift-valley are
close to the lake, the water in many places washing the base of the
cliffs. Elsewhere the narrow foreshore is thickly wooded. The

! ascent to the plateaus is generally by three tiers of hills rising
one behind the other. On the west side the mountains present
many pointed and conical summits; on the east the cliffs rise
abruptly 1000 to 2000 ft. On either coast wild gorges and
ravines, densely wooded, break the outline of the mountains.
Through these gorges dash magnificent cascades, others leaping
the escarpments of the plateaus in waterfalls of great volume
and depth. Towards the north the hills recede from the coast
and on both sides flats extend for distances varying from
S to 15 m. On the eastern side, 92 m. from the southern end
of the Nyanza, the Victoria Nile enters the lake, here not
more than 6 m. across, through a wilderness of woods, the
delta of the Nile extending over 4 m. The mouth of the
main stream is obstructed by a bar of its own formation; the

, current is sluggish ; there are many side channels, and the appear-
ance of the lake gives no hint that a great river has joined its
waters. For 5 or 6 m. north of the junction of the Victoria
Nile the lake suffers no material diminution in width. Then,
however, the eastern and western shores approach each other,
a current is perceptible flowing north. The lake has become

the Bahr-el-Jebel, or Mountain river, as this section of the Nile
is called. Throughout its extent Albert Nyanza is shallow;
at its southern end the water for a considerable distance is not
more than 3 ft. deep. The deepest soundings give only 50 to
55 ft., the average depth being 30 to 40 ft.

The Albertine Basin of the Nile. — Albert Nyanza receives the
whole of the drainage of Albert Edward Nyanza and the Semliki
river, and with them and its own basin forms the "Albertine "
Nile system. Its waters, as stated above, mingle with those
of the Victoria Nile, their united volume flowing north towards
the Mediterranean. A study of the changes going on in the rift-
valley in which the lakes lie leads, however, \o the belief that
the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas are drying up, a process
which the nature of the drainage areas is helping to bring about.
That the Albert Edward Nyanza once covered a much larger
area than it does at present is certain. At that time, recent
from a geological standpoint, the valley to the north, through
which now flows the Semliki river, was blocked. The removal of
the block led to the shrinkage of the lake and the formation of
the Semliki, which found its way to the more northern lake —
Albert Nyanza. Gradually the Semliki eroded its bed, and
consequently the level of Albert Edward Nyanza continued to
fall. The process continues but is checked by the existence of
the rock barrier which stretches across the Semliki. This stream
leaves Albert Edward Nyanza at its N.W. end in o° 8' 30* S.,
and after a course of about 160 m. enters Albert Nyanza in
i° 9' N. In its upper and in its lower course the river flows
either through high alluvial plains, in which it has scored a
deep channel, or across swamp land. In the middle section, which
has a length of some 75m., the river runs in a deep narrow valley
covered with the densest forest. On the west this valley is
bounded by the Congo mountains, which form the wall of the
rift-valley, on the east by the mighty range of Ruwenzori, whose
heights tower over 16,000 ft. above sea -level. In this length
of 75 m. the river falls in cataracts and rapids over 800 ft. This
rocky barrier acts as a regulator for the water received from
Albert Edward Nyanza and, by checking the erosion of the
river bed, tends to maintain the level of the lake. When this
bar wears away Albert Edward Nyanza will, in all probability,
disappear as a lake and will become a river, a continuation of
its present most southern affluent, the Ruchuru.

Albert Nyanza, on the other hand, is threatened in the distant
future with destruction from another cause — the filling of its bed
by the alluvium poured into it by the Semliki, the Victoria Nile
and, in a lesser degree, by other streams. The Semliki receives
directly or indirectly the whole of the drainage of Ruwenzori, and
also that of the eastern face of the Congo mountains as well as
the drainage basin of Albert Edward Nyanza. The amount of
alluvial matter carried is enormous; from Ruwenzori alone the
detritus is very great. Charged with all this matter, the Semliki,
as it emerges from the region of forest and cataracts (in which,
often closely confined by its mountain barriers, the stream is deep
and rapid), becomes sluggish, its slope flattens out, and its waters,
unable to carry their burden, deposit much of it upon the land.
This process, continually going on, has formed a large plain at the
south end of Albert Nyanza, which has seriously encroached upon
the lake. At the northern end of the lake the sediment brought
down by the Victoria Nile is producing a similar effect. Albert
Nyanza has indeed shrunk in its dimensions during the com-
paratively few years it has been known to Europeans. Thus at
the S.W. end, Nyamsasi, which was an island in 1889, has become
a peninsula. Islands which in 1876 were on the east coast no
longer exist; they now form part of the foreshore. On the other
hand, the shrinkage of the lake level caused the appearance in
1885 of an island where in 1879 there had been an expanse of
shallow water. It seems probable that, in a period geologically
not very remote, the " Albertine " system will consist of one
great river, extending from the northern slopes of the Kivu range,
where the Ruchuru has its rise, to the existing junction of the
Victoria Nile with Albert Nyanza.

The combined drainage area, including the water surface of
Albert Edward Nyanza, the Semliki and Albert Nyanza, is some

504

ALBERTUS MAGNUS— ALBERY

16,600 sq. m. Throughout this area the rainfall is heavy (40 to
60 in. or more per annum), the volume of water entering
Albert Nyanza by the Semliki when in flood being not less than
700 cubic metres per second. Of the water received by Albert
Nyanza annually (omitting the Victoria Nile from the calculation)
between 50 and 60% is lost by evaporation, whilst 24,265,000,000
cubic metres are annually withdrawn by the Bahr-el-Jebel. The
" Albertine " system plays a comparatively insignificant part in
the annual flood rise of the White Nile, but to its waters are due
the maintenance of a constant supply to this river throughout
the year.

Discovery and Exploration. — Albert Nyanza was first reached
by Sir Samuel Baker on the I4th of March 1864 near Vacovia, a
small village of fishermen and salt-makers on the east coast.
From a granitic cliff 1 500 ft. above the water he looked out over
a boundless horizon on the south and south-west, and towards the
west descried at a distance of 50 or 60 m. mountains about 7000
ft. high. Albert Nyanza was consequently entered on his map as
a vast lake extending about 380 m. But the circumnavigation
of the lake by Gessi Pasha (1876), and by Emin Pasha in 1884,
showed that Baker had been deceived as to the size of the lake.
By the end of the igth century the topography of the lake region
was known with fair accuracy. The lake forms part of the
(British) Uganda Protectorate, but the north-west shores were
leased in 1894 to the Congo Free State during the sovereignty
of king Leopold II. of Belgium. Of this leased area a strip
15 m. wide, giving the Congo State a passage way to the
lake, was to remain in its possession after the determination of
the lease.

See Nile; Sir W. Garstin's Report upon the Basin of the Upper
Nile (Egypt, No. 2, 1904) ; Capt. H. G. Lyons' The Physiography
of the River Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906), and the authorities
quoted in those works. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.)

ALBERTUS MAGNUS (ALBERT OF COLOGNE, ? 1206-1 280),
count of Bollstadt, scholastic philosopher, was born of the noble
family of Bollstadt at Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth,
generally given as 1 193, is more probably 1 206. He was educated
principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's
writings. In 1 2 23 (or 1 2 2 1 ) he became a member of the Domini-
can order, and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and
elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne,
where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at
Regensburg, Freiburg, Strassburg and Hildesheim. In 1245 he
went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time,
in accordance with the regulations, with great success. In 1 254
he was made provincial of his order, and fulfilled the arduous
duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time
he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against
the university of Paris, commented on St John, and answered the
errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes. In 1260 the pope
made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after
three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preach-
ing throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in
retirement in the various houses of his order; in 1270 he preached
the eighth Crusade in Austria; almost the last of his labours
was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas
Aquinas. He died in 1 280, aged seventy-four. He was beatified
in 1622, and he is commemorated on the i6th of November.
Albert's works (published in twenty-one folios by the Dominican
Pierre Jammy in 1651, and reproduced by the Abbe Borgnet,
Paris, 1890, 36 vols.) sufficiently attest his great activity. He
was the most widely read and most learned man of his time. The
whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the Latin translations
and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested,
interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine.
Albert's activity, however, was rather philosophical than theo-
logical (see SCHOLASTICISM). The philosophical works, occupying
the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally
divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences,
and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's
relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the
questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the

opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a
commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of
Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum) , and the Summa Theo-
logiae in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of
the first in a more didactic form. Albert's knowledge of physical
science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry
in every department was great, and though we find in his system
many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philo-
sophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great
power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of
that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous
title sometimes given him — the "Ape of Aristotle." They rather
lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contempo-
raries to bestow on him the honourable surnames " The Great "
and " Doctor Universalis." It must, however; be admitted that
much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he
regarded Plato and Speusippus as Stoics. Albertus is frequently
mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free-will the basis
of his ethical system. Dante places him with his pupil Aquinas
among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven
of the Sun.

See Paget Toynbee, " Some Obligations of Dante to Albertus
Magnus " in Romania, xxiv. 400-412, and the Dante Dictionary by
the same author. For Albert's life see J. Sighart, Albertus Magnus,
sein Leben und seine Wissenschaft (Regensburg, 1857; Eng. trans.,
Dixon, London, 1876); H. Finke, Ungedruckte Dominikanerbriefe
des 13. Jahrh. (Paderborn, 1891). For his philosophy A. Stpckl,
Geschichte d. scholastischen Philosophie ; J. E. Erdmann, Crundriss d.
Ges. d. Phil. vol. i. 8. The histories of Haureau, Ritter, PrantI and
Windelband may also be consulted. See also W. Feiler, Die Moral
d. A. M. (Leipzig, 1891); M. Weiss, Ueber mariologische Schriften
des A. M. (Paris, 1898); Jos. Bach, Des A. M. Verhaltniss zu d.
Erkenntnisslehre d. Griechen, Romer, Araber u. Juden (Vienna,
1881); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. (1897); Vacant, Diet. Theol.
Cathol. (s.v.) ; Ch. Jourdain in Diet. d. sciences philos. (s.v.) ; M. Joel,
Das Verhaltniss A. d. G. zu Moses Maimonides (Breslau, 1863).

ALBERUS, ERASMUS (c. 1500-1553), German humanist,
reformer and poet, was a native of the village of Sprendlingen
near Frankfort-on-Main, where he was born about the year 1 500.
Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education was
neglected. Ultimately in 1 518 he found his way to the university
of Wittenberg, where he studied theology. He had here the
good fortune to attract the attention of Luther and Melanchthon,
and subsequently became one of Luther's most active helpers
in the Reformation. Not merely did he fight for the Protestant
cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the only
member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Roman
Catholics with the weapon of literary satire. In 1542 he pub-
lished a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, Der
Barfiisser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran, an adaptation of
the Liber conformitatum of the Franciscan Bartolommeo Albizzi
of Pisa (Pisanus, d. 1401), in which the Franciscan order is held up
to ridicule. Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical
Buck lion der Tugend und Weisheit (1550), a collection of forty-
nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations
of Church and State. His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly
and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions
with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic
satire, Thomas Murner, to inflict such telling blows. Several of
Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master
Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymnal.
After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time Diakonus in Witten-
berg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of
the time, and was in Magdeburg in 1550-1551, while that town
was besieged by Maurice of Saxony. In 1552 he was appointed
Generalsuperintendent at Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg, where
he died on the 5th of May 1553.

Das Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit has been edited by W.
Braune (1892); the sixteen Geistliche Lieder by C. W. Stromberger
(1857). Alberus's prose writings have not been reprinted in recent
times. See F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Erasmus Alberus (1894).

ALBERY, JAMES (1838-1889), English dramatist, was born
in London on the 4th of May 1838. On leaving school he entered
an architect's office, and started to write plays. After many
failures he at last succeeded in getting an adaptation — Dr Davj,

ALBI— ALBIGENSES

505

— produced at the Lyceum (1866). His most successful piece,
Two Roses, a comedy, was produced at the Vaudeville in 1870,
in which Sir Henry Irving made one of his earliest London
successes as Digby Grant. He was the author of a large number
of other plays and adaptations, including Jingle (a version of
Pickwick), produced at the Lyceum in 1878, and Pink Dominoes,
the latter being one of a series of adaptations from the French
which he made for the Criterion theatre. At that house his
wife, the well-known actress, Miss Mary Moore, played the
leading parts. He died on the i5th of August 1889.

ALBI, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Tarn, 48 m. N. E. of Toulouse, on a branch line of the
Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 14,956. Albi occupies a com-
manding position on the left bank of the Tarn; it is united to
its suburb of La Madeleine on the right bank by a medieval
and a modern bridge. The old town forms a nucleus of narrow,
winding streets surrounded by boulevards, beyond which lie
modern quarters with regular thoroughfares and public gardens.
The cathedral of Sainte Cecile, a fine fortress-church in the
Gothic style, begun in 1277, finished in 1512, rises high above
the rest of the town. The exterior, flanked at the western end
by a lofty tower and pierced by high, narrow windows, is devoid
of ornament. Its general plainness contrasts with the elaborate
carving of the stone canopy which shelters the southern portal.
In the interior, which is without transepts or aisles, the rood-
screen and the choir-enclosure, which date from about 1500,
are masterpieces of delicate sculpture; the vaulting and the
walls are covered with paintings of the isth and i6th centuries.
The archbishop's palace to the north-east of the cathedral is
a fortified building of the i4th century. St Salvi, the chief of
the other churches of Albi, belongs to the i3th and 1 5th centuries.
A statue of the sailor La Perouse (1741-1788) stands in the
square named after him.

Albi is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a lycee
and training colleges. The industrial establishments of the town
include dye-works, distilleries, tanneries, glass-works and
important flour-mills. It is also a centre for hat-making, and
produces cloth-fabrics, lace, umbrellas, casks, chairs, wooden
shoes, candles and pastries. Trade is in wine and anise.

Albi (Albiga) was, in the Gallo-Roman period, capital of the
Albigenses, and later of the viscounty of Albigeois, which was a
fief of the counts of Toulouse. From the i2th century onwards,
•its bishops, the first of whom appears to have lived about the
3rd century, began to encroach on the authority of the viscounts;
the latter, after the Albigensian war, lost their estates, which
passed to Simon de Montfort and then to the crown of France.
By a convention concluded in 1264 the chief temporal power
in the city was granted to the bishops. The archbishopric dates
from 1678.

ALBIAN (Fr. Albien, from Alba = Aube in France), in
geology the term proposed in 1842 by A. d'Orbigny for that
stage of the Cretaceous System which comes above the Aptian
and below the Cenomanian (Pa/. France. Cret. ii.). The precise
limits of this stage are placed somewhat differently by English
and continental geologists. In England it is usual to regard
the Albian stage as equivalent to the Upper Greensand plus
Gault, that is, to the " Selbornian " of Jukes-Browne. But
A. de Lapparent would place most of the Upper Greensand in
the Cenomanian. The English practice is to commence the
upper Cretaceous with the Albian; on the other hand, this
stage closes the lower Cretaceous according to continental usage.
It is necessary therefore, when using the term Albian, to bear
these differences in mind, and to ascertain the exact position
of the strata by reference to the zonal fossils. These are, in
descending order, Pecten asper and Cardiaster fossarius, Schloen-
bachia rostrata, Hoplites lautus and H. interruptus, Doumlleiceras
mammillatum. In addition to the formations mentioned above,
the following representatives of the Albian stage are worthy of
notice: the gaize and phosphatic beds of Argonne and Bray in
France; the Flammenmergel of North Germany; the lignites of

Utrillas in Spain; the Upper Sandstones of Nubia, and the
Fredericksburg beds of North America.
See GAULT, GREENSAND, and CRETACEOUS. (]. A. H.)

ALBIGENSES, the usual designation of the heretics — and
more especially the Catharist heretics — of the south of France
in the i2th and i3th centuries. This name appears to have
been given to them at the end of the i2th century, and was used
in 1181 by the chronicler Geoffrey de Vigeois. The designation
is hardly exact, for the heretical centre was at Toulouse and in
the neighbouring districts rather than at Albi (the ancient
Albiga}. The heresy, which had penetrated into these regions
probably by trade routes, came originally from eastern Europe.
The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was often applied to the
Albigenses, and they always kept up intercourse with the Bogomil
sectaries of Thrace. Their dualist doctrines, as described by
controversialists, present numerous resemblances to those of the
Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom
they are sometimes connected. It is exceedingly difficult, how-
ever, to form any very precise idea of the Albigensian doctrines,
as our knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and
the very rare texts emanating from the Albigenses which have
come down to us (e.g. the Riluel cathare de Lyon and the Nouveau
Testament en provenc.al) contain very inadequate information
concerning their metaphysical principles and moral practice.
What is certain is that, above all, they formed an anti-sacerdotal
party in permanent opposition to the Roman church, and raised
a continued protest against the corruption of the clergy of their
time. The Albigensian theologians and ascetics, the Cathari or
perfecti, known in the south of France as bans hommes or bans
chrttiens, were few in number; the mass of believers (credentes)
were perhaps not initiated into the Catharist doctrine; at all
events, they were free from all moral prohibition and all religious
obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called
cowoenenza to become " hereticized " by receiving the consola-
mentum, the baptism of the Spirit, before their death or even
in extremis.

The first Catharist heretics appeared in Limousin between
1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at
Toulouse in 1022; and the synod of Charroux (dep. of Vienne) in
1028, and that of Toulouse in 1056, condemned the growing sect.
The preachers Raoul Ardent in not and Robert of Arbrissel in
1114 were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the
Toulousain to combat the heretical propaganda. But, protected
by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and soon by a great part of
the southern nobility, the heretics gained ground in the south,
and in 1119 the council of Toulouse in vain ordered the secular
powers to assist the ecclesiastical authority in quelling the
heresy. The people were attached to the bans hommes, whose
asceticism imposed upon the masses, and the anti-sacerdotal
preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord,
Languedoc and Provence, only facilitated the progress of
Catharism in those regions. In 1147 Pope Eugenius III. sent
the legate Alberic of Ostia and St Bernard to the affected
district. The few isolated successes of the abbot of Clairvaux
could not obscure the real results of this mission, and the meeting
at Lombers in 1165 of a synod, where Catholic priests had to
submit to a discussion with Catharist doctors, well shows the
power of the sect in the south of France at that period. Moreover,
two years afterwards a Catharist synod, in which heretics from
Languedoc, Bulgaria and Italy took part, was held at St Felix
de Caraman, near Toulouse, and their deliberations were un-
disturbed. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus) ,
formerly bishop of Meaux, to Toulouse and the Toulousain in
1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano (formerly abbot of
Clairvaux), in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary successes.
Henry of Albano attempted an armed expedition against the
stronghold of heretics at Lavaur and against Raymond Roger,
viscount of Beziers, their acknowledged protector. The taking
of Lavaur and the submission of Raymond Roger in no way
arrested the progress of the heresy. The persistent decisions
of the councils against the heretics at this period — in particular,
those of the council of Tours (1163) and of the oecumenical

506

ALBINO

Lateran council (1179) — had scarcely more effect. But on
ascending the papal throne, Innocent III. resolved to suppres
the Albigenses. At first he tried pacific conversion, and in
1198 and 1 1 99 sent into the affected regions two Cistercian
monks, Regnier and Guy, and in 1 203 two monks of Fontfroide
Peter of Castelnau and Raoul (Ralph), with whom in 1204 h(
even associated the Cistercian abbot, Arnaud (Arnold). The>
had to contend not only with the heretics, the nobles who
protected them, and the people who listened to them am
venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who
rejected the extraordinary authority which the pope had con
ferred upon his legates, the monks. In 1204 Innocent III
suspended the authority of the bishops of the south of France
Peter of Castelnau retaliated by excommunicating Raymond VI.
count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy (1207), and kindlec
in the nobles of the south that animosity of which he was the
first victim (1209). As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter
of Castelnau, the pope ordered the Cistercians to preach the
crusade against the Albigenses. This implacable war, which
threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against
that of the south, and destroyed the brilliant Provencal civiliza-
tion, ended, politically, in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which
the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the
greater part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its
fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an
end, but, so far as the heresy was concerned, Albigensianism
was not extinguished, in spite of the wholesale massacres of
heretics during the war. Raymond VII. of Toulouse and the
count of Foix gave asylum to the " faidits " (proscribed), and
the people were averse from handing over the bans hommes.
The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly in the south
at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the
whole of the I3th century and a great part of the I4th, succeeded
in crushing the heresy. There were indeed some outbursts of
rebellion, some fomented by the nobles of Languedoc (1240-
1242), and others emanating from the people of the towns, who
were embittered by confiscations and religious persecutions
(e.g. at Narbonne in 1 234 and Toulouse in 1 23 5) , but the repress-
ive measures were terrible. In 1245 the royal officers assisting
the Inquisition seized the heretical citadel of Montsegur, and
200 Cathari were burned in one day. Moreover, the church
decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of
sympathy with the heretics (council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull
Ad extirpanda, 1252).

Hunted down by the Inquisition and quickly abandoned by
the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more
scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting
surreptitiously. There were some recrudescences of heresy,
such as that produced by the preaching (1298-1309) of the
Catharist minister, Pierre Authier; the people, too, made some
attempts to throw off the yoke of the Inquisition and the French,1
and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of
Foix, Aimery of Narbonne, and, especially, Bernard Delicieux
at the beginning of the I4th century. But at this point vast
inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which terrorized
the district. Precise indications of these are found in the
registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre,
Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect, moreover, was exhausted
and could find no more adepts in a district which, by fair means
or foul, had arrived at a state of peace and political and religious
unity. After 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain but
few proceedings against Catharists. (See also under CATHARS.)
AUTHORITIES.— See C. Schmidt's Histoire de la secte des Cathares
ou Albigeois (Pans, 1849), which is still the most important work
on the subject. The following will be found useful: D. Vaissete,
Hwoire de Languedoc, vols. lii. iv. vii. viii. (new edition); Ch.
Molmier, L Inquisition dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1880), and
the other works by the same author ; L. Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux
del Inquisition en France (Paris, 1893). Les Albigeois, lews origines
i?nu' I878'' bv D°uais, should be read with caution. Of the sources,
which are very numerous, may be mentioned : the Liber Sententiarum

1 These they often confounded, and a heretic is described as
saying: " Clergy and French, they are one and the same thing."

of the Inquisition of Carcassonne, published by Ph. van Limborch
at the end of his Historia Inquisitionis (Amsterdam, 1692) • other
registers of the Inquisition analysed at length by Ch. Molinier
op. cit., some published in vol. ii. of the Documents pour I'histoir'e
de I Inquisition (Paris, 1900), by C. Douais; numerous texts con-
cerning the last days of Albigensianism, collected by M. Vidal " Les
derniers ministres albigeois, ' in Rev. de quest, histor. ( 1 906) . See also
the Rituel cathare, ed. by Cunitz (Jena, 1852) ; the Nouveau Testa-
ment en Provencal, ed. by Cledat (Paris, 1887) ; and the very curious
Deoat d Yzarn et de Sicart de Figueiras, ed. by P. Meyer (1880)
On the ethics of the Catharists, see Jean Guiraud, Questions d'kistoire
et d archeologie chretienne (Paris, 1906); and P. Alphandery Les
taees morales chez les heterodoxes latins au debut du XII I e siecle
(Paris, 1903). (P A )

ALBINO, a biological term (Lat. albus, white), in the usual
acceptation, for a pigmentless individual of a normally pigmented
race. Among some flowering plants, however, the character
has become one of specific rank, and among animals we have
in the polar bear and the Greenland hare instances where partial
albinism— for in them the eyes are black and other parts may be
pigmented — has also become a specific character.

A true or complete albino is altogether devoid of pigment.
One result of this among the Vertebrata is that the eyeball is
pink in colour, since the cornea, iris and retina being transparent,
the red blood contained in the capillaries is unmasked by the
absence of pigmentary material. In man, and doubtless also
in lower forms, the absence of this pigment produces the well-
marked albinotic facies. This is a condition in which the eyelids
are brought into a nearly closed position accompanied by blinking
movements and a general wrinkling of the skin around the
immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. It is the result of the
too great intensity of the light incident upon the retina, and
which in normal eyeballs is adequately diminished by the
absorptive power of the pigmentary material.

In a complete albino not only is all pigment absent in the skin,
but also that which is normally present in deeper organs, such
as the sympathetic nervous system and in the substantia nigra
of the brain. There is some reason to believe that a peculiar
condition found in the majority of human albinoes, and known
as nystagmus, is correlated with the absence of pigment in the
central nervous system. This condition is one marked by un-
steadiness—a sort of flickering rolling— of the eyeballs, and it
becomes more marked as they endeavour to adjust their ac-
commodation to near objects. It is thought to depend upon
some connexion, not yet anatomically demonstrated, between
the third cranial nerve and its nucleus in the floor of the Her
and the substantia nigra.

In addition to complete albinism, there exist, however, various
albinotic conditions in which more or less pigment may be
present. Familiar instances of this partial albinism is seen in the
domestic breed of Himalayan rabbits. In these animals the
eyeball and the fur of the body are unpigmented, but the tips
of the ear pinnae and extremities of the fore and hind limbs,
together with the tail, are marked by more or less well defined
colour. One remarkable feature of these animals is that for
few months after birth they are complete albinoes. Occasion-
ally, however, some are born with a grey colour and a few may
>e quite black, but ultimately they attain their characteristic
coat. There is some reason to believe, as we shall see later,
hat in spite of the presence of a little pigment and of occasional
wholly pigmented young ones, Himalayans must be regarded
as true albinoes. Other individual rabbits, but belonging to
no particular breed, are similarly marked, but in addition the
yeballs are black. Some domesticated mice are entirely white
with the exception that they have black eyeballs; and in-
lividuals of this type are known in which there is a reduction
of pigment in the eyeballs, and since the colour of the blood is
hen partially visible these appear of a reddish-black colour.
Such cases are interesting as representing the last step in the
graded series through which the condition of complete pigmenta-
ion passes into that of complete albinism.

There is evidence, as shown by G. M. Allen, that partial
Ibinism is a condition in which pigment is reduced around
efinite body centres, so that unpigmented areas occur between

ALBINO

507

the pigment patches or at their borders. In the mouse, ten such
centres may be distinguished, arranged symmetrically five on
either side of the median plane — a cheek patch, neck patch,
shoulder patch, side patch and rump patch. Various degrees
in the reduction of the pigment patches up to that of comp